Alternating current or voltage

A voltage or current is called alternating current or voltage if its direction alternates after a fixed interval
of time.

Phasor diagram
Phasor diagram is used to represent sinusoidal function in terms of it's
amplitude and frequency.

𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝐴∠𝑤𝑡

Note:
✓ A sinusoidal function in phasor diagram represented by a phasor vector.
✓ A sinusoidal function of time is a rotating phasor.
𝐵
✓ 𝐴∠0 + 𝐵∠900 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 ∠𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴
✓ ∠𝜃1 . ∠𝜃2 = ∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )
∠𝜃1
✓ = ∠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
∠𝜃2
1
✓ = ∠(−𝜃)
∠𝜃

AC voltage across Basic circuit elements

Across Resistor
At any time t let current in the circuit is i. Applying KVL in the circuit
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑖= 𝑅
• Current through Resistor
𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒕
[𝒊 = ]
𝑹
• Power across resistor
𝒗𝟎 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒘𝒕
[𝑷 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹 = ]
𝑹
• Phasor form representation of current
𝒗𝟎 ∠𝒘𝒕
[𝑰 = ]
𝑹∠𝟎

Across Capacitor
At any time t let current in the circuit is i. Applying KVL in the circuit
𝑞
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 − = 0
𝑐
𝑞 = 𝑣0 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= =(𝑣0 𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡) = 𝑣0 𝑤𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑣0 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑤𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 + )
2
• Current through Resistor
𝝅
[𝒊 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒘𝒄𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒘𝒕 + )]
𝟐
• Power across capacitor
𝜋
𝑃 = 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑤𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 + 2 ) . 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑣0 2 𝑤𝑐 𝜋
𝑃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 + ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
2 2

1
 𝑣0 2 𝑤𝑐
𝑃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
2
𝒗𝟎 𝟐 𝒘𝒄
[𝑷 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕]
𝟐
Phasor form representation of current
𝜋 𝑣0 ∠𝑤𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑣0 𝑤 ∠ (𝑤𝑡 + 2 ) = 1 𝜋
∠(− )
𝑤𝑐 2

𝒗𝟎 ∠𝒘𝒕
[𝑰 = 𝟏 𝝅 ]
∠(− )
𝒘𝒄 𝟐

Across Inductor
At any time t let current in the circuit is i. Applying KVL in the circuit
𝑑𝑖
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 − 𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Integrating both side
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
𝑖 = − 0 𝑤𝐿
𝜋
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 − 2)
𝑖=
𝑤𝐿
• Current through Resistor
𝝅
𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒘𝒕− )
𝟐
[𝒊 = ]
𝒘𝑳

• Power across capacitor

𝜋
𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡− )
2
𝑃 = 𝑖𝑣 = . 𝑣0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑤𝐿
𝑣0 2 𝜋
𝑃 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑤𝑡 − ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
2𝑤𝐿 2
2
𝑣0
𝑃 =− 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
2𝑤𝑐
𝒗𝟎 𝟐 𝒘
[𝑷 = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒘𝒕]
𝟐

• Phasor form representation of current

𝒗𝟎∠𝒘𝒕
[𝑰= 𝝅 ]
𝒘𝑳 ∠( )
𝟐

Impedance (Z)
Due to the impedance of circuit element it opposes the flow of AC current through it. It is given as
𝜋
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑋∠ ( )
2
where,
• Z is called Impedance Impedance of basic circuit element
• R is called Resistance Resistor 𝑅∠0
• X is called Reactance 𝜋
Capacitor 𝑋𝑐 ∠ (− )
2
𝜋
Inductor 𝑋𝐿 ∠ ( )
2

2
Note:
✓ In case of resistor current and voltage are in same phase.
𝜋
✓ In case of capacitor current leads voltage by 2 .
𝜋
✓ In case of inductor voltage leads current by 2 .
✓ Average power across resistor in one cycle is always positive.
✓ Average power across capacitor and inductor in one cycle is zero.

Impedance diagram
The phasor form representation of impedance of the circuit elements is called impedance diagram.

Solving AC circuit by phasor method

Steps:
1. Convert the circuit to phasor circuit.
2. Draw the Impedance diagram and calculate equivalent impedance.
3. Then apply for all circuit element this equation to solve the circuit
Phasor voltage(V) = Phasor current(I) x Impedance(Z)

LCR Circuit
At any time t let current in the circuit is i. Solving the circuit in phasor method
Impedance diagram
|𝑍| = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
∠𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Current in the circuit
𝑣0 ∠𝑤𝑡
𝐼=
|𝑍|∠𝜙
𝑣0
𝐼= ∠(𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙)
√𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2

Amplitude of current
𝑣
𝐼0 = 2 0 2
√𝑅 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝑐 )

for amplitude of current to be maximum

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 = 0
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝑐
1
𝑤0 𝐿 = where supply frequency is 𝑤0
𝑤0 𝑐
𝟏
[𝒘𝟎 = ]
√𝑳𝑪
𝟏
[𝒇 = ]
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Resonance in LCR circuit

The frequency of AC source for which amplitude of current in the
circuit is maximum is called resonance frequency .

𝟏
[𝒇 = ]
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪

Note:

3
 ✓ When LCR circuit is in resonance that circuit will be behave as a purely resistive circuit.
✓ In resonance phase difference between current and supply voltage is zero.

Bandwidth of resonance
It is the range of frequency in which current in the circuit is High. High current means power is greater
1
than 50% of its maximum value and amplitude of current should be greater than of maximum
√2
amplitude of current.
Amplitude of current at supply frequency w1
𝑣0
𝐼= 2 2
√𝑅 +(𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 )
𝑣0 𝑣0
=
√2𝑅 √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 2𝑅2
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅
1
𝑤1 𝐿 − =𝑅
𝑤1 𝑐
1
(𝑤0 + ∆𝑤)𝐿 − =𝑅
(𝑤0 + ∆𝑤)𝑐
∆𝑤 1
𝑤0 𝐿 (1 + )− =𝑅
𝑤0 ∆𝑤
𝑤0 𝑐 (1 + )
𝑤0
∆𝑤 ∆𝑤 −1
𝑤0 𝐿 (1 + ) − 𝑤0 𝐿 (1 + ) =𝑅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
𝑤0 𝑤0
∆𝑤 ∆𝑤 𝑅
1+ − (1 − ) =
𝑤0 𝑤0 𝑤0 𝐿
2∆𝑤 𝑅
=
𝑤0 𝑤0 𝐿
𝑅
[∆𝑤 = ]
2𝐿
𝑅
[𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2∆𝑤 = ]
𝐿
Sharpness of resonance
Sharpness of resonance is the measure of how much sharper the resonance is. It is inversely proportional
to Bandwidth of resonance. It is measured in terms of quality factor.
Quality factor is given as
𝒘𝟎 𝒘𝟎 𝑳 𝟏 𝑳
𝑸= = = √
∆𝒘 𝑹 𝑹 𝑪

RMS voltage
RMS voltage of an AC voltage is the DC voltage which produces same amount of heat in the given
resistor connected for equal interval of time.

AC voltage across Resistor R DC voltage across Resistor R

Current in the resistor Current in the resistor
4
 𝑣0 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑖=
𝑅 𝑅
Average power across resistor for one cycle Average power across resistor for one cycle
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑣0 2 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
0 0 0 0
𝑇 𝑇
2 2
𝑣0 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
0 0

𝑣0 2
𝑇
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑇
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 𝑃𝐷𝐶 =
𝑅 2 𝑅
0 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑇
𝑣0 2 𝑅
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = {∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑤𝑡 }
2𝑅
0 0
2𝑇 2
𝑣0 𝑣0
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = = 𝑇
2𝑅 2𝑅

for rms voltage

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷𝐶
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑇 𝑣0 2 𝑇
=
𝑅 2𝑅
𝒗𝟎
[ 𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ]
√𝟐

Average power of circuit elements due to AC voltage or current

Let an AC voltage is connected across impedance 𝑍 = |𝑍|∠𝜙
Phasor current in the circuit
𝑣0 ∠𝑤𝑡 𝑣0
𝐼= = ∠(𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙)
|𝑍|∠𝜙 |𝑍 |
Current in time domain
𝑣0
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙)
|𝑍 |
Average power across impedance
𝑇 𝑇
1 𝑣0 2 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑖𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 |𝑍 |
0 0
𝑇
𝑣0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 |𝑍 |𝑇
0
𝑇
𝑣0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫{𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙)} 𝑑𝑡
| 𝑍 |𝑇
0
𝑇 𝑇
𝑣0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = {𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙) 𝑑𝑡}
2 |𝑍 |𝑇
0 0

𝑣0 2 𝑣0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
2 |𝑍 |𝑇 2|𝑍|
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔𝟐
[𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓]
|𝒁 |

cosϕ factor in the average power is called power factor and is given as,

5
 𝑅 𝑅
[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = = ]
|𝑍 | √𝑅2 + (𝑥𝐿 − 𝑥𝐶 )2

Note:
✓ For purely resistive circuit Power factor is 1.
✓ When a circuit is in resonance its power factor is 1.
✓ For purely inductive or capacitative circuit power factor is 0.

RMS method of solving AC current

• |𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑥𝐿 − 𝑥𝐶 )2
• 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 |𝑍|
• 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑅 𝑅
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = =
|𝑍| √𝑅2 +(𝑥𝐿 −𝑥𝐶 )2

Transformer
Transformer is a device used to increase or decrease amplitude of
AC voltage or voltage.
Those Transformers which is used to increase AC voltage is called
Step Up transformer which is used to decrease voltage is called
step down transformer.

Principle
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Construction
There are two windings one is primary and other secondary wound over the column of ferromagnetic
material called core. Total number of turn in primary is 𝑁1 and total number of turn in secondary is 𝑁2 .
Cross section area of each loop is A.

Working
When AC current is given in primary winding it creates alternating magnetic field which pass through
secondary winding because of core. This alternating magnetic field induces emf in the secondary
winding.
Since same number of magnetic field lines passes through both primary and secondary winding, flux
through each loop in both primary and secondary winding is same.
Let flux per loop is ɸ0 then
Primary winding Secondary winding
Magnetic flux in primary winding Magnetic flux in secondary winding
𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙0 𝑁1 𝜙𝐵 = 𝜙0 𝑁1
Voltage in primary winding Voltage in secondary winding
𝜕𝜙𝐵 𝜕 𝜕𝜙𝐵 𝜕
𝑣1 = = (𝜙 𝑁 ) 𝑣2 = = (𝜙 𝑁 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 0 1 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 0 2
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
[𝑣1 = 𝑁1 0 ] - - - - - - (1) [𝑣2 = 𝑁2 0 ] - - - - - - (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

from equation 1 and 2.

𝜕𝜙
𝑣1 𝑁1 0
= 𝜕𝑡
𝑣2 𝜕𝜙0
𝑁2 𝜕𝑡

6
 𝒗𝟏 𝑵𝟏
[ = ]
𝒗𝟐 𝑵𝟐

For Ideal Transformer in which no losses are there

Output power = input power
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼1 𝑣1 = 𝐼2 𝑣2
𝑰𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝑵𝟐
[ = = ]
𝑰𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝑵𝟏

For lossy transformer

Output power = Efficiency x Input power
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
[𝑰𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝜼𝑰𝟐 𝒗𝟐 ]

Note:
✓ In Step Up transformer, voltage in secondary increases but current decreases.
✓ In step down Transformer voltage in secondary decreases but current increases.

Losses in transformer
There are four types of losses in transformer
1. Copper loss: This loss is due to the heat loss in the copper wire of coil winding.
2. Eddy current loss: This is the heat loss due to eddy current induced in the core.
3. Loss due to leakage of magnetic flux: Magnetic flux in primary and secondary winding varies
slightly because of the leakage of some magnetic flux in the surrounding.
4. Hysteresis loss: This is the loss due to friction force acting between domain inside core.