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CHAPTER 8
DEFORMATION AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Characteristics of Dislocations

Problem 8.1
To provide some perspective on the dimensions of atomic defects, consider a metal specimen with a
dislocation density of 105 mm–2. Suppose that all the dislocations in 1000 mm3 (1 cm3) were somehow removed and
linked end to end. How far (in miles) would this chain extend? Now suppose that the density is increased to 109
mm–2 by cold working. What would be the chain length of dislocations in 1000 mm3 of material?

Solution 8.1
The dislocation density is just the total dislocation length per unit volume of material (in this case per cubic
millimeters). Thus, the total length in 1000 mm3 of material having a density of 105 mm−2 is just

(105 mm−2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 108 mm = 105 m = 62 mi

Similarly, for a dislocation density of 109 mm−2, the total length is

(109 mm−2 )(1000 mm3 ) = 1012 mm = 109 m = 6.2  105 mi

Problem 8.2
Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign and having slip planes that are separated by several
atomic distances, as indicated in the following diagram. Briefly describe the defect that results when these two
dislocations become aligned with each other.

Answer 8.2
When the two edge dislocations become aligned, a planar region of vacancies will exist between the
dislocations as:
Problem 8.3
Is it possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate each other? Explain your answer.

Answer 8.3
It is possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate one another if their dislocation lines
are parallel. This is demonstrated in the figure below.
Problem 8.4
For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations, cite the relationship between the direction of the applied
shear stress and the direction of dislocation line motion.

Answer 8.4
For the various dislocation types, the relationships between the direction of the applied shear stress and the
direction of dislocation line motion are as follows:
edge dislocation—parallel
screw dislocation—perpendicular
mixed dislocation--neither parallel nor perpendicular
Slip Systems

Problem 8.5
(a) Define a slip system.
(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? Why or why not?

Answer 8.5
(a) A slip system is a crystallographic plane, and, within that plane, a direction along which dislocation
motion (or slip) occurs.
(b) All metals do not have the same slip system. The reason for this is that for most metals, the slip system
will consist of the most densely packed crystallographic plane, and within that plane the most closely packed
direction. This plane and direction will vary from crystal structure to crystal structure.
Problem 8.6
(a) Compare planar densities (Section 3.15 and Problem 3.82) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for
FCC.
(b) Compare planar densities (Problem 3.83) for the (100), (110), and (111) planes for BCC.

Solution 8.6
(a) For the FCC crystal structure, the planar density for the (110) plane is given in Equation 3.19 as

1 0.177
PD110 (FCC) = =
4 R2 2 R2

Furthermore, the planar densities of the (100) and (111) planes are calculated in Homework Problem 3.82,
which are as follows:
1 0.25
PD100 (FCC) = =
2
4R R2

1 0.29
PD111 (FCC) = =
2 R2 3 R2

(b) For the BCC crystal structure, the planar densities of the (100) and (110) planes were determined in
Homework Problem 3.83, which are as follows:

3 0.19
PD100 (BCC) = =
2
16R R2

3 0.27
PD110 (BCC) = =
8 R2 2 R2

Below is a BCC unit cell, within which is shown a (111) plane.

 (a)

The centers of the three corner atoms, denoted by A, B, and C lie on this plane. Furthermore, the (111) plane does
not pass through the center of atom D, which is located at the unit cell center. The atomic packing of this plane is
presented in the following figure; the corresponding atom positions from the Figure (a) are also noted.

(b)

Inasmuch as this plane does not pass through the center of atom D, it is not included in the atom count. One sixth of
each of the three atoms labeled A, B, and C is associated with this plane, which gives an equivalence of one-half
atom.
In Figure (b) the triangle with A, B, and C at its corners is an equilateral triangle. And, from Figure (b), the
xy
area of this triangle is . The triangle edge length, x, is equal to the length of a face diagonal, as indicated in
2
Figure (a). And its length is related to the unit cell edge length, a, as
 x 2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2

or

x=a 2

4R
For BCC, a = (Equation 3.4), and, therefore,
3

4R 2
x=
3

Also, from Figure (b), with respect to the length y we may write

2
 x
y 2 +   = x2
2

x 3
which leads to y = . And, substitution for the above expression for x yields
2

x 3  4 R 2  3  4 R 2
y= =  =
2  3  
  2  2

Thus, the area of this triangle is equal to

1  1   4 R 2  4 R 2  8 R2
AREA = x y =    =
2  2   3 
 2 
 3

And, finally, the planar density for this (111) plane is

0.5 atom 3 0.11

PD111 (BCC) = = =
8 R2 16 R 2 R2
3
Problem 8.7
One slip system for the BCC crystal structure is {110} 111 . In a manner similar to Figure 8.6b, sketch a

{110}-type plane for the BCC structure, representing atom positions with circles. Now, using arrows, indicate two
different 111 slip directions within this plane.

Solution 8.7
Below is shown the atomic packing for a BCC {110}-type plane. The arrows indicate two different á111ñ

type directions.
Problem 8.8
One slip system for the HCP crystal structure is {0001} 1120 . In a manner similar to Figure 8.6b, sketch

a {0001}-type plane for the HCP structure and, using arrows, indicate three different 1120 slip directions within

this plane. You may find Figure 3.23 helpful.

Solution 8.8
Below is shown the atomic packing for an HCP {0001}-type plane. The arrows indicate three different
á1120ñ -type directions.
Problem 8.9
Equations 8.1a and 8.1b, expressions for Burgers vectors for FCC and BCC crystal structures, are of the
form
a
b= uvw
2
where a is the unit cell edge length. The magnitudes of these Burgers vectors may be determined from the following
equation:
a 2 2
| b |= (u + v + w2 )1/2 (8.14)
2
determine the values of |b| for copper and iron. You may want to consult Table 3.1.

Solution 8.9
This problem asks that we compute the magnitudes of the Burgers vectors for copper and iron. For Cu,
which has an FCC crystal structure, R = 0.1278 nm (Table 3.1) and, from Equation 3.1

a = 2R 2 = (2)(0.1278 nm)( 2)

0.3615 nm

Also, from Equation 8.1a, the Burgers vector for FCC metals is

a
b = 110
2

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 8.14 are 1, 1, and 0, respectively. Hence, the magnitude of the
Burgers vector for Cu is

a
b = u 2 + v 2 + w2
2

0.3615 nm
= (1 )2 + (1 )2 + (0)2 = 0.2556 nm
2

For Fe which has a BCC crystal structure, R = 0.1241 nm (Table 3.1) and, from Equation 3.4
 4R (4)(0.1241 nm)
a= =
3 3

= 0.2866 nm

Also, from Equation 8.1b, the Burgers vector for BCC metals is

a
b = 111
2

Therefore, the values for u, v, and w in Equation 8.14 are 1, 1, and 1, respectively. Hence, the magnitude of the
Burgers vector for Fe is

0.2866 nm
b = (1)2 + (1)2 + (1) 2 = 0.2482 nm
2
Problem 8.10
(a) In the manner of Equations 8.1a to 8.1c, specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic crystal
structure whose unit cell is shown in Figure 3.3. Also, simple cubic is the crystal structure for the edge dislocation
of Figure 5.9, and for its motion as presented in Figure 8.1. You may also want to consult the answer to Concept
Check 8.1.
(b) On the basis of Equation 8.14, formulate an expression for the magnitude of the Burgers vector, |b|, for
the simple cubic crystal structure.

Solution 8.10
(a) This part of the problem asks that we specify the Burgers vector for the simple cubic crystal structure
(and suggests that we consult the answer to Concept Check 8.1). This Concept Check asks that we select the slip
system for simple cubic from four possibilities. The correct answer is 100 010 . Thus, the Burgers vector will

lie in a 010 -type direction. Also, the unit slip distance is a (i.e., the unit cell edge length, Figures 5.9 and 8.1).

Therefore, the Burgers vector for simple cubic is

b = a 010

Or, equivalently

b = a 100

(b) The magnitude of the Burgers vector, |b|, for simple cubic is

b = a(12 + 02 + 02 )1 / 2 =a
Slip in Single Crystals

Problem 8.11
Sometimes cos f cos l in Equation 8.2 is termed the Schmid factor. Determine the magnitude of the Schmid

factor for an FCC single crystal oriented with its [120] direction parallel to the loading axis.

Solution 8.11
We are asked to compute the Schmid factor for an FCC crystal oriented with its [120] direction parallel to
the loading axis. With this scheme, slip may occur on the (111) plane and in the [01 1] direction as noted in the

figure below.

The angle between the [120] and [01 1] directions, , may be determined using Equation 8.6

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
= cos −1 

 ( u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w22 ) 


where (for [120]) u1 = 1, v1 = 2, w1 = 0, and (for [01 1] ) u2 = 0, v2 = 1, w2 = −1. Therefore,  is equal to

  
 (1)(0) + (2)(1) + (0)(−1) 
= cos −1  
 (1) + (2) + (0)  (0) + (1) + ( −1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   

 2 
= cos−1   = 50.8
 10 
 

Now, the angle  is equal to the angle between the normal to the (111) plane (which is the [111] direction), and the
[120] direction. Again from Equation 8.6, and for u1 = 1, v1 = 1, w1 = 1, and u2 = 1, v2 = 2, and w2 = 0, we have

 
 (1)(1) + (1)(2) + (1)(0) 
= cos −1  
  (1) 2 + (1) 2 + (1) 2  (1) 2 + (2) 2 + (0) 2  
   

 3 
= cos−1   = 39.2
 15 
 

Therefore, the Schmid factor is equal to

 3  2 
cos  cos  = cos(39.2) cos(50.8) =    = 0.490
 15   10 
Problem 8.12
Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the slip direction are at
angles of 60° and 35°, respectively, with the tensile axis. If the critical resolved shear stress is 6.2 MPa (900 psi),
will an applied stress of 12 MPa (1750 psi) cause the single crystal to yield? If not, what stress will be necessary?

Solution 8.12
This problem calls for us to determine whether or not a metal single crystal having a specific orientation
and of given critical resolved shear stress will yield. We are given that  = 60,  = 35, and that the values of the
critical resolved shear stress and applied tensile stress are 6.2 MPa (900 psi) and 12 MPa (1750 psi), respectively.
From Equation 8.2

 R =  cos  cos  = (12 MPa)(cos 60)(cos 35) = 4.91 MPa (717 psi)

Since the resolved shear stress (4.91 MPa) is less that the critical resolved shear stress (6.2 MPa), the single crystal
will not yield.
However, from Equation 8.4, the stress at which yielding occurs is

 crss 6.2 MPa

y = = = 15.1 MPa (2200 psi)
cos  cos  (cos 60)(cos 35)
Problem 8.13
A single crystal of zinc is oriented for a tensile test such that its slip plane normal makes an angle of 65°
with the tensile axis. Three possible slip directions make angles of 30°, 48°, and 78° with the same tensile axis.
(a) Which of these three slip directions is most favored?
(b) If plastic deformation begins at a tensile stress of 2.5 MPa (355 psi), determine the critical resolved
shear stress for zinc.

Solution 8.13
We are asked to compute the critical resolved shear stress for Zn. As stipulated in the problem,  = 65,
while possible values for  are 30, 48, and 78.
(a) Slip will occur along that direction for which (cos  cos ) is a maximum, or, in this case, for the
largest cos . Cosines for the possible  values are given below.

cos(30) = 0.87
cos(48) = 0.67
cos(78) = 0.21

Thus, the slip direction is at an angle of 30 with the tensile axis.
(b) From Equation 8.4, the critical resolved shear stress is just

t crss = s y (cos f cos l )max

= (2.5 MPa) éëcos(65°)cos(30°) ùû = 0.91 MPa (130 psi)

Problem 8.14
Consider a single crystal of nickel oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a [001] direction. If
slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [101] direction and is initiated at an applied tensile stress of 13.9 MPa (2020

psi), compute the critical resolved shear stress.

Solution 8.14
This problem asks that we compute the critical resolved shear stress for nickel. In order to do this, we must
employ Equation 8.4, but first it is necessary to solve for the angles  and  which are shown in the sketch below.

The angle  is the angle between the tensile axis—i.e., along the [001] direction—and the slip direction—i.e.,
[101], and may be determined using Equation 8.6 as

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
 = cos −1  

 ( u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w22 ) 


where (for [001]) u1 = 0, v1 = 0, w1 = 1, and (for [101] ) u2 = –1, v2 = 0, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is equal to

 
 (0)(−1) + (0)(0) + (1)(1) 
= cos −1 
 (0) + (0) + (1)  (−1) + (0) + (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   
  1 
= cos−1   = 45
 2
 

Furthermore,  is the angle between the tensile axis—the [001] direction—and the normal to the slip
plane—i.e., the (111) plane; for this case this normal is along a [111] direction. Therefore, again using Equation 8.6

 
 (0)(1) + (0)(1) + (1)(1) 
= cos −1 
  (0) + (0) + (1)  (1) + (1) + (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   

 1 
= cos−1   = 54.7
 3
 

And, finally, using Equation 8.4, the critical resolved shear stress is equal to

t crss = s y (cos f cos l )

= (13.9 MPa) cos(54.7)cos(45)

 1  1 
= (13.9 MPa)    = 5.68 MPa (825 psi)
 3  2 
  
Problem 8.15
A single crystal of a metal that has the FCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile stress is applied
parallel to the [100] direction. If the critical resolved shear stress for this material is 0.5 MPa, calculate the
magnitude(s) of applied stress(es) necessary to cause slip to occur on the (111) plane in each of the [110] , [101] ,

and [011] directions.

Solution 8.15
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 8.4, but first we need to solve for  and 
angles for the three slip systems.
For each of these three slip systems, the  will be the same—i.e., the angle between the direction of the
applied stress, [100] and the normal to the (111) plane, that is, the [111] direction. The angle  may be determined
using Equation 8.6 as

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
 = cos −1  

 (u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w 22 ) 


where (for [100]) u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0, and (for [111]) u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is equal to

 
 (1)(1) + (0)(1) + (0)(1) 
= cos −1  
  (1) 2 + (0) 2 + (0) 2  (1) 2 + (1) 2 + (1) 2  
   

 1 
= cos−1   = 54.7
 3
 

Let us now determine  for the [1 10] slip direction. Again, using Equation 8.6 where u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0 (for

[100]), and u2 = 1, v2 = –1, w2 = 0 (for [1 10]). Therefore,  is determined as

 
 (1)(1) + (0)( − 1) + (0)(0) 
[100 ]−[1 10] = cos −1 
  (1)2 + (0) 2 + (0) 2  (1) 2 + ( −1) 2 + (0) 2  
   
  1 
= cos−1   = 45
 2
 

Now, we solve for the yield strength for this (111)– [1 10] slip system using Equation 8.4 as

 crss
y =
(cos  cos  )

0.5 MPa 0.5 MPa

= = = 1.22 MPa
cos (54.7) cos (45) (0578) (0.707)

Now, we must determine the value of  for the (111)– [10 1] slip system—that is, the angle between the

[100] and [10 1] directions. Again using Equation 8.6

 
 (1)(1) + (0)(0) + (0)(−1) 
[100 ]−[10 1] = cos −1 
 (1) + (0) + (0)  (1) + (0) + (−1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   

 1 
= cos−1   = 45
 2
 

Thus, since the values of  and  for this (111)– [10 1] slip system are the same as for (111)– [1 10] , so also will y

be the same—viz. 1.22 MPa.

And, finally, for the (111)– [0 11] slip system,  is computed using Equation 8.6 as follows:

 
 (1)(0) + (0)( − 1) + (0)(1) 
[100 ]−[0 11] = cos −1  
  (1)2 + (0) 2 + (0) 2  (0) 2 + (−1) 2 + (1) 2  
   

= cos−1 (0) = 90

Thus, from Equation 8.4, the yield strength for this slip system is
  crss
y =
(cos  cos  )

0.5 MPa 0.5 MPa

= = =
cos (54.7) cos (90) ( 0578) (0)

which means that slip will not occur on this (111)– [0 11] slip system.
Problem 8.16
(a) A single crystal of a metal that has the BCC crystal structure is oriented such that a tensile stress is
applied in the [100] direction. If the magnitude of this stress is 4.0 MPa, compute the resolved shear stress in the
[111] direction on each of the (110), (011), and (101) planes.
(b) On the basis of these resolved shear stress values, which slip system(s) is (are) most favorably
oriented?

Solution 8.16
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 8.2, which means that we first need to
solve for the angles  and  for the three slip systems.
For each of these three slip systems, the  will be the same—i.e., the angle between the direction of the
applied stress, [100] and the slip direction, [1 11] . This angle  may be determined using Equation 8.6

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
= cos −1 

 ( u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w22 ) 


where (for [100]) u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1 = 0, and (for [1 11] ) u2 = 1, v2 = –1, w2 = 1. Therefore,  is determined as

 
 (1)(1) + (0)( − 1) + (0)(1) 
= cos −1  
 (1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2  (1)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2  
   

 1 
= cos−1   = 54.7
 3
 

Let us now determine  for the angle between the direction of the applied tensile stress—i.e., the [100] direction—
and the normal to the (110) slip plane—i.e., the [110] direction. Again, using Equation 8.6 where u1 = 1, v1 = 0, w1

= 0 (for [100]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 0 (for [110]),  is equal to

 
 (1)(1) + (0)(1) + (0)(0) 
[100 ]−[110] = cos −1  
 (1)2 + (0) 2 + (0) 2  (1) 2 + (1) 2 + (0) 2  
   
  1 
= cos−1   = 45
 2
 

Now, using Equation 8.2

 R =  cos  cos 

we solve for the resolved shear stress for this slip system as

 R (110) − [111] = (4.0 MPa) cos(45)cos(54.7) = (4.0 MPa)(0.707)(0.578) = 1.63 MPa

Now, we must determine the value of  for the (011)– [1 11] slip system—that is, the angle between the

direction of the applied stress, [100], and the normal to the (011) plane—i.e., the [011] direction. Again using
Equation 8.6

 
 (1)(0) + (0)(1) + (0)(1) 
[100 ]−[011] = cos −1 
 (1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2  (0)2 + (1)2 + (1)2  
   

= cos−1 (0) = 90

Thus, the resolved shear stress for this (011)– [1 11] slip system is

 R (011) − [1 11] = = (4.0 MPa) cos(90)cos(54.7) = (4.0 MPa)(0)(0.578) = 0 MPa

And, finally, it is necessary to determine the value of  for the (10 1 ) – [1 11] slip system—that is, the angle

between the direction of the applied stress, [100], and the normal to the (10 1) plane—i.e., the [10 1] direction.

Again using Equation 8.6

 
 (1)(1) + (0)(0) + (0)(−1) 
[100 ]−[10 1] = cos −1  
 (1) + (0) + (0)  (1) + (0) + ( −1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   
  1 
= cos−1   = 45
 2
 

Here, as with the (110)– [1 11] slip system above, the value of  is 45, which again leads to

 R (10 1) − [1 11] = (4.0 MPa) cos(45)cos(54.7) = (4.0 MPa)(0.707)(0.578) = 1.63 MPa

(b) The most favored slip system(s) is (are) the one(s) that has (have) the largest R value. Both (110)–

[1 11] and (101) - [1 11] slip systems are most favored since they have the same R (1.63 MPa), which is greater

than the R value for (011) - [111] (viz., 0 MPa)

Problem 8.17
Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that has the BCC crystal structure and is oriented
such that a tensile stress is applied along a [121] direction. If slip occurs on a (101) plane and in a [111]

direction, compute the stress at which the crystal yields if its critical resolved shear stress is 2.4 MPa.

Solution 8.17
To solve this problem we use Equation 8.4; however it is first necessary to determine the values of  and .
These determinations are possible using Equation 8.6. Now,  is the angle between [121] and [111] directions.

Therefore, relative to Equation 8.6 let us take u1 = 1, v1 = 2, and w1 = 1, as well as u2 = –1, v2 = 1, and w2 = 1. This

leads to

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
= cos −1  

 ( u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w22 ) 


 
 (1)(−1) + (2)(1) + (1)(1) 
= cos −1 
 (1)2 + (2)2 + (1)2  (−1) 2 + (1)2 + (1)2  
   

 2 
= cos−1   = 61.9
 18 
 

Now for the determination of , the normal to the (101) slip plane is the [101] direction. Again using Equation 8.6,
where we now take u1 = 1, v1 = 2, w1 = 1 (for [121]), and u2 = 1, v2 = 0, w2 = 1 (for [101]). Thus,

 
 (1)(1) + (2)(0) + (1)(1) 
 = cos −1  
 (1) + (2) + (1)  (1) + (0) + (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   

 2 
= cos−1   = 54.7
 12 
 

It is now possible to compute the yield stress (using Equation 8.4) as

  crss 2.4 MPa
y = = = 8.82 MPa
cos  cos   2  2 
 
 
 12  18 
Problem 8.18
Consider a single crystal of some hypothetical metal that has the FCC crystal structure and is oriented
such that a tensile stress is applied along a [112] direction. If slip occurs on a (111) plane and in a [011]

direction, and the crystal yields at a stress of 5.12 MPa compute the critical resolved shear stress.

Solution 8.18
To solve this problem we use Equation 8.4; however it is first necessary to determine the values of  and .
These determinations are possible using Equation 8.6. Now,  is the angle between [112] and [011] directions.

Therefore, relative to Equation 8.6 let us take u1 = 1, v1 = 1, and w1 = 2, as well as u2 = 0, v2 = 1, and w2 = 1. This
leads to

 
 u1u2 + v1v2 + w1w 2 
 = cos −1  

 ( u12 + v12 + w12 )(u22 + v22 + w22 ) 


 
 (1)(0) + (1)(1) + (2)(1) 
= cos −1 
 (1) + (1) + (2)   (0) + (1) + (1)  
2 2 2 2 2 2
   

 3 
= cos−1   = 30
 12 
 

Now for the determination of , the normal to the (111) slip plane is the [111] direction. Again using Equation 8.6,
where we now take u1 = 1, v1 = 1, w1 = 2 (for [112] ), and u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 1 (for [111]). Thus,

 
 (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (2)(1) 
= cos −1 
  (1)2 + (1)2 + (2) 2  (1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2  
   

 4 
= cos−1   = 19.5
 18 
 

It is now possible to compute the critical resolved shear stress (using Equation 8.4) as
  crss =  y (cos  cos  )

 4  3 
= (5.12 MPa)    = 4.18 MPa
 18   12 
Problem 8.19
The critical resolved shear stress for copper (Cu) is 0.48 MPa (70 psi). Determine the maximum possible
yield strength for a single crystal of Cu pulled in tension.

Solution 8.19
In order to determine the maximum possible yield strength for a single crystal of Cu pulled in tension, we
simply employ Equation 8.5 as

 y = 2 crss = (2)(0.48 MPa) = 0.96 MPa (140 psi)

Deformation by Twinning

Problem 8.20
List four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip relative to
mechanism, conditions of occurrence, and final result.

Solution 8.20
Four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip are as follows: (1) with
slip deformation there is no crystallographic reorientation, whereas with twinning there is a reorientation; (2) for
slip, the atomic displacements occur in atomic spacing multiples, whereas for twinning, these displacements may be
other than by atomic spacing multiples; (3) slip occurs in metals having many slip systems, whereas twinning
occurs in metals having relatively few slip systems; and (4) normally slip results in relatively large deformations,
whereas only small deformations result for twinning.
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

Problem 8.21
Briefly explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as
are high-angle grain boundaries.

Solution 8.21
Small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as are high-angle grain
boundaries because there is not as much crystallographic misalignment in the grain boundary region for small-angle,
and therefore not as much change in slip direction.
Problem 8.22
Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals.

Solution 8.22
Hexagonal close packed metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals because there are
fewer slip systems in HCP.
Problem 8.23
Describe in your own words the three strengthening mechanisms discussed in this chapter (i.e., grain size
reduction, solid-solution strengthening, and strain hardening). Explain how dislocations are involved in each of the
strengthening techniques.

Solution 8.23
These three strengthening mechanisms are described in Sections 8.9, 8.10, and 8.11.
Problem 8.24
(a) From the plot of yield strength versus (grain diameter)–1/2 for a 70 Cu–30 Zn cartridge brass in Figure
8.15, determine values for the constants σ0 and ky in Equation 8.7.
(b) Now predict the yield strength of this alloy when the average grain diameter is 2.0 × 10 –3 mm.

Solution 8.24
(a) Perhaps the easiest way to solve for 0 and ky in Equation 8.7 is to pick two values each of y and d-1/2

from Figure 8.15, and then solve two simultaneous equations, which may be set up. For example

d−1/2 (mm)−1/2 y (MPa)

4 75
12 175

The two equations are thus

75 =  0 + 4 k y

175 =  0 + 12 k y

Simultaneous solution of these equations yield the values of

k y = 12.5 MPa (mm)1/2 1810 psi (mm)1/2 

 

0 = 25 MPa (3630 psi)

(b) When d = 2.0  10−3 mm, d−1/2 = 22.4 mm−1/2, and, using Equation 8.7,

 y =  0 + k y d −1/2

= (25 MPa) + 12.5 MPa (mm)  (22.4 mm−1/2 ) = 305 MPa (44,200 psi)
1/2
 
Problem 8.25
The lower yield point for an iron that has an average grain diameter of 1 × 10 –2 mm is 230 MPa (33,000
psi). At a grain diameter of 6 × 10–3 mm, the yield point increases to 275 MPa (40,000 psi). At what grain diameter
will the lower yield point be 310 MPa (45,000 psi)?

Solution 8.25
The best way to solve this problem is to first establish two simultaneous expressions of Equation 8.7, solve
for 0 and ky, and finally determine the value of d when y = 310 MPa. The data pertaining to this problem may be

tabulated as follows:

y d (mm) d−1/2 (mm)−1/2

230 MPa 1  10−2 10.0

275 MPa 6  10−3 12.91

The two equations thus become

230 MPa =  0 + (10.0) k y

275 MPa =  0 + (12.91) k y

Solving these two simultaneous equations leads to 0 = 75.4 MPa and ky = 15.46 MPa(mm)1/2. At a yield strength

of 310 MPa

310 MPa = 75.4 MPa + 15.46 MPa (mm)1/2  d −1/2

 

Or
310 MPa − 75.4 MPa
d −1/2 = = 15.17 mm −1/2
1/2
15.46 MPa(mm)

Thus,

2
 15.46 MPa(mm)1/2  −3
d =  = 4.34  10 mm
 310 MPa − 75.4 MPa 
Problem 8.26
If it is assumed that the plot in Figure 8.15 is for non-cold-worked brass, determine the grain size of the
alloy in Figure 8.19; assume its composition is the same as the alloy in Figure 8.15.

Solution 8.26
From Figure 8.19a, the yield strength of brass at 0%CW is approximately 175 MPa (26,000 psi). This
yield strength from Figure 8.15 corresponds to a d−1/2 value of approximately 12.0 (mm)−1/2. Thus,

1
d= = 6.94  10−3 mm
12.0 (mm) −1/2  2
 
Solid-Solution Strengthening

Problem 8.27
In the manner of Figures 8.17b and 8.18b, indicate the location in the vicinity of an edge dislocation at
which an interstitial impurity atom would be expected to be situated. Now briefly explain in terms of lattice strains
why it would be situated at this position.

Solution 8.27
Below is shown an edge dislocation and where an interstitial impurity atom would be located.
Compressive lattice strains are introduced by the impurity atom. There will be a net reduction in lattice strain
energy when these lattice strains partially cancel tensile strains associated with the edge dislocation; such tensile
strains exist just below the bottom of the extra half-plane of atoms (Figure 8.4).
Strain Hardening

Problem 8.28
(a) Show, for a tensile test, that
  
%CW =    100
  + 1
if there is no change in specimen volume during the deformation process (i.e., A0l0 = Adld).
(b) Using the result of part (a), compute the percent cold work experienced by naval brass (for which the
stress–strain behavior is shown in Figure 7.12) when a stress of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) is applied.

Solution 8.28
(a) We are asked to show, for a tensile test, that

  
%CW =    100
  + 1

From Equation 8.8

 A − Ad   Ad 
%CW =  0   100 = 1 −   100
 A0   A0 

The following relationship

A0l0 = Ad ld

may be rearranged to read as follows:

Ad l0
=
A0 ld

Substitution of the right-hand-side of this expression into the above equation for %CW leads to

 l 
%CW = 1 − 0   100 (S8.28)
 ld 

Now, from the definition of engineering strain (Equation 7.2)

 ld − l0 l
 = = d −1
l0 l0

Or, upon rearrangement

l0 1
=
ld  +1

Substitution of this expression for l0/ld into the Equation S8.28 above gives

 l   1    
%CW = 1 − 0   100 = 1 −   100 =    100
 ld    + 1   + 1

the desired equation

(b) From Figure 7.12, a stress of 415 MPa (60,000 psi) corresponds to a strain of 0.15. Using the above
expression

    0.15 
%CW =    100 =    100 = 13.0%CW
  + 1  0.15 + 1.00 
Problem 8.29
Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be strain hardened by reducing their
cross-sectional areas (while maintaining their circular cross sections). For one specimen, the initial and deformed
radii are 15 and 12 mm, respectively. The second specimen, with an initial radius of 11 mm, must have the same
deformed hardness as the first specimen; compute the second specimen’s radius after deformation.

Solution 8.29
In order for these two cylindrical specimens to have the same deformed hardness, they must be deformed to
the same percent cold work. For the first specimen

æ A - Ad ö æ pr2 - p r2 ö
´ d
%CW = ç 0 ÷ ´ 100
0
100 = ç (S8.29)
è A0 ÷ø è p r 2
ø
0

in which r0 and rd denote the original and deformed specimen radii, respectively. Substitution of the values for
these two parameters provided in the problem statement leads to the following:

æ p r2 - p r2 ö p (15 mm)2 - p (12 mm)2

%CW = ç 0 d ´ 100 = = ´ 100 = 36%CW
÷
è p r02 ø p (15 mm)2

For the second specimen, the deformed radius is computed using the above Equation S8.29 and solving for rd as

follows:

%CW
rd = r0 1 −
100

And insertion into this equation of the value of %CW determined above (i.e., 36%CW) and the r0 (11 mm) for the
second specimen leads to

36%CW
rd = (11 mm) 1 − = 8.80 mm
100
Problem 8.30
Two previously undeformed specimens of the same metal are to be plastically deformed by reducing their
cross-sectional areas. One has a circular cross section, and the other is rectangular; during deformation the
circular cross section is to remain circular, and the rectangular is to remain as rectangular. Their original and
deformed dimensions are as follows:

Circular (diameter, mm) Rectangular (mm)

Original dimensions 18.0 20 × 50
Deformed dimensions 15.9 13.7 × 55.1

Which of these specimens will be the hardest after plastic deformation, and why?

Solution 8.30
The hardest specimen will be the one that has experienced the greatest degree of cold work. Therefore, all
we need do is to compute the %CW for each specimen using Equation 8.8. For the circular one

 A − Ad 
%CW =  0   100
 A0 

  r 02 −  r 2 
= d   100
  r 2 
 0 

  18.0 mm 2  15.9 mm  
2
   −   
=       100 = 22.0%CW
2 2
 2 
  18.0 mm  
 
  2  

While, for the rectangular one (using l and w to designate specimen length and width, respectively:

 w l − wd ld 
%CW =  0 0   100
 w0l0 

 (20 mm)(50 mm) − (13.7 mm)(55.1 mm) 

=   100 = 24.5%CW
 (20 mm)(50 mm) 
Therefore, the deformed rectangular specimen will be harder since it has the greater %CW.
Problem 8.31
A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 15%. If its cold-worked radius is 6.4
mm (0.25 in.), what was its radius before deformation?

Solution 8.31
This problem calls for us to calculate the precold-worked radius of a cylindrical specimen of copper that
has a cold-worked ductility of 15%EL. From Figure 8.19c, copper that has a ductility of 15%EL will have
experienced a deformation of about 20%CW. For a cylindrical specimen, Equation 8.8 becomes

  r 02 −  r 2 
%CW =  d   100
  r 2 
 0 

Since rd = 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) and the percent cold work is 20%CW, we solve for r0 as follows:

rd 6.4 mm
r0 = = = 7.2 mm (0.280 in.)
%CW 20.0
1 − 1 −
100 100
Problem 8.32
(a) What is the approximate ductility (%EL) of a brass that has a yield strength of 345 MPa (50,000 psi)?
(b) What is the approximate Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 620 MPa (90,000
psi)?

Solution 8.32
In order to solve this part of the problem, it is necessary to consult Figures 8.19a and 8.19c. From Figure
8.19a, a yield strength of 345 MPa for brass corresponds to 20%CW. A brass that has been cold-worked 20% will
have a ductility of about 24%EL (Figure 8.19c).
(b) This portion of the problem asks for the Brinell hardness of a 1040 steel having a yield strength of 620
MPa (90,000 psi). From Figure 8.19a, a yield strength of 620 MPa for a 1040 steel corresponds to about 5%CW. A
1040 steel that has been cold worked 5% will have a tensile strength of about 750 MPa (Figure 8.19b). Finally,
using Equation 7.25a

TS (MPa) 750 MPa

HB = = = 217
3.45 3.45
Problem 8.33
Experimentally, it has been observed for single crystals of a number of metals that the critical resolved
shear stress τcrss is a function of the dislocation density ρD as

 crss =  0 + A D (8.15)

where τ0 and A are constants. For copper, the critical resolved shear stress is 0.69 MPa (100 psi) at a dislocation

density of 104 mm–2. If it is known that the value of τ0 for copper is 0.069 MPa (10 psi), compute τcrss at a
dislocation density of 106 mm–2.

Solution 8.33
We are asked in this problem to compute the critical resolved shear stress at a dislocation density of 10 6
mm−2. It is first necessary to compute the value of the constant A (in Equation 8.15) from the one set of data as
follows:
 − 0.69 MPa − 0.069 MPa
A = crss 0 = = 6.21  10−3 MPa-mm (0.90 psi-mm)
D 4
10 mm −2

Now, since we know the values for both A and 0, it is possible to compute the critical resolved shear stress at a

dislocation density of 106 mm−2 as follows:

 crss =  0 + A  D

= (0.069 MPa) + (6.21  10−3 MPa-mm) 106 mm−2 = 6.28 MPa (910 psi)
Grain Growth

Problem 8.34
Briefly cite the differences between the recovery and recrystallization processes.

Solution 8.34
For recovery, there is some relief of internal strain energy by dislocation motion; however, there are
virtually no changes in either the grain structure or mechanical characteristics. During recrystallization, on the other
hand, a new set of strain-free grains forms, and the material becomes softer and more ductile.
Problem 8.35
Estimate the fraction of recrystallization from the photomicrograph in Figure 8.21c.

Solution 8.35
We are asked to estimate the fraction of recrystallization from the photomicrograph in Figure 8.21c. Below
is shown a square grid onto which is superimposed the recrystallized regions from the micrograph. Approximately
400 squares lie within the recrystallized areas, and since there are 672 total squares, the specimen is about 60%
recrystallized.
Problem 8.36
Explain the differences in grain structure for a metal that has been cold worked and one that has been cold
worked and then recrystallized.

Solution 8.36
During cold-working, the grain structure of the metal has been distorted to accommodate the deformation.
Recrystallization produces grains that are equiaxed and smaller than the parent grains.
Problem 8.37
(a) What is the driving force for recrystallization?
(b) What is the driving force for grain growth?

Solution 8.37
(a) The driving force for recrystallization is the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
(b) The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain boundary
area decreases.
Problem 8.38
(a) From Figure 8.25, compute the length of time required for the average grain diameter to increase from
0.03 to 0.3 mm at 600°C for this brass material.
(b) Repeat the calculation, this time using 700° C.

Solution 8.38
(a) From Figure 8.25, (and realizing that both axes are scaled logarithmically) at 600C, the time necessary
for the average grain diameter to grow to 0.03 is about 6 min; and the total time to grow to 0.3 mm is approximately
3000 min. Therefore, the time to grow from 0.03 to 0.3 mm is 3000 min − 6 min, or approximately 3000 min.
(b) At 700C the time required for this same grain size increase is approximately 80 min.
Problem 8.39

Consider a hypothetical material that has a grain diameter of 2.1  10-2 mm. After a heat treatment at

600C for 3 h, the grain diameter has increased to 7.2  10-2 mm. Compute the grain diameter when a specimen of

this same original material (i.e., d0 = 2.1  10-2 mm) is heated for 1.7 h at 600C. Assume the n grain diameter

exponent has a value of 2.

Solution 8.39
To solve this problem requires that we use Equation 8.9 with n = 2. It is first necessary to solve for the
parameter K in this equation, using values given in the problem statement of d0 (2.1  10−2 mm) and the grain

diameter after the 3-h heat treatment (7.2  10−2 mm). The computation for K using a rearranged form of Equation
8.10 in which K becomes the dependent parameter is as follows:

d 2 − d02
K=
t

(7.2  10−2 mm)2 − (2.1  10−2 mm)2

=
3h

= 1.58 ´ 10-3 mm2 /h

It is now possible to solve for the value of d after a heat treatment of 1.7 h using a rearranged form of Equation 8.10:

d = d02 + Kt

= (2.1  10−2 mm)2 + (1.58  10−3 mm2 /h)(1.7 h)

= 5.59 ´ 10-2 mm
Problem 8.40

A hypothetical metal alloy has a grain diameter of 1.7  10-2 mm. After a heat treatment at 450C for 250

min the grain diameter has increased to 4.5  10-2 mm. Compute the time required for a specimen of this same

material (i.e., d0 = 1.7  10-2 mm) to achieve a grain diameter of 8.7  10-2 mm while being heated at 450C.

Assume the n grain diameter exponent has a value of 2.1.

Solution 8.40
To solve this problem requires that we use Equation 8.9 with n = 2.1. It is first necessary to solve for the
parameter K in this equation, using values given in the problem statement of d0 (1.7  10−2 mm) and the grain

diameter after the 250-min heat treatment (4.5  10−2 mm). The computation for K using a rearranged form of
Equation 8.9 in which K becomes the dependent parameter is as follows:

d 2.1 − d02.1
K=
t

(4.5  10−2 mm)2.1 − (1.7  10−2 mm)2.1

=
250 min

= 5.17  10−6 mm 2.1 /min

It is now possible to solve for the time required to yield a value of 8.7  10−2 mm for d using a rearranged form of
Equation 8.9:

d 2.1 − d02.1
t=
K

(8.7  10−2 mm)2.1 − (1.7  10−2 mm) 2.1

=
5.17  10−6 mm 2.1 /min

= 1110 min
Problem 8.41
The average grain diameter for a brass material was measured as a function of time at 650°C, which is
shown in the following table at two different times:

Time (min) Grain Diameter (mm)

40 5.6 × 10–2
100 8.0 × 10–2

(a) What was the original grain diameter?

(b) What grain diameter would you predict after 200 min at 650°C?

Solution 8.41
(a) Using the data given and Equation 8.10 (for n = 2)—that is

d 2 - d02 = Kt

we may set up two simultaneous equations with d0 and K as unknowns, as follows:

(5.6 ´ 10-2 mm)2 - d02 = (40 min) K

(8.0 ´ 10-2 mm)2 - d02 = (100 min) K

Solution of these expressions yields a value for d0, the original grain diameter, of

d0 = 0.031 mm,
and a value for K of

K = 5.44 ´ 10-5 mm2 /min

(b) At 200 min, the diameter d is computed using a rearranged form of Equation 8.10 (incorporating values
of d0 and K that were just determined) as follows:

d = d02 + Kt
= (0.031 mm)2 + (5.44  10−5 mm2 /min) (200 min)

= 0.109 mm
Problem 8.42
An undeformed specimen of some alloy has an average grain diameter of 0.050 mm. You are asked to
reduce its average grain diameter to 0.020 mm. Is this possible? If so, explain the procedures you would use and
name the processes involved. If it is not possible, explain why.

Solution 8.42
Yes, it is possible to reduce the average grain diameter of an undeformed alloy specimen from 0.050 mm to
0.020 mm. In order to do this, plastically deform the material at room temperature (i.e., cold work it), and then
anneal at an elevated temperature in order to allow recrystallization and some grain growth to occur until the
average grain diameter is 0.020 mm.
Problem 8.43
Grain growth is strongly dependent on temperature (i.e., rate of grain growth increases with increasing
temperature), yet temperature is not explicitly included in Equation 8.9.
(a) Into which of the parameters in this expression would you expect temperature to be included?
(b) On the basis of your intuition, cite an explicit expression for this temperature dependence.

Solution 8.43
(a) The temperature dependence of grain growth is incorporated into the constant K in Equation 8.9.
(b) The explicit expression for this temperature dependence is of the form

 Q 
K = K0 exp  − 
 RT 

in which K0 is a temperature-independent constant, the parameter Q is an activation energy, and R and T are the gas
constant and absolute temperature, respectively.
Problem 8.44
A non-cold-worked brass specimen of average grain size 0.01 mm has a yield strength of 150 MPa (21,750
psi). Estimate the yield strength of this alloy after it has been heated to 500°C for 1000 s, if it is known that the value
of σ0 is 25 MPa (3625 psi).

Solution 8.44
This problem calls for us to calculate the yield strength of a brass specimen after it has been heated to an
elevated temperature at which grain growth was allowed to occur; the yield strength (150 MPa) was given at a grain
size of 0.01 mm. It is first necessary to calculate the constant ky in Equation 8.7, using values for y (150 MPa), 0

(25 MPa), and d (0.01 mm), and as follows:

 y − 0
ky =
d −1/2

150 MPa − 25 MPa

=
(0.01 mm) −1/2

= 12.5 MPa-mm1/2

Next, we must determine the average grain size after the heat treatment. From Figure 8.25 at 500C after 1000 s
(16.7 min) the average grain size of a brass material is about 0.016 mm. Therefore, calculating y at this new grain

size using Equation 8.7 we get

 y =  0 + k y d −1/2

= 25 MPa + (12.5 MPa-mm1/2 ) (0.016 mm)−1/2

= 124 MPa (18,000 psi)

Problem 8.45
The following yield strength, grain diameter, and heat treatment time (for grain growth) data were
gathered for an iron specimen that was heat treated at 800 C. Using these data, compute the yield strength of a
specimen that was heated at 800C for 3 h. Assume a value of 2 for n, the grain diameter exponent.

Grain diameter (mm) Yield Strength (MPa) Heat Treating Time (h)
0.028 300 10
0.010 385 1

Solution 8.45
This problem is solved using the following steps:
1. From data given in the problem statement, determine values of d0 and K in Equation 8.10.

2. Incorporation of these data into Equation 8.10, compute the value of d after the heat treatment (800C
for 3 h).
3. From data provided in the problem statement, determine values of 0 and ky in Equation 8.7.

4. Calculate the value of y using Equation 8.7 incorporating the d value determined in step 2.

Step 1
Using grain diameter-heat treating time data provided in the problem statement, we set up two
simultaneous expressions of Equation 8.10—i.e.,

d 2 - d02 = Kt
as follows:

(0.028 mm)2 − d02 = K (10 h)

(0.010 mm)2 − d02 = K (1 h)

From these expressions it is possible to solve for values of d0 and K, which are as follows:
d0 = 0.0049 mm

K = 7.60  10−5 mm2/h

Step 2
 We now compute the grain size d after the three-hour heat treatment using a rearranged form of Equation
8.10 and the above values for d0 and K as follows:

d = Kt + d02

= (7.60  10−5 mm2 /h)(3 h) + (0.0049 mm)2

= 0.0159 mm

Step 3
Using grain diameter-yield strength data provided in the problem statement, we set up two simultaneous
expressions of Equation 8.7—i.e.,

 y =  0 + k y d −1/2

as follows:

300 MPa =  0 + k y (0.028 mm)−1/2

385 MPa =  0 + k y (0.010 mm)−1/2

from which we determine values for ky and 0; these values are as follows:

ky = 21.25 MPa-mm1/2

0 = 172.5 MPa

Step 4
Finally, it is possible to calculate the value of y using Equation 8.7 incorporating the d value determined

in step 2. Thus,

 y =  0 + k y d −1/2

= 172.5 MPa + (21.25 MPa  mm1/2 )(0.0159 mm)−1/2

= 341 MPa
Crystalline Ceramics (Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials)

Problem 8.46
Cite one reason why ceramic materials are, in general, harder yet more brittle than metals.

Answer 8.46
Crystalline ceramics are harder yet more brittle than metals because they (ceramics) have fewer slip
systems, and, therefore, dislocation motion is highly restricted.
Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers (Deformation of Elastomers)

Problem 8.47
In your own words, describe the mechanisms by which semicrystalline polymers
(a) elastically deform
(b) plastically deform
(c) by which elastomers elastically deform.

Solution 8.47
(a) and (b) The mechanisms by which semicrystalline polymers elastically and plastically deform are
described in Section 8.17.
(c) The explanation of the mechanism by which elastomers elastically deform is provided in Section 8.19.
Deformation of Elastomers

Problem 8.48
Briefly explain how each of the following influences the tensile modulus of a semicrystalline polymer and
why:
(a) molecular weight
(b) degree of crystallinity
(c) deformation by drawing
(d) annealing of an undeformed material
(e) annealing of a drawn material

Answer 8.48
(a) The tensile modulus is not directly influenced by a polymer's molecular weight.
(b) Tensile modulus increases with increasing degree of crystallinity for semicrystalline polymers. This is
due to enhanced secondary interchain bonding which results from adjacent aligned chain segments as percent
crystallinity increases. This enhanced interchain bonding inhibits relative interchain motion.
(c) Deformation by drawing also increases the tensile modulus. The reason for this is that drawing
produces a highly oriented molecular structure, and a relatively high degree of interchain secondary bonding.
(d) When an undeformed semicrystalline polymer is annealed below its melting temperature, the tensile
modulus increases.
(e) A drawn semicrystalline polymer that is annealed experiences a decrease in tensile modulus as a result
of a reduction in chain-induced crystallinity, and a reduction in interchain bonding forces.
Problem 8.49
Briefly explain how each of the following influences the tensile or yield strength of a semicrystalline
polymer and why:
(a) molecular weight
(b) degree of crystallinity
(c) deformation by drawing
(d) annealing of an undeformed material

Answer 8.49
(a) The tensile strength of a semicrystalline polymer increases with increasing molecular weight. This
effect is explained by increased chain entanglements at higher molecular weights.
(b) Increasing the degree of crystallinity of a semicrystalline polymer leads to an enhancement of the
tensile strength. Again, this is due to enhanced interchain bonding and forces; in response to applied stresses,
interchain motions are thus inhibited.
(c) Deformation by drawing increases the tensile strength of a semicrystalline polymer. This effect is due
to the highly oriented chain structure that is produced by drawing, which gives rise to higher interchain secondary
bonding forces.
(d) Annealing an undeformed semicrystalline polymer produces an increase in its tensile strength.
Problem 8.50
Normal butane and isobutane have boiling temperatures of –0.5°C and –12.3°C (31.1°F and 9.9°F),
respectively. Briefly explain this behavior on the basis of their molecular structures, as presented in Section 4.2.

Solution 8.50
Normal butane has a higher melting temperature as a result of its molecular structure (Section 4.2). There
is more of an opportunity for van der Waals bonds to form between two molecules in close proximity to one another
than for isobutane because of the linear nature of each normal butane molecule.
Problem 8.51
The tensile strength and number-average molecular weight for two poly(methyl methacrylate) materials
are as follows:

Tensile Strength (MPa) Number-Average Molecular Weight (g/mol)

50 30,000
150 50,000

Estimate the tensile strength at a number-average molecular weight of 40,000 g/mol.

Solution 8.51
This problem gives us the tensile strengths and associated number-average molecular weights for two
poly(methyl methacrylate) materials and then asks that we estimate the tensile strength for M n = 40,000 g/mol.

Equation 8.12 cites the dependence of the tensile strength on M n --that is

A
TS = TS − (8.12)
Mn

Using data provided in the problem statement, we may set up two simultaneous equations from which it is possible
to solve for the two constants TS∞ and A. These equations are as follows:

A
50 MPa = TS −
30, 000 g/mol

A
150 MPa = TS −
50, 000 g/mol

Values of the two constants are: TS∞ = 300 MPa and A = 7.50  106 MPa-g/mol. Substituting these values into

Equation 8.12 for M n = 40,000 g/mol leads to

A
TS = TS −
40, 000 g/mol
 7.50  106 MPa-g/mol
= 300 MPa −
40,000 g/mol

= 112.5 MPa
Problem 8.52
The tensile strength and number-average molecular weight for two polyethylene materials are as follows:

Tensile Strength (MPa) Number-Average Molecular Weight (g/mol)

90 20,000
180 40,000

Estimate the number-average molecular weight that is required to give a tensile strength of 140 MPa.

Solution 8.52
This problem gives us the tensile strengths and associated number-average molecular weights for two
polyethylene materials and then asks that we estimate the M n required for a tensile strength of 140 MPa. Equation

8.12 cites the dependence of the tensile strength on M n --that is

A
TS = TS − (8.12)
Mn

Using data provided in the problem statement, we may set up two simultaneous equations from which it is possible
to solve for the two constants TS∞ and A. These equations are as follows:

A
90 MPa = TS −
20, 000 g/mol

A
180 MPa = TS −
40, 000 g/mol

Values of the two constants are: TS∞ = 270 MPa and A = 3.6  106 MPa-g/mol. Solving for M n in Equation 8.12

and substituting TS = 140 MPa as well as the above values for TS∞ and A leads to

A
Mn =
TS − TS

3.6  106 MPa-g/mol

= = 27,700 g/mol
270 MPa − 140 MPa
Problem 8.53
For each of the following pairs of polymers, do the following: (1) state whether it is possible to decide
whether one polymer has a higher tensile modulus than the other; (2) if this is possible, note which has the higher
tensile modulus and cite the reason(s) for your choice; and (3) if it is not possible to decide, state why.
(a) Branched and atactic poly(vinyl chloride) with a weight-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol;
linear and isotactic poly(vinyl chloride) having a weight-average molecular weight of 75,000 g/mol
(b) Random styrene-butadiene copolymer with 5% of possible sites crosslinked; block styrene-butadiene
copolymer with 10% of possible sites crosslinked
(c) Branched polyethylene with a number-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol; atactic
polypropylene with a number-average molecular weight of 150,000 g/mol

Solution 8.53
(a) Yes, it is possible. The linear and isotactic poly(vinyl chloride) will display a greater tensile modulus.
Linear polymers are more likely to crystallize that branched ones. In addition, polymers having isotactic structures
will normally have a higher degree of crystallinity that those having atactic structures. Increasing a polymer's
crystallinity leads to an increase in its tensile modulus. In addition, tensile modulus is independent of molecular
weight—the atactic/branched material has the higher molecular weight.
(b) Yes, it is possible. The block styrene-butadiene copolymer with 10% of possible sites crosslinked will
have the higher modulus. Block copolymers normally have higher degrees of crystallinity than random copolymers
of the same material. A higher degree of crystallinity favors larger moduli. In addition, the block copolymer also
has a higher degree of crosslinking; increasing the amount of crosslinking also enhances the tensile modulus.
(c) No, it is not possible. Branched polyethylene will tend to have a low degree of crystallinity since
branched polymers don't normally crystallize. The atactic polypropylene probably also has a relatively low degree
of crystallinity; atactic structures also don't tend to crystallize, and polypropylene has a more complex repeat unit
structure than does polyethylene. Tensile modulus increases with degree of crystallinity, and it is not possible to
determine which polymer is more crystalline. Furthermore, tensile modulus is independent of molecular weight.
Problem 8.54
For each of the following pairs of polymers, do the following: (1) state whether it is possible to decide
whether one polymer has a higher tensile strength than the other; (2) if this is possible, note which has the higher
tensile strength and cite the reason(s) for your choice; and (3) if it is not possible to decide, state why.
(a) Linear and isotactic poly(vinyl chloride) with a weight-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol;
branched and atactic poly(vinyl chloride) having a weight-average molecular weight of 75,000 g/mol
(b) Graft acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer with 10% of possible sites crosslinked; alternating
acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer with 5% of possible sites crosslinked
(c) Network polyester; lightly branched polytetrafluoroethylene

Solution 8.54
(a) Yes, it is possible. The linear and isotactic material will have the higher tensile strength. Both linearity
and isotacticity favor a higher degree of crystallinity than do branching and atacticity; and tensile strength increases
with increasing degree of crystallinity. Furthermore, the molecular weight of the linear/isotactic material is higher
(100,000 g/mol versus 75,000 g/mol), and tensile strength increases with increasing molecular weight.
(b) No, it is not possible. Alternating copolymers tend to be more crystalline than graft copolymers, and
tensile strength increases with degree of crystallinity. However, the graft material has a higher degree of
crosslinking, and tensile strength increases with the percentage of crosslinks.
(c) Yes, it is possible. The network polyester will display a greater tensile strength. Relative chain motion
is much more restricted than for the lightly branched polytetrafluoroethylene since there are many more of the strong
covalent bonds for the network structure.
Problem 8.55
Would you expect the tensile strength of polychlorotrifluoroethylene to be greater than, the same as, or less
than that of a polytetrafluoroethylene specimen having the same molecular weight and degree of crystallinity? Why?

Solution 8.55
The strength of a polychlorotrifluoroethylene having the repeat unit structure

will be greater than for a polytetrafluoroethylene having the same molecular weight and degree of crystallinity. The
replacement of one fluorine atom within the PTFE repeat unit with a chlorine atom leads to a higher interchain
attraction, and, thus, a stronger polymer. Furthermore, poly(vinyl chloride) is stronger than polyethylene (Table 7.2)
for the same reason.
Problem 8.56
For each of the following pairs of polymers, plot and label schematic stress–strain curves on the same
graph [i.e., make separate plots for parts (a) to (c)].
(a) Polyisoprene having a number-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol and 10% of available sites
crosslinked; polyisoprene having a number-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol and 20% of available sites
crosslinked
(b) Syndiotactic polypropylene having a weight-average molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol; atactic
polypropylene having a weight-average molecular weight of 75,000 g/mol
(c) Branched polyethylene having a number-average molecular weight of 90,000 g/mol; heavily crosslinked
polyethylene having a number-average molecular weight of 90,000 g/mol

Solution 8.56
(a) Shown below are the stress-strain curves for the two polyisoprene materials, both of which have a
molecular weight of 100,000 g/mol. These two materials are elastomers and will have curves similar to curve C in
Figure 7.22. However, the curve for the material having the greater number of crosslinks (20%) will have a higher
elastic modulus at all strains.

(b) Shown below are the stress-strain curves for the two polypropylene materials. These materials will
most probably display the stress-strain behavior of a normal plastic, curve B in Figure 7.22. However, the
syndiotactic polypropylene has a higher molecular weight and will also undoubtedly have a higher degree of
crystallinity; therefore, it will have a higher strength.
 (c) Shown below are the stress-strain curves for the two polyethylene materials. The branched
polyethylene will display the behavior of a normal plastic, curve B in Figure 7.22. On the other hand, the heavily
crosslinked polyethylene will be stiffer, stronger, and more brittle (curve A of Figure 7.22).
Problem 8.57
List the two molecular characteristics that are essential for elastomers.

Answer 8.57
Two molecular characteristics essential for elastomers are: (1) they must be amorphous, having chains that
are extensively coiled and kinked in the unstressed state; and (2) there must be some crosslinking.
Problem 8.58
Which of the following would you expect to be elastomers and which thermosetting polymers at room
temperature? Justify each choice.
(a) Linear and highly crystalline polyethylene
(b) Phenol-formaldehyde
(c) Heavily crosslinked polyisoprene having a glass transition temperature of 50°C (122°F)
(d) Lightly crosslinked polyisoprene having a glass transition temperature of –60°C (– 76°F)
(e) Linear and partially amorphous poly(vinyl chloride)

Solution 8.58
(a) Linear and crystalline polyethylene would be neither an elastomer nor a thermoset since it is a linear
polymer.
(b) Phenol-formaldehyde having a network structure would be a thermosetting polymer since it has a
network structure. It would not be an elastomer since it does not have a crosslinked chain structure.
(c) Heavily crosslinked polyisoprene having a glass transition temperature of 50C would be a
thermosetting polymer because it is heavily crosslinked. It would not be an elastomer since it is heavily crosslinked
and room temperature is below its Tg.

(d) Lightly crosslinked polyisoprene having a glass transition temperature of –60C is both an elastomer
and a thermoset. It is an elastomer because it is lightly crosslinked and has a Tg below room temperature. It is a
thermoset because it is crosslinked.
(e) Linear and partially amorphous poly(vinyl chloride) is neither an elastomer nor a thermoset. In order to
be either it must have some crosslinking.
Problem 8.59
Fifteen kilograms of polychloroprene is vulcanized with 5.2 kg of sulfur. What fraction of the possible
crosslink sites is bonded to sulfur crosslinks, assuming that, on the average, 5.5 sulfur atoms participate in each
crosslink?

Solution 8.59
This problem asks that we compute the fraction of possible crosslink sites in 15 kg of polychloroprene
when 5.2 kg of S is added, assuming that, on the average, 5.5 sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink bond. Given
the butadiene repeat unit in Table 4.5, (which is composed of 4 carbon atoms, 5 hydrogen atoms, and 1 chlorine
atom) we may calculate its molecular weight as follows:

A(chloroprene) = 4(A ) + 5(A ) + ACl

C H

= (4)(12.01 g/mol) + 5(1.008 g/mol) + 35.45 g/mol = 88.53 g/mol

Which means that for 15 kg of chloroprene there are the following number of moles of chloroprene, nchloro:

15, 000 g
nchloro = = 169.4 mol
88.53 g/mol

For the vulcanization of polychloroprene, there are two possible crosslink sites per repeat unit—one for
each of the two carbon atoms that are doubly bonded. Furthermore, each of these crosslinks forms a bridge between
two repeat units. Therefore, we can say that there is the equivalent of one crosslink per repeat unit. Let us now
calculate the number of moles of sulfur (nsulfur) that react with the chloroprene, by taking the mole ratio of sulfur to

chloroprene, and then dividing this ratio by 5.5 atoms per crosslink; this yields the fraction of possible sites that are
crosslinked. Now, the amount of sulfur added is 5.2 kg (5200 g), which means that

5200 g
nsulfur = = 162.2 mol
32.06 g/mol

And, finally, we determine the fraction of sites crosslinked as follows:

nsulfur 162.2 mol

nchloro
fraction sites crosslinked = = 169.4 mol = 0.174
5.5 5.5
Problem 8.60
Compute the weight percent sulfur that must be added to completely crosslink an alternating acrylonitrile-
butadiene copolymer, assuming that four sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink.

Solution 8.60
For an alternating acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer, we are asked to compute the weight percent sulfur
necessary for complete crosslinking, assuming that, on the average, four sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink.
The acrylonitrile and butadiene repeat units are shown in Table 4.5, from which it may be noted that there are two
possible crosslink sites on each butadiene repeat unit (one site at each of the two carbon atoms that are doubly
bonded), and no possible sites for acrylonitrile; also, because it is an alternating copolymer, the ratio of butadiene to
acrylonitrile repeat units is 1:1. Thus, for each pair of combined butadiene-acrylonitrile repeat units which
crosslink, eight sulfur atoms are required, or, for complete crosslinking, the sulfur-to-(acrylonitrile-butadiene) ratio
is 4:1.
Now, let us consider as our basis, one mole of the combined acrylonitrile-butadiene repeat units. In order
for complete crosslinking, four moles of sulfur are required. Thus, for us to convert this composition to weight
percent, it is necessary to convert moles to mass. The acrylonitrile repeat unit consists of three carbon atoms, three
hydrogen atoms, and one nitrogen atom; the butadiene repeat unit is composed of four carbon atoms and six
hydrogen atoms. This gives a molecular weight for the combined repeat unit of

m(acrylonitrile-butadiene) = 3(AC) + 3(AH) + AN + 4(AC) + 6(AH)

= 7(12.01 g/mol) + 9(1.008 g/mol) + 14.007 g/mol = 107.15 g/mol

Or, in one mole of this combined repeat unit, there are 107.15 g. Furthermore, for complete crosslinking 4.0 mol of
sulfur is required, which amounts to (4.0 mol)(32.06 g/mol) = 128.24 g. Thus, the concentration of S in weight
percent CS (using Equation 5.6a) is just

128.24 g
CS =  100 = 54.5 wt%
128.24 g + 107.15 g
Problem 8.61
The vulcanization of polyisoprene is accomplished with sulfur atoms according to Equation 8.13. If 45.3
wt% sulfur is combined with polyisoprene, how many crosslinks will be associated with each isoprene repeat unit if
it is assumed that, on the average, five sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink?

Solution 8.61
This problem asks for us to determine how many crosslinks form per isoprene repeat unit when 45.3 wt%
sulfur is added, assuming that, on the average, five sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink. If we arbitrarily
consider 100 g of the vulcanized material, 45.3 g will be sulfur and 54.7 g will be polyisoprene. Next, let us find
how many moles of sulfur and isoprene correspond to these masses. The atomic weight of sulfur is 32.06 g/mol, and
thus,
45.3 g
# moles S = = 1.41 mol
32.06 g/mol

Now, in each isoprene repeat unit there are five carbon atoms and eight hydrogen atoms. Thus, the molecular
weight of a mole of isoprene units is

A(isoprene) = 5 AC + 8 AH

= (5)(12.01 g/mol) + (8)(1.008 g/mol) = 68.11 g/mol

Or, in 54.7 g of polyisoprene, the number of moles of isoprene is equal to

54.7 g
# moles isoprene = = 0.803 mol
68.11 g/mol

Therefore, the ratio of moles of S to the number of moles of polyisoprene is

1.41 mol
:1 = 1.76:1
0.803 mol

When all possible sites are crosslinked, the ratio of the number of moles of sulfur to the number of moles of isoprene
is 5:1; this is because there are two crosslink sites per repeat unit and each crosslink is shared between repeat units
on adjacent chains, and there are 5 sulfur atoms per crosslink. Finally, to determine the fraction of sites that are
crosslinked, we just divide the actual crosslinked sulfur/isoprene ratio by the completely crosslinked ratio. Or,
 1.76 / 1
fraction of repeat unit sites crosslinked = = 0.352
5 /1
Problem 8.62
For the vulcanization of polyisoprene, compute the weight percent of sulfur that must be added to ensure
that 10% of possible sites will be crosslinked; assume that, on the average, 3.5 sulfur atoms are associated with
each crosslink.

Solution 8.62
We are asked what weight percent of sulfur must be added to polyisoprene in order to ensure that 10% of
possible sites are crosslinked, assuming that, on the average, 3.5 sulfur atoms are associated with each crosslink.
Table 4.5 shows the chemical repeat unit for isoprene. For each of these units there are two possible crosslink sites;
one site is associated with each of the two carbon atoms that are involved in the chain double bond. Since 10% of
the possible sites are crosslinked, for each 100 isoprene repeat units 10 of them are crosslinked; actually there are
two crosslink sites per repeat unit, but each crosslink is shared by two chains. Furthermore, on the average we
assume that each crosslink is composed of 3.5 sulfur atoms; thus, there must be 3.5  10 or 35 sulfur atoms added
for every 100 isoprene repeat units. In terms of moles, it is necessary to add 35 moles of sulfur to 100 moles of
isoprene. The atomic weight of sulfur is 32.06 g/mol, while the molecular weight of an isoprene repeat unit is

A(isoprene) = 5(AC) + 8(AH)

= (5)(12.01 g/mol) + (8)(1.008 g/mol) = 68.11 g/mol

The mass of sulfur added (mS) is equal to the number of moles of sulfur (35 mol) times the atomic weight of sulfur

(32.06 g/mol) or
mS = (35 mol)(32.06 g/mol) = 1122 g

While for isoprene the number of moles (mip) is equal to

mip = (100 mol)(68.11 g/mol) = 6811 g

Or, the concentration of sulfur that must be added, in weight percent (Equation 5.6a), is just

mS 1122 g
CS =  100 =  100 = 14.1 wt%
mS + mip 1122 g + 6811 g
Problem 8.63
In a manner similar to Equation 8.13, demonstrate how vulcanization may occur in a chloroprene rubber.

Solution 8.63
The reaction by which a chloroprene rubber may become vulcanized is as follows:
 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Recrystallization

Problem 8.D1
Determine whether it is possible to cold work steel so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness of 240 and at
the same time have a ductility of at least 15%EL. Justify your answer.

Solution 8.D1
This problem calls for us to determine whether it is possible to cold work steel so as to give a minimum
Brinell hardness of 240 and a ductility of at least 15%EL. According to Figure 7.31, a Brinell hardness of 240
corresponds to a tensile strength of 800 MPa (116,000 psi). Furthermore, from Figure 8.19b, in order to achieve a
tensile strength of 800 MPa, deformation of at least 13%CW is necessary. Finally, if we cold work the steel to
13%CW, then the ductility is 15%EL from Figure 8.19c. Therefore, it is possible to meet both of these criteria by
plastically deforming the steel.
Problem 8.D2
Determine whether it is possible to cold work brass so as to give a minimum Brinell hardness of 150 and at
the same time have a ductility of at least 20%EL. Justify your answer.

Solution 8.D2
We are asked to determine whether it is possible to cold work brass so as to give a minimum Brinell
hardness of 150 and at the same time have a ductility of at least 20%EL. According to Figure 7.31, for brass, a
Brinell hardness of 150 corresponds to a tensile strength of 500 MPa (72,000 psi.) Furthermore, from Figure 8.19b,
in order to achieve a tensile strength of 500 MPa for brass, deformation of at least 36%CW is necessary. Finally, if
we are to achieve a ductility of at least 20%EL, then a maximum deformation of 23%CW is possible from Figure
8.19c. Therefore, it is not possible to meet both of these criteria by plastically deforming brass.
Problem 8.D3
A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked steel has a Brinell hardness of 240.
(a) Estimate its ductility in percent elongation.
(b) If the specimen remained cylindrical during deformation and its original radius was 10 mm (0.40 in.),
determine its radius after deformation.

Solution 8.D3
(a) For this portion of the problem we are to determine the ductility of cold-worked steel that has a Brinell
hardness of 240. From Figure 7.31, for steel, a Brinell hardness of 240 corresponds to a tensile strength of 820 MPa
(120,000 psi), which, from Figure 8.19b, requires a deformation of 17%CW. Furthermore, 17%CW yields a
ductility of about 13%EL for steel, Figure 8.19c.
(b) We are now asked to determine the radius after deformation if the un-cold-worked radius is 10 mm
(0.40 in.). From Equation 8.8 and for a cylindrical specimen

 A − Ad 
%CW =  0   100
 A0 

  r02 −  r 2 
= d
  100
  r02 

Now, solving for rd from this expression, we get

%CW
rd = r0 1 −
100

And, finally, for 17%CW

17%CW
rd = (10 mm) 1 − = 9.11 mm (0.364 in.)
100
Problem 8.D4
It is necessary to select a metal alloy for an application that requires a yield strength of at least 310 MPa
(45,000 psi) while maintaining a minimum ductility (%EL) of 27%. If the metal may be cold worked, decide which of
the following are candidates: copper, brass, or a 1040 steel. Why?

Solution 8.D4
This problem asks us to determine which of copper, brass, and a 1040 steel may be cold-worked so as to
achieve a minimum yield strength of 310 MPa (45,000 psi) and a minimum ductility of 27%EL. For each of these
alloys, the minimum cold work necessary to achieve the yield strength may be determined from Figure 8.19a, while
the maximum possible cold work for the ductility is found in Figure 8.19c. These data are tabulated below.

Yield Strength Ductility

(> 310 MPa) (> 27%EL)
Steel Any %CW Not possible
Brass > 15%CW < 17%CW
Copper > 38%CW < 10%CW

Thus, only brass is a possible candidate, since for this alloy only there is an overlap of %CW's to give the required
minimum yield strength and ductility values.
Problem 8.D5
A cylindrical rod of 1040 steel originally 11.4 mm (0.45 in.) in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing;
the circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess of 825
MPa (120,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 12%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter must be 8.9 mm
(0.35 in.). Explain how this may be accomplished.

Solution 8.D5
This problem calls for us to explain the procedure by which a cylindrical rod of 1040 steel may be
deformed so as to produce a given final diameter (8.9 mm), as well as a specific minimum tensile strength (825
MPa) and minimum ductility (12%EL). First let us calculate the percent cold work and attendant tensile strength
and ductility if the drawing is carried out without interruption. From Equation 8.8, for a cylindrical specimen having
original and deformed diameters of 11.4 mm and 8.9 mm, respectively,

 A − Ad 
%CW =  0   100
 A0 

2 2
 d0  d 
  − d 
=  2   2   100
2
d 
 0
 2 

2 2
 11.4 mm   8.9 mm 
  −  
=    2 
2
 100 = 40%CW
2
 11.4 mm 
 
 2 

At 40%CW, the steel will have a tensile strength on the order of 900 MPa (130,000 psi) (Figure 8.19b), which is
adequate; however, the ductility will be less than 9%EL (Figure 8.19c), which is insufficient.
Instead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of the total
deformation, then anneal to recrystallize, and, finally, cold-work the material a second time in order to achieve the
final diameter, tensile strength, and ductility.
Reference to Figure 8.19b indicates that 17%CW is necessary to yield a tensile strength of 825 MPa
(122,000 psi). Similarly, a maximum of 20%CW is possible for 12%EL (Figure 8.19c). The average of these
extremes is 18.5%CW. If the final diameter after the first drawing is d0¢ , then, from Equation 8.8
 2
 d 
2
 8.9 mm 
 0  −  
 2 
18.5%CW =  
2
 100
2
 d 
 0 
 2 

And, solving for d0¢ , yields

8.9 mm
d0 =
18.5%CW
1 −
100

= 9.86 mm (0.388 in.)

Problem 8.D6
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10.2 mm (0.40 in.) in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing; the
circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked yield strength in excess of 380 MPa
(55,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 15%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter must be 7.6 mm (0.30
in.). Explain how this may be accomplished.

Solution 8.D6
Let us first calculate the percent cold work and attendant yield strength and ductility if the drawing is
carried out without interruption. From Equation 8.8

 A − Ad 
%CW =  0   100
 A0 

2 2
 d0  d 
  − d 
=  2   2   100
2
d 
 0
 2 

2 2
 10.2 mm   7.6 mm 
  − 
=  2   2   100 = 44.5%CW
2
 10.2 mm 
 
 2 

At 44.5%CW, the brass will have a yield strength on the order of 420 MPa (61,000 psi), Figure 8.19a, which is
adequate; however, the ductility will be about 5%EL, Figure 8.19c, which is insufficient.
Instead of performing the drawing in a single operation, let us initially draw some fraction of the total
deformation, then anneal to recrystallize, and, finally, cold work the material a second time in order to achieve the
final diameter, yield strength, and ductility.
Reference to Figure 8.19a indicates that 27%CW is necessary to give a yield strength of 380 MPa.
Similarly, a maximum of 27%CW is possible for 15%EL (Figure 8.19c). Thus, to achieve both the specified yield
strength and ductility, the brass must be deformed to 27%CW. If the final diameter after the first drawing is d0¢ ,

then, using Equation 8.8

 2
 d0 
2
 7.6 mm 
  − 
 2   2 
27%CW =  100
2
 d 
 0
 2 

And, solving for d0¢ yields

7.6 mm
d0 = = 8.90 mm (0.351 in.)
27%CW
1 −
100
Problem 8.D7
A cylindrical brass rod having a minimum tensile strength of 450 MPa (65,000 psi), a ductility of at least
13%EL, and a final diameter of 12.7 mm (0.50 in.) is desired. Some brass stock of diameter 19.0 mm (0.75 in.) that
has been cold worked 35% is available. Describe the procedure you would follow to obtain this material. Assume
that brass experiences cracking at 65%CW.

Solution 8.D7
This problem calls for us to cold work some brass stock that has been previously cold worked in order to
achieve minimum tensile strength and ductility values of 450 MPa (65,000 psi) and 13%EL, respectively, while the
final diameter must be 12.7 mm (0.50 in.). Furthermore, the material may not be deformed beyond 65%CW. Let us
start by deciding what percent coldwork is necessary for the minimum tensile strength and ductility values,
assuming that a recrystallization heat treatment is possible. From Figure 8.19b, at least 27%CW is required for a
tensile strength of 450 MPa. Furthermore, according to Figure 8.19c, 13%EL corresponds a maximum of 30%CW.
Let us take the average of these two values (i.e., 28.5%CW), and determine what previous specimen diameter is
required to yield a final diameter of 12.7 mm. For cylindrical specimens, Equation 8.8 takes the form

 A − Ad 
%CW =  0   100
 A0 

2 2
 d0  d 
  − d 
=  2   2   100
2
d 
 0
 2 

Solving for the original diameter d0 when dd = 12.7 mm and for 28.5%CW yields

dd
d0 =
%CW
1−
100

12.7 mm
= = 15.0 mm (0.591 in.)
28.5%CW
1−
100

Now, let us determine its undeformed diameter realizing that a diameter of 19.0 mm corresponds to
35%CW. Again solving for d0 using the above equation and assuming dd = 19.0 mm yields
 dd
d0 =
%CW
1−
100

19.0 mm
= = 23.6 mm (0.930 in.)
35%CW
1−
100

At this point let us see if it is possible to deform the material from 23.6 mm to 15.0 mm without exceeding the
65%CW limit. Again employing Equation 8.8

2 2
 23.6 mm   15.0 mm 
  −  
%CW =  2   2   100 = 59.6%CW
2
 23.6 mm 
 
 2 
which is less that 65%CW.
In summary, the procedure which can be used to produce the desired material would be as follows: cold
work the as-received stock to 15.0 mm (0.591 in.), heat treat it to achieve complete recrystallization, and then cold
work the material again to 12.7 mm (0.50 in.), which will give the desired tensile strength and ductility.
Problem 8.D8
Consider the brass alloy discussed in Problem 8.41. Given the following yield strengths for the two
specimens, compute the heat treatment time required at 650 C to give a yield strength of 90 MPa. Assume a value
of 2 for n, the grain diameter exponent.

Time (min) Yield Strength (MPa)

40 80
100 70

Solution 8.D8
This problem is solved using the following steps:
1. From data provided in the problem statement and Problem 8.41, determine values of 0 and ky in Equation 8.7.

2. Calculate the value of d that is required for to give a yield strength of 90 MPa using these values and Equation
8.7.
3. From data given in Problem 8.41, determine values of d0 and K in Equation 8.10.
4. Calculate the heat-treating time required to give the d value determined in step 2, using Equation 8.10.

Step 1
Using grain diameter-yield strength data provided in the problem statement and Problem 8.41, we set up
two simultaneous expressions of Equation 8.7—i.e.,

 y =  0 + k y d −1/2

as follows:

80 MPa =  0 + k y (0.056 mm)−1/2

70 MPa =  0 + k y (0.080 mm)−1/2

From these expressions it is possible to solve for values of 0 and ky:

ky = 14.49 MPa-mm1/2

0 = 18.75 MPa

Step 2
 We now compute the grain size d required to give a yield strength of 90 MPa using a rearranged from of
Equation 8.7 and the above values of 0 and ky as follows:

2
 ky 
d = 
  y −0 
 

2
 14.49 MPa-mm1/2 
=
 90 MPa − 18.75 MPa 
 

= 0.041 mm

Step 3
Using grain diameter-heat treating time data provided in Problem 8.41, we set up two simultaneous expressions of
Equation 8.10—i.e.,

d 2 - d02 = Kt

as follows:

(0.056 mm)2 − d02 = K (40 min)

(0.080 mm)2 − d02 = K (100 min)

From which we determine values for d0 and K as follows:

d0 = 0.031 mm

K = 5.44  10−5 mm2/min

Step 4
And finally, we calculate the heat-treating time t required to give the d value determined in step 2 (0.041
mm), using a rearranged form of Equation 8.10:

d 2 − d02
t=
K
 (0.041 mm) 2 − (0.031 mm) 2
=
5.44  10−5 mm 2 /min

= 13.2 min
 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems

Problem 8.1FE
Plastically deforming a metal specimen near room temperature generally leads to which of the following
property changes?
(A) An increased tensile strength and a decreased ductility
(B) A decreased tensile strength and an increased ductility
(C) An increased tensile strength and an increased ductility
(D) A decreased tensile strength and a decreased ductility

Solution 8.1.FE
The correct answer is A. Plastically deforming (or strain hardening) a metal increases the dislocation
density; this produces an increase in tensile strength and a decrease in ductility.
Problem 8.2FE
A dislocation formed by adding an extra half-plane of atoms to a crystal is referred to as a (an)
(A) screw dislocation
(B) vacancy dislocation
(C) interstitial dislocation
(D) edge dislocation

Solution 8.2FE
The correct answer is D. A dislocation formed by adding an extra half plane of atoms to a crystal is
referred to as an edge dislocation.
Problem 8.3FE
The atoms surrounding a screw dislocation experience which kinds of strains?
(A) Tensile strains
(B) Shear strains
(C) Compressive strains
(D) Both B and C

Solution 8.3FE
The correct answer is B. The atoms surrounding a screw dislocation experience only shear strains.