Fundamental Period of Continuous Time Signals

1
To identify the period 𝑇, the frequency 𝑓 = or the angular frequency 𝑤 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋/𝑇 of a given
𝑇
sinusoidal or complex exponential signal, it is always helpful to write it in any of the following
forms
sin(𝑤𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) = sin(2𝜋𝑡/𝑇)

The fundamental frequency of a signal is the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of all the frequency
components contained in a signal and equivalently, the fundamental period is the Least Common
Multiple (LCM) of all individual periods of the components.
Example 1
Find the fundamental frequency of the following continuous signal
𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟓𝝅
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( 𝒕)
𝟑 𝟒
The frequencies and periods of the two terms are, respectively,
𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟓 𝟑
𝒘𝟏 = , 𝒇𝟏 = , 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟑 𝟑 𝟓
𝟓𝝅 𝟓 𝟖
and 𝒘𝟐 = , 𝒇𝟐 = , 𝑻𝟐 =
𝟒 𝟖 𝟓
The fundamental frequency 𝒇𝟎 is the GCD of 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟓/𝟑 and 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓/𝟖
𝟓 𝟓 𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟓
𝒇𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 ( , ) = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 ( , ) =
𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝟑 𝟖
Alternatively, the period of the fundamental 𝑻𝟎 is the LCM of 𝑻𝟏 = and 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟓 𝟓
𝟑 𝟖 𝟐𝟒
𝑻𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 ( , ) =
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓
𝟐𝝅 𝟓𝝅
Now we get 𝒘𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟎 = = and the signal can be written as
𝑻𝟎 𝟏𝟐

𝟓𝝅 𝟓𝝅
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟖 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟑 𝒕) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟖𝒘𝟎 𝒕) + 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝒘𝟎 𝒕)
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
i.e., the two terms are the 3rd and 8th harmonic of the fundamental frequency 𝒘𝟎 , respectively.
Fundamental Period of Discrete Time Signals
Example 2 5𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥 [𝑛] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛)
6 4
The Least-Common-Multiplier of the denominator is 12. Therefore
10𝜋 9𝜋
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛)
12 12
𝜋 2𝜋
Hence, the fundamental frequency is 𝑤0 =
12, the fundamental period is N = 𝑤0
= 24 and the two
terms are the 9th and 10th harmonic of the fundamental frequency 𝑤0 .
 Interconnection of Systems

 Feedback Connection: y(t) = H2( y(t) ) + H1( x(t) )

x(t) System 1 y(t)
+ H1

System 2
H2

 In feedback connection, the system has the knowledge of output

 e.g. cruise control

M 59

System Properties
Memory vs. Memoryless Systems

 Memoryless Systems: System output y(t) depends only

on the input
p at time t, i.e. y(
y(t)) is a function of x(t).
()
 e.g. y(t)=2x(t)
 Memory Systems: System output y(t) depends on input
at past or future of the current time t, i.e. y(t) is a function
of x() where - <  <.
 Examples:
 A resistor: y(t) = R x(t)
t
1
C 
y (t )  x( )d
 A capacitor:

 A one unit delayer: y[n] = x[n-1]

n

 An accumulator:
y[n]   x[k ]
60

30
 System Properties
Invertibility

 A system is invertible if distinct inputs result in distinct outputs.

 If a system is invertible, then there exists an inverse system which
converts output of the original system to the original input
input.
 Examples:

x(t) y(t) Inverse w(t)=x(t)

System
System

n t

y (t )  4 x(t ) y[n]   x[k ]

k  
y (t )   x(t )dt

1 dy (t )
w(t )  y (t ) w[n]  y[n]  y[n  1] w(t ) 
4 dt
y (t )  x 4 (t ) Not invertible

61

System Properties
Causality

 A system is causal if the output at any time depends only on values of

the input at the present time and in the past
 Examples:
 Capacitor voltage in series RC circuit (casual)

y (t )  2 x(t  4) Non-causal

y[n]  x[ n] Non-causal (why?) (For n<0, system requires future

inputs)

y (t )  2 x(t  4) cos(t  1) Causal (why?)

 Systems of practical importance are usually casual

 However, with pre-recorded data available we do not constrain
ourselves to causal systems (or if independent variable is not time, any
example??) 1 M
y[n] 
2M  1
 x[n  k ] Averaging system in a block of data

62

31
 System Properties
Stability

 A system is stable if small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge

 More formally, a system is stable if it results in a bounded output for any
bounded input
input, ii.e.
e bounded
bounded-input/bounded-output
input/bounded output (BIBO).
(BIBO)
 If |x(t)| < k1, then |y(t)| < k2.
 Example:
t
y (t )   x(t )dt y[ n]  100 x[ n] stable
0

Ball at the base of valley Ball at the top of hill

x(t)
y(t)
y(t)
x(t)
M
1
 Averaging system: y[ n ]  
2M  1 k  M
x[ n  k ] stable

 Interest system: y[n]  1.01 y[n  1]  x[n] unstable (say x[n]=[n], y[n]
grows without bound

63

System Properties
Time-Invariance

 A system is time-invariant if the behavior and characteristics of the

system are fixed over time
 More formally: A system is time-invariant
time invariant if a delay (or a time
time-shift)
shift)
in the input signal causes the same amount of delay (or time-shift)
in the output signal, i.e.:
x(t) = x1(t-t0)  y(t) = y1(t-t0)
x[n] = x1[n-n0]  y[n] = y1[n-n0]
 Examples:
y[n]  nx[n] y (t )  x(2t ) y (t )  sin x(t )
x1[n]  y1[n]  nx1[ n]
x2 [n]  x1[n  n0 ]  y2 [n]  nx1[n  n0 ] Not TIV
TIV
y1[n  n0 ]  (n  n0 ) x1[n  n0 ]  y2 [n] (explicit operation
on time) (Ex. 1.14)
(Ex. 1.16)
(Ex. 1.15) When showing a system is not TIV, try to
Not TIV find counter examples…
64

32
 System Properties
Linearity

 A system is linear if it possesses superposition property,

i.e., weighted sum of inputs lead to weighted sum of
responses of the system to those inputs
 In other words, a system is linear if it satisfies the
properties:
 It is additivity: x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)  y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t)
 And it is homogeneity (or scaling): x(t) = a x1(t)  y(t) = a y1(t), for
a any complex constant.
 The two properties can be combined into a single
property:
 Superposition:
x(t) = a x1(t) + b x2(t)  y(t) = a y1(t) + b y2(t)
x[n] = a x1[n] + b x2[n]  y[n] = a y1[n] + b y2[n]
 How do you check linearity of a given system? 65

System Properties
Linearity

 Examples:
y[n]  2 x[n]  3
y (t )  x 2 (t ) y[n]  Re{x[n]}
x1[n]  2, x2 [n]  3
x1[n]  r[n]  js[ n]  y1[n]  r[n] x1[n]  y1[n]  2.2  3  7
x2 [n]  ax1[n]  j (r[n]  js[ n]) for a  j x2 [n]  y2 [n]  2.3  3  9
nonlinear
 x2 [n]   s[n]  jr[ n]
x1[n]  x2 [n]  2  3  5
x2 [n]  y2 [ n]   s[ n]  ay1[n]
x1[n]  x2 [n]  y1 2 [n]  2.5  3  13
y1[n]  y2 [ n]  7  9  16  y1 2 [n]
nonlinear

nonlinear

y[n]  2 x[n  1]
linear
66

33
 Superposition in LTI Systems

 For an LTI system:

 given response y(t) of the system to an input signal x(t)
 it is possible to figure out response of the system to any signal

x1(t) that can be obtained by “scaling” or “time-shifting” the input

signal x(t), i.e.:
x1(t) = a0 x(t-t0) + a1 x(t-t1) + a2 x(t-t2) + … 
y1(t) = a0 y(t-t0) + a1 y(t-t1) + a2 y(t-t2) + …
 Very useful property since it becomes possible to solve a
wider range of problems.
 This property will be basis for many other techniques
that we will cover throughout the rest of the course.

67

Superposition in LTI Systems

 Exercise: Given response y(t) of an LTI system to the input signal x(t) below,
find response of that system to the input signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown below.

x(t)
() y(t)
2
1
t t
1 -1 1

x1(t) x2(t) 4
2
2
1 3 t
t
-1
-1/2 1/2 1
68

34
 Example:

Determine whether the system could be memoryless, stable, causal, linear and time-invariant.
For all cases, justify your answers.

y  n  nx  n  1

Solution:

y  n  nx  n  1

I. It has MEMORY (Only Future values)

II. Since y  n  nx  n  1 depends only future values, it is NOT-
CAUSAL.
III.

x1[n]  y1[ n]  nx1[ n  1]

+ x2 [n]  y2 [ n]  nx2 [ n  1]
  LINEAR
 x1[n]   x2 [n]   nx1[n  1]   x2 [n  1]
 y1[n]   y2 [ n ] 

IV.
x1[n]  y1[n]
y1[n  n0 ]   n  n0  x1  n  n0   1
  n  n0  x1[ n  n0  1]

x2 [n]  x1[(n  n0 )]
y2 [n]   n  x2 [n  1]
 nx1[ n  1  n0 ]
y2 [n]  y1[n  n0 ]
 Time-variance