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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
108 views60 pagesPhysics Practical
Uploaded by
yimisa2927Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 60
Chopter 3 OHM'S LAW
EX PVEIR | MEN T
[am
To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.
[Arraratus AND MATERIALS REQUIRED
Two resistance wires (of constantan and nichrome and of about 1 m lengtin), a voltmeter (0-3 V), a
milliammeter (0-500 mA), a low resistance rheostat, two dry cells (or a battery eliminator), plug
key, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper, screw gauge and a metre scale.
[eon
According to Ohm's law, the current / flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference V applied across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature and
pressure) of the conductor remain unchanged,
Vel or V=IR or R-¥
I
where Ris the resistance of the conductor. Obviously, the graph between the current Land the applied
voltage V will be a straight line passing through the origin
_— =
Slope of I-V graph
But theresistance R of a wire of length |, area of cross-section Aand specific resistance p is given by
where ris the mean radius of the wire.
© Specific resistance, p=
Larcurr oucram
Fig. 3.1 Circuit to study I-V relationship Fig, 3.2 Assembly circuit diagram,
for a resistance wire, wm
te wire
[Lproceou cctance of the et
5 rre resistance nn in Fig. 9° +}
a Toe lg a5 sho" (conetantan wite) and Z (ee ie,
: s th Fig, 3.2 tp
4, Draw 2 jstance Wires # sin accordance with Fig.
two resi ing table #
2, Let us be rats ‘on the ee af he connecting WiTes with the help of sand pa.
Ce tion from the ends d tight connections as shown in f
MB,
insula! neat ant
3, Remove Re K and make Sox with a milliammeter mA,
the key Ké din ser
ove the lg HOM TT ire Ais connect Tg voltmeter V is joined in parale
Te resistance eae
& wet Jow resistance aa Pe eccar and the po le een connectey
se see that the postive FFT ary and the rheast connected through sop.
the patie tering ofits ower eon at the other end
ste a Teast counts of the milliammeter and the voltmeter.
fy ecard He Tang 474 07 ameter andthe voltmeter 2°60 BE eo morkithe
oe goincide with the zero mark by aéjus
7, Note that the pointer adjust their pointers
Hh: bage of the Front penal vein © scr
pero errors of the milliammeter and voltmeter
the sliding contact of the theostat at one ate
f, Insert the plug in the Dr hi see connection of the rheostat has been mas
away from oe ar current to pass through the wire. If required, slightly adjusting the
ee oo that the pointer of the milliamme’er lies exactly on same marking
graduated scale and notin between 70 markings. Note the readings of the volimet
the ammeter.
49, Now increase the current in steps Dy adi i
step note the readings of the vollmeter and the milliami
serrations Note that the pug inthe Rey is inserted only atthe time of taking a reading sh
the resistance wire does not get heated.
ew driver. Even then ify
the screw provi
error persists, note the
sting the sliding contact of the rheostat andine
meter for at least six-sets of sud
(b) To measure length of the resistance wire : Experimental wire
40. Mark sharp marks on the resistance wire at ;
the points where it just comes out of the ¥
binding terminals. Measure the length | of i
the wire between these two marks with a ' '
metre scale, keepit i
ping the wire fully stretched. 3g, 5.5 To measure lenath of a resistance wie
(0) To measure diameter of the resistance wire :
11, Find the pi
ae alae, ee of the screw gauge. Determine its
n 7
eee pele e resistance wire with screw gauge at
g bit ie wire and that also in tw: 1
‘ Perpendicular directions aq’ and bb’, as shown in Fi oo
. Find mean corrected diameter an
observed diameter.
‘14, Repeat all the above
observations f i
fn ares : for second wire B.
Record observations in a tabular form,
by applying zero correction to the ————- ¥
OlM’S LAW
A. For determination of resistances of wires A and B
Range of voltmeter= to V
Range of milliammeter=____to___s mA
Least count of voltmeter = v
Least count of milliammeter =_____s mA
Zero error for voltmeter, ¢, = Vv
Zero correction for voltmeter, c, =-e, =__A
Zero error for milliammeter, ¢, mA
Zero correction for milliammeter, c, =-e, =_ mA
Least count of metre scale = _cm
Length of the resistance wire, |=___cm
Table 3.1 ; Voltmeter and milliammeter readings
| Wottmeter reading V(¥) | _—_Milliammeter reading 1 (mA) _
SNo. | observed ¥, oe Observed I’, ie l
7 t
Wire A 2
3.
1
Wire B 2
3.
Choosing suitable scales, plot
current-voltage graphs by taking
corrected values of V along X-axis
and corrected values of | along
Y-axis for both wires A and 8. We
obtain straight line graphs passing
through the origin, as shown in
Fig. 35 and 3.6, respectively.
From V-1 graph for wire A
Slope of the graph 4
paveac. Mach
zy
ey
(h,-1,)x103A
= Q
Fig. 3.5 Graph between current J and potential difference V for wire A. hopter 3. OM'S LAW
For wite B:
Mean observed diameter, dy = om
Mean corrected diameter, d=d,sc~ cm
Mean radius of the resistance wire, r=. em = m
piemumeeeanea ot Wemstenalotthe wire, pe 2t™™ Gn
Standard value from the lable of specific resistances, py =__Om
% Error =P Posy)
Po
[sesuir
1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference
across its ends.
2. Specific resistance of wire A=___ Om
3. Specific resistance of wire B= m
[precautions
1, All the connections should be neat and tight
2 The ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned with a sand paper.
4. The resistance wire should be wound on a card-board strip (~3 cm x 6 cm) so that two distant
points on it may not get short-circuited
A Aruneler should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel withthe circuit. The pointers
of the ammeter and the voltmeter should be adjusted for zero devlection when no current passes
through them. 1Fit is not possible, then zero corrections should be determined for the two meters,
$+ Always connect the positive terminals of the ammeter and voltmeter to the positive terminal
of the battery, so that current enters at a #ve terminal and leaves at a -ve terminal
6. Use a low resistance rheostat to change the current and not a resistance box as smooth
variation of current is Possible only with a rheostat and not with a resistance box.
7. The ammeter and voltmeter used should be of suitable range. For low currents, a
milliammeter should be used
Current should be passed fora short time only while taking a set of readings, otherwise the
resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating,
9. The length of only that portion of the experimental wire should be measured which lies
outside the binding terminals,
30, ds the diameter of the wire is a small quantity and its second power occurs in the expression
for specific resistance, it should be measured accurately at a number of places along the
Jength of the wire and that also along two mutually perpendicular directiens
[sources ‘OF ERROR
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section
2 Resistance of the wire may change due to excessive heating.
$ There may be an erzor in the measurement of length [if the wire isnot taut or itis not along
the scale in the metre bridge
4. There may be an error in the measurement of radius of the wire due to backlash error in the
screw gauge. MANU
- resistances have Ben cone
= nts Aand B therefore, poteninr”
connected ye same tWO PO" "
ances are the the ees each of them. By Ohms i,
renter of rene ge su IME yi sae a On vidual resistances yy
since all the
ald,
‘when @
eae quent resistance currents through 1 a F
individual resistance 44 shows (h ee. 1, * =
Parallel. Figure “ lel 2 R R.
Resistancet in Faraley aes 1 2 ;
resistances Ry Lan at ¥ be the poten! i R, is the equivalent resistance of the p,
between points ne combination. Fs fe must have alg
difference applied actor es combination, ey
R,
ia l=ht+hth
or
or
‘Thus, when a number of resistances are cone,
paral, the reciprocal ofthe equioalent resstnce 9
rael combination is equal to the sum of the reciproc
the individual resistances.
Teh +ht+h
sail
(EXPERIMENT
Law ;
ii rr me
[Lprpararus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, a resistance wire about 1m long, (of material ix
resistance is to be determined), resistance box, a dry cell (or a battery eliminator), plug ke)
jockey, connecting wires, sand paper and a screw gauge.
Linton
With the known resistance Pin the left i
3 gap and the unknown resistance Sin the right gap 0!
metre bridge, suppose the null point Bis obtained at a distance of | cm from the left end By
Principle of Wheatstone bridge,
aR
a8
& Seetatis ote ABR
Resistance of wire BC §
i. eR
ques Resistance « Length of "" Chopter 4» METRE BRIDGE
Larcurr DIAGRAMS
Galvanometer (Sf
Fig, 4.5 Measurement of resistance by 2 metre bridge
Lrroceou RE
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 4.5(a),
2, Assemble the required apparatus on the working table in accordance with Fig, 4.5(b),
3, Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
4. Connect the resistance box R.B. across the left gap ab and the unknown resistance $ across
the right gap a,b, of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer
between the points Band D, Connect a dry cell between the points A and C through a plug
key K. This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge shown in Fig, 4.5(0).
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box
RB. and insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the
Tight end C of the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite
directions. If there is one-sided deflection, check up the circuit again, particularly the
continuity of the junctions. yar PHYSICS
AB MAN
tance box so that when the jockey is n.,
eer ere is no deflec
from the Tes! visions), ther n lection
nce B romen 30-70 m divi glia wales Ale
F the null point B from the
ol
tion :
istance box ma
Fe ind ite asflactton gets out of senle, 2 shu
from
introduced , wth
na : through the gotoanomnete™ a, valoanometer for obtaining a p
- ° s oi ct balance poin'
Se Tae Sa Tr oraining te exact Balance P
a changing slightly the value of resistan.
- n divisions.
ogc jes between 30 - 70 cm division
ye
7. Repeat the experimen
taking care
8, Record all the observations !
LLosservarions AND CALCULATIONS
Table 4.1: Resistan
na tabular form.
ce of the given wire
a
LengthBC = (100-1)
(em)
Mean value of S=___
[assur
Resistance of the given wire = ce
[ erecautions
1. All the connections should be neat and tight.
2, The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting
| 3, The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage te
uniformity of the metre bridge wire.
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire am
reverse order should be followed at the time of break.
" a the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
current iT ‘i
ee eeu ge bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essen
7. The known resistance R ;
Maer ene see always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the nul por
8. The galvanometer shou
(aoa ees Ree a Tow resistance wire toavoid excessive cure!
4 m: en the brid i ust be
removed while getting the exact balance GA ge is not balanced. The shunt mu
[ sources oF Error
1. The bridge wire ma
ay not be if
* oe ection along its entire length hopter 4. METRE BRIDGE
ry 2. End corrections. The resistance offered by the copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire
\ are called ond resistances, errors due to these resistances are called end errors and corrections are
‘end corrections. To avoid this error, the balance point should be obtained near the midpoint of
called
tances Rand &
the wire. This error can be totally eliminated by interchanging positions of resis
3, Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
4. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero
by gently moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a serew driver.
me He «
al
EXPERIMENT
Jam
“To verify the law of series combination of resistances using a metre bridge.
[Larraratus ano Materiat ReguineD
‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two
resistance coils R, and R,),a resistance box, ajockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper
Lory
(@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the
unknown resistance $(R, or R, or series combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the metre
bridge, suppose the balance point is obtained at a distance / cm from the left end, then the
unknown resistance is given by
s(t)
(@) Law of series combination of resistances. When two resistances R, and R, are connected in
series, their equivalent resistance R, is given by: R, = R, + R,
Lircurr piacram
€
“
fo
R
| t Si
per anne ate sn Pe asc
? a0
ms Jockey | u
Co
if ae a Ls
Fig, 4.6 Circuit to study law of resistances in series, ap Mal
i 46 and ass
as shown i Fi
: ingly’
working table 6 ve RB. across HE jeft gap #2
‘connect a jockey anda s
the points 4 an
the points Band D pee et ne resist
the jockey @'
from the resistance pox RB. in sud
‘AC Note the
gets of observations BY SU
across the right 6@P aby
sets of observations for Te
6 Now connect both the and R, in seri
across the right gap 4b that the effective length
Mat at the point where the {WO wires are j
‘unchanged. This means
ve the ends that were ingerted into the
of observations
twisted together. Take three sets
4, Record your all observations in a tabular form.
[Losscrvations AND CALCULATIONS
Table 4.2 : For determining resist
sistance R,.
ances R,, R, and R,
the omnton 2 ist res tthe left end Aand then a4
at prose Mwo cases should be in opposite direc te
sa way that the balance p, ie
yas cl the resistance R and un
ightly changing teas
cemble the required apparaty
8 Ont
nd the unknown resistance R,
nitive galvanometer ben
.d C through plug k ae
ance R from the resistance,
in place of resistance Ry. Obtain
es (end to end), as shown in Fig, 4
each resistance wire rei
ing
joined end to end, th
pinding terminals in steps 5 and 6 shou
for the null point of this tel *
Length Length
AB=1 | BC =(100-1)
; (cm) (em)
ree Ae
3.
R=_ a
& 2,
3.
Ry and | 1 :
a
in series |_ 3.
2
Experimental vahi i
ie of series combination of resistances R .
= Q
Theoretical value
of seri nati
ies combination of resistances R! =R, +R
Bae wot ait hopter 4 METRE BRIDGE
[parcauions
4. All the connections should be neat and tight
2, The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting,
them.
43. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, as otherwise it will damage the
uniformity of the metre bridge wire
4. The battery circuit should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire and
reverse order should be followed at the time of break
'5. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
6 The current through the bridge wire should be passed for only as much time as is essential
for getting a null point
7. The known resistance R should always be adjusted in such a way so as to get the null point
between 30-70 cm divisions.
8 The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive current and
hhence out of scale deflection in it when the bridge is not balanced. The shunt must be
removed while getting the exact null point
9, Ensure that the same lengths of resistance wires R, and R, are used for determining R, as
have been used for determining R, and R, individually.
[ sources oF Error
1. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length
2. There may be end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire
3 Due to prolonged flow of current, the resistance wires may get heated up and their
resistances may change.
4. The effective lengths of the resistance wires used while measuring R, may not be exactly
same as those used while measuring R, and R, individually
ra YF va
—
EXPERIMENT
of resistances using a metre bridge.
Larparatus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED.
A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two resistance wires about 50 cm each (or two
‘resistance coils R, and R,),a resistance box, a jockey, a plug key, a dry cell or battery eliminator,
thick connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
(@) Measurement of unknown resistance. With the known resistance R in the left gap and the
resistance $(R, or R, or parallel combination of R, and R,) in the right gap of the a. veg waite?
multimeter is an instrument designed to measure
a the currents, potential difference and
senate over several FAN ges
phat i another name for multimeter?
‘avo meter because itis used to measure amperes,
volisand ohms.
why does the 20 We seale Hie at extreme
High whl the eros of curtont and voltage scales
afoxteome let?
‘This is because when resistance is minimum, current
jgmaximum and the pointer lies at the extreme right.
4 Can the mensurement of de voltage/current be done
(deqacvellage/current anction ? Justify your answer
We can measure de on ac setting, The rectifier in the
‘multimeter converts ac into de. However, de will be
‘ero ifthe polarity is reversed
Thediyisions of currentaind volta
shaw whereas those of resistance
jn size for higher yalues of resistance. Why
‘An ohmmeter measures resistance by measuring the
‘current through the resistor when a known voltage is
Since resistance = voltage/current, so ohms
‘ue inversely proportional to current, That is why the
| ghauneter seale is non-linear that senses the current.
ale goon decreasing
ABCa lel Te Y.
Jan
. While measuring feststance why di inte
1. Why is the adjustment of »
Section A : ACTIVITIES
deflect ever when. ni mr mi
connected to the multimet
When 0 multimeter is set in resistance measuring
mode, a battery of 3 V gets connected within the
multimeter which sends the current through the coil
and deflects the pointer.
measuring resistance by a multimeter
When the metal ends of the multimeter leads are
touched, the multimeter should show zero resistance.
Ifit is not so, then its pointer is adjusted to zero using
‘zero Adj knob’ on the multimeter. If it is not done the
resistance measurements are not reliable,
How can we check the continuity of any component
by using multimeter
We ean check the continuity of any component by
measuring its resistance using multimeter. An
infinite resistance across the two ends of a
component indicates a discontinuity. A very low
resistance (< 0.19) between the two ends of the
component indicates that the component has a
short-circuit
E. Fowsehold eiroult comprising three builbe, three on/off switches, a fuse
source,
[arrararus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
‘Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three on/off switches, a socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible
connecting wires, main switch.
[tirory
1. Ahousehold circuit works on ac mains of 220 V, 50 Hz. From the mains we get two supplies
of different current ratings »
(Light tine of 5 A for low power appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans, fluorescent tubes,
ete.
(i) Power line of 15 A for heavy duty appliances like room heater, aif conditioner, geysers,
hot plates, ete.
iii
4 “5
ve currents, a fuse of r
vn the mais E
cure 1 to excess 0
ec apanss damage os ormected in series with the live wire
To protect the ly drawn
nor ;
higher than en live and neutral wires, Bac a
re of powet in peal ere E app
e wi
res any Yeakage of current t0 the metalic
ar the earth wire (zer0 volt) and the as
Jicircurr Diacram
i Gr
a Earth
Neutral wire
_} wire
diagram for household appliances.
TJ, Les
lens ee gO om
pe
Fig, 8 Greuit
[LProcepure
4. As shown in Fig. 8, connect the three bulbs B,, B, and B; separately in series combina
as aaiott switches, Sy and S, respectively.
+. Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral vires
4, Connect a fuse F of proper rating in the live wire of the circuit
4, Connect a thee way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from is
earth pin.
5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board.
6 By pressing the switches 5,5, and S, one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and
cif independently ofthe other.
7, Press the three switches simultaneously and note what happens.
[Lconcwusions
4. Each bulb functions independently of the other through a separate switch.
2. The three bulbs can function simultaneously with the installed fuse safely.
[precautions
1. The rating of the requit ‘
en is icin must be determined carefully by calculating the maxim
2, Never use safety fuse of ;
Never use allt fuse of mich higher rating than the current normally drawn fom
3, The safety fuse and the on/
off swi a:
4, Take care while working with nee must be connected in live wire. Section A» ACTIVITIES
Pa aplstn ces aa heusttold trey
aro afferent OF When a large number of appliances are switched on
7 >
$F in parallel to one another nia
oenete He wultaneously and they draw more current from the
ip sach appa” 5 the same constant voltage. mains than the safety limit, then this is known as
Faneeeanfunetionindependently, fone overloading, This causes heating of live wires and
Cae te is switched off, other remains unaffected, may damage the appliances, This can be avoided by
cio safety measures used in electric circuits g RC ca ae ae ree
@ mr 6 What is an electric fuse 7 What role does i
and appiianes® N dl
‘and (ii) Electric fuse. Sea carn
emthing: TU aL el 4 nn Electric fuse is a safety device to protect an electri
ky et cree from overloading and shorl-cireuiting. It i8 2
geese) 1) t piece of wire of a material of low melting point (pure
ring of an appliance means connecting the tin or tin-copper alloy) which is connected to the live
je body of a high powered appliance to the Wire in the circuit. When an excessive current flows,
Pik a salety measure which encures any the fuse melts and the circuit is broken
iesegeloe cument to the metalic bady of the 7, What is fuse rating 7 Why should a fuse of proper
applies Reepeits potential equal o that ofthe earth rating, be use a
fees vol) and the user may not get a severe shock ‘The maximum safe current allowed to pass through a
4g Whats short-cireulting in. supply line ? fuse before it melts is called fuse rating, A fuse of
Pie defective or damaged witing the live and Proper rating should be used in 2 1% uit, Ifa fuse of
higher rating is used, it will not blow and will not
protect the circuit. Ifa fuse of lower rating is used, it
‘will blow before the circuit is fully loaded,
eata wires come in direct contact, the resistance of
fe areuit becomes zero and a large current flows
the circuit, This is called short-circuiting, It
Tid Uprttl live wires ond’ may damage the | 8 What is the function of main switch in dom
It can be prevented by using an electric Why
rating: be used ?
thould a fuse of prope
The maximum safe current allowed to pass through a
fuse before it meits is called fuse rating, A fuse of
Proper rating should be used in a circuit. Ifa fuse of
higher rating is used, it will not blow and will not
Protect the circuit: Ifa fuse of lower rating is used, it
‘will blow before the circuit is fully loaded,
cites ?
‘The main switch is used to switch off the main supply
required at the time of repairing or any other
emergency.
ients of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm's law circuit used
A resistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a voltmeter (0-5 V), a battery/battery eliminator, one-way key,
theostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Lion
For assembling, the components of any circuit, it is advisable to connect the components in the
following order, 7
1. Source of power (battery/battery eliminator).
2. Plug key (near the battery).
3. Resistors, bulbs, inductors or any other load (to be connected end to end). Section A ACES
ACTivity
[om
' ‘To study the variation in potential,
7 drop with length of a wire for a steady current.
pores AND MATERIAL REQUIRED.
‘A potentiometer, a battery of three di
ry cells/battery
2A), plug key, jacket, alow resistonce sheer’ A eee Vis ane
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper
[ror
ee iia eae Sagat Principle that ia constant caret flows through a wire of
ition, yagh a wire of uniform
directly proportional to the length | the potential drop V across any length | of the wire is
VEIN OVE or k=.
: 1
Here k is the potential drop per unit length and is called potential gradient
Jorcur DIAGRAM
Fig, 10 Cixcuit to study variation in potential drop with length.
[ proceoure
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 10 and arrange the required apparatus
accordingly on the working table.
2 Connect the positive terminal of the battery 1 the end A (zero length) of the potenometet
wire and negative terminal to the end B (400 cm length), through a plug key K, ammeter A
and low resistance rheostat Rh.
3. Now connec the positive terminal ofvollmeter Vo the end Aof the potentiometer wire and
ite negative terminal tothe jockey J which can slide along the wire AB
4 Note that he poner oft wolimelrewttiezero marcwfien 7 caret is peso SATE
aoe ee Pot past ite pointer withthe help of readjustment even provided on is (Fon
panel.
5, Insert the plug in the key Kand
press the jockey J atthe extreme end Bot the posentomle:
vrine_ Adjust the sliding contact ofthe rheosta 0 that voles
shows full scale deflection. Lap MANUAL pHysicS-XI!
how zero deflection
6. Now press the jockey at point arthe voltmeter will sh
7. Now press tne ock x 40 cm (Fmt ee ame corresponding readi
1 Sie Sr oe 1022 ON
1 Aand note the potential drop ¥ ine at the anuneter nonnen
fonstant throughout Record oll Your abeervations in a tabular form Feading 4 |
9, Calculate potential gradient & =V/Lfor each observation. m,
[osseavations anP CALCULATIONS
ange of the voltmeter =0 1° ——~ vi
aatersnr onthe volsoeter = ——
Range of the ammeter =0 0 —— Ai
Least count of the ammeter = —— A
Steady current in the ammeter = ——— A
ee in potential drop with length
gan | 22a oF ee 1 oe | Potential gradient
L 0 Won)
a 40
ms 80
s 120
5 160
S 200
z 240 |
| & 280 |
9. a
10. a
1, és
Mean value of k=___ Vem
I PLOTTING GRAPH
Chater el
oosing guitable scales, plot
straight line graph is ae . a ofV cou Wy cu ws
shown in Fig, 11. axis and | along Xs
Pokenkial
gradient =Slope of V:I graph
V,-Y; oF
Potetaldidp V (val) >
ee
rssun
‘Mean value of
2 Vis. [graph is straight line which again shows that V xl
Value of potential gradient from the 8taph, k= Van?
[prcautions
1, ll connections should be neat, clean and tight
Peete inal of He anstiary battery shoutd be carwecied 10 wre of the
potentiometer wire
Se ee Mette! Prseine trrongh the pocentiometer wire must remain
aig on acer in the uxilany creat de ee
shanges, it should be readjusted with the help of the low resistance accuse
4 Zero erro, if any, in the voltmeter and ammeter should be eliminated by adjust the sc
provided at the front panel,
resistance of the potentiometer wire.
& Do not drag the jockey along the wire while moving it from one point to another. It should be
pressed gently at different positions of the wire.
[sources OF ERROR
1. The area of cross-section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform.
2. The resistance of the potentiometer wire may chanye due to heating
3. Voltmeter readings may not be accurate.
‘Se viva voce questions based on potentiometer on pages 61 and 62.
107 rsics-X
ap MANUAL
Ll
nee muy.
greit comorising at least aa
oper meter. Mark the components that are not
ee ad ee tert and circuit diagram
3
a battery, PIVB key, resistor, theostat, ammee,
sing at leas
Pres and a pacce OF sand paper
ae tis functional only if all the componen
Functional cleric oon ssouring that all lrcuit components/devices are = i.
in proper der key all components sats the property of continsty .
Open electrial cient. An open Iga micans there toa break in 20m part of the circuit. This |
‘preak may be either deliberate such as a Key left in open position or & fault such as broken wire,
t shows discontinuity for onecr |
‘more component
[crcurr Discrams ——_—e — | ——_@
Some open circuit diagrams ef gs ¥
|
are given in Fig. 12
Students are advised to aa a
mark the components g
which are not connected in
proper order. Then draw Rk iy
correct circuit diagrams i —— ew
and assemble the circuit
accordingly by connecting
components in 3
order in each case. "
—_—_@-_}
; 7
uaa a
Re | rs = J
aye “ti ae
: @)
Hig. 12 Some open circuits. ——
Section A: ACTIVITES
ouRE
1, Draw the given circuit diagram (see Fig. 12
, Inthe above diagram, mark the components
3, Make alist ofall components in the observaticy
against each component Weion able and mark (¥) in appropriate column
ye
()] in your notebook
which have not been connected in Proper order.
4, Now draw the correct circuit diagram.
ions of circuit components.
Mark a (¥) in appropriate column
Battery
Resistor
Rheostat,
Key
Ammeter
Voltmeter |
sm Gireuit component | Correct connection | tneonrect connection |
2
3.
4
5.
6
For example, in given circuit diagram of Fig, 12(b), voltmeter has been wrongly connected. To
measure resistance R, it must be connected in parallel with R. Now students should draw the
correct circuit diagram.
[resurr
The cireuit assembled by connecting components in proper order is functionally correct as
verified by passing current through it.
[precautions
1. Before making the connections, ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with
a piece of sand paper.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter in pasallc!
with it. 2
3. The positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive
‘terminal of the battery. 5 y
4 Rheostat should be connected in the circuit using its one end terminal and the other variable
terminal. '
gS The plug key should be kept open throughout. It should be closed only st the time of
checking the continuity of the circuit. acts OF ERROR
sr ‘The uprights may not be vertical
2 Parallax might not have been removed coyey,
Errors may occur in the result if the top of the o
ee fs cles and te Pole oy a tical bench is
Soncave mirror are not at the same
EXPERIMENT
[a™
“fo find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens,
‘ApparATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
An optical bench with four uprights (for holding lens, mirror and ftv ri
needles), a thin convex lens, a
convex mirror, two optical needles, a knitting needle and a halt Metre scale,
EAE PeIAF of 0 conver lens [0 real, inverted and magn cd image 1
between the
To locate the point C, the convex mirror is removed without disturbing the positions of object O and
lens L An image needle is placed at the position of image of ‘object O, formed by the convex lens and
parallax is removed between the image of object O and image needle.
oo ae
a
Lev DIAGRAMS
9.6.16 Image formed by
(0) convex mirror and convex
‘rsinage 1’ coincides with the
(tfc AB (b) convex lens-image
‘Sinverted and magnified. [ proceourt ole 6
of the e of the sun or
focal lent sharp imaB 2 dlotany
To find the 008 OO Oye ight hand omecboot) vm | |
1. Hold the conve™ f your practice e with a half
sharp image metre scale, ¥
con a wall (oF at Jens and the fonvex Hens The
the ale eee focal enh of Cauca
v
gives a rove? gost anny bet Yor I
the image he = ;
pene poth conve® Jens and convex mirror
To locate image obtained ly on te worKiNS table
ee vex mirror Min three separate uprights on,
mathe convex lens Lis greater ae
the
bench hy
3, Place the optical Jens Land the com)
he needle © £0
mmedle 0, optical centre O of lens Land the pole
P
Mat the same heieht «it necessary, 20 that areal
neil 0 nee real inverted
s Now ie poston mir msi nile self. Remove the parallax pi
‘erie O and its inverted image by adjusting the position of mirror M. Note tig
w is aeatt eaves « ‘Mon the optical bench.
‘To locate the image oblained bY using conver
6 Remove the mirror upright altogether without
Mount the second needle Tin the fourth upright
other side of the convex Jens.
4. Adjust the position of the image needle | without disturbing O and so that ther isn
he Pom tis needle [and the image of needle 0: Note Pe pellilon cliceedihl
the optical bench. ui
8 ape he experiment (eps 107) four times with different positions of m
eed
Toe 1 Record all the observations in a tabular form _~
To determine the index correction
9, Again place the upri ‘ i i
2 er i upright holding the mirror Mon the optical bench.
ae :
Imiting needle, determine the index correction between the back surface of the
mirror Mand the image needle 1.
[osstrvarions AND CALCULATIONS
Rough focal length of the convex lens = x
Reslleegi of he baiting nenile, x=
Observed length of the knitt _
y=___an 1g needle between the convex mirror and the image needle,
Index correction, ¢=1-y= ‘a
*
t
Jens only
disturbing the positions of needle O and len
and place it on the optical bench oe PHERICAL samnce:
Table 8.2 + Determination of the radius of cu
——- of curvature
Of the convex mirror
Observed radius | Corrected radivs
of curvature of curvature
Rar RoR +e
"4 sar
a imc foc eign
Slunit of power is m
i ipa
opie ts the power of @ le
two thin Tenses are separated 5
When the
ns chose prin
nee a, their equivalent Focal length fis pve)
f Ry 2 fh f fh |
[EO Lens combinations
.d_ in combinatior
1d by the prec
mn, each lens of
en lenses are use’
Ml ceding, lens
magnifies the image forme
EXPERIMENT
Lam
plotting graphs between u and v or
To find the focal length of a convex lens by
between + and +.
uy
I APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
‘An optical bench, three uprights with clamy
length less than 20 em, index neede/knitting needle
ps, two sharp-edged needles, convex lens of fat
and a half-metre scale.
[ triconyworkine Formuta
1. If an object needle is placed between f and 2f of a convex lens, its real,
mogailied image is formed beyond 2 on the other side of the lens. By placing anote
needle, called image needle there, we can locate the image of the first needle by removing
the parallax between the image and the second needle itself.
2, The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of a conve
lens is given by the thin lens formula,
eer _
fou uno
According, to new Cartesian sign convention, int
i ao
1vis negative and v is positive when a convex
lens forms a real image. Also, f is positive
for a convex lens,
{| ray inca
See Fig, 9.11
Ima
seed!
Fig. 9.
“-9.11 Ray diagram for finding the focal length of a conves le ples 9: SPHERICAL LENsEs
fn focal length of the convex lens
eer
find 10U8
ota the conver Tens in the right hand. Obta
btain
Hot wall (or atthe back of y ee aee fe
‘Our practical notebook
Measure the distance Between the lens and th ;
Mrtance gives a rough value for the focal le
nage of the sun or a di
a distant objec
sharp image
mth of the eae rh 8 hall-metze scale. This
goik Do not see the image of the sun directly ex lens,
as it may hurt your eyes,
sotest the image formed by convex Tens
4, lace the optical Dench horizontally on the workin
syount te convex Tens Lin the clamp of central a
vemaining uprights. Make the plane of the ral upright and the
paralie)t the length of the optical bench. Adjust ‘a
Piste of the Tens to the same height, Fix a small € tips of the two needles and the optica
needle O. piece of white al
Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece se
rough focal length and twice the ciel ae ee Te alicistarces eal to
6 lac the object needle O between and 2F but closer to2F L 1, respectively
form azeal, inverted ancl magnified image on the other side ofthe a eae et
the needle 1 tll its tip coincides with the tip of the image anne
forward or backward, remove the parallax between the eee |
itself. Note the positions of the three uprights on the scale af ae ae
+. Now move the object needle 2 cm closer to the lens Land locate the A os
maze Moving the object needle close to the lens Leach time, take tee or pees a
tendings. Check that the object needle always remains beisveen F and? gee ot
4
two needles O and I in th
al so that its principal axis become
Paper on the tip of the object
[Note that the image moves away from the lens ns the object neale moves closer fo the lens and vice versa,
4 Record all these observations in a tabular form, Find v and vin each case
4, Write the observations at serial numbers 4-6 by just interchanging the values of u and vin
qbservations at serial numbers 1-3. This makes use of the property of conjugate foc
To determine the index correction
10, Measure the length of the index/knitting needle with a half-metre scale, Let it be x em
11, Hold the knitting needle between the centre of the convex lens and the tip of the object
needle O, Read the distance between the two uprights on the scale on the optical bench. Let it
‘be ym, Determine the index correction (a4) for the object distance
12. Now hold the knitting needle between the centre of the lens and tip of the image needle 1
Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be z cm. Determine the index correction
(x-z) for the image distance 0
13. After adding, the respective index corrections,
find the values of 7 and -, in each cave
record the corrected values of wand» Also
[otseevarions AND CALCULATIONS
om
Rough focal length of the convex lens = ——
at =
131
Actual length of the needle, «= _— —————
siCs-Xl
tas MANUAL PHYSIC |
Observ die and the convex lens, y
eon object need
ey fe and the convex lens
sth of the knitting Ne in
SE ee or he kittingneedieberveen e
Observed length of # — |
Index correction for object distanc es. |
ve distance ©
Index correction for image dista and f for the convex lens
Table 9.1; Determination Ca a
fae eee 2 te
S.No. Se an. com) | om | bag
needle | lens L | needle F pad —|texs"| J
(en) | (co)_| (om) | }
| |
|
None ene
Mean value of f =___cm
"NDIE Uae the tandard table of recprocas for writing the valves of wand e
Determination of fby Graphical Methods
1. Focal length from graph between 1 and x. Choosing a suitable and same scale for both
axes, plot the s-v graph by taking the #-valués along, X-axis and v-values along
‘Y-axis because is negative aid v is positive in this experiment according to the Cartesian sign
‘convention. As the values of and vare greater than the focal length, the origin Oshould be given
i a value close to the rough focal length on both the axes which enables us to choose a larger scale
for the graph. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in Fig, 9.12
Draw a line from the origin O making
an angle of 45° with the X-axis. It meets 1-0 graph for a convex lens
the -v graph at point P. Obviously, for
any point on this line
Mean value of f=____em
Tig. 9.12 Graph between u and v for a convex lens. Chapter 9 SPHERICAL Lenses
sToesing i Axes, mark the values of y
ae alot postive Recor ies nesjoining the points u,,
Og points», M20 s,ete; Of the Y
pines OF, these ines rect 8 common p.
coordinates (~f, f) so,
wxis, [See Fig. 9.13)"
int Owhich should a
tag MANUAL pxysics-*
[| precautions ena ae paral ote rh F theo
4. The principal axis ofthe lens ghould be horiz rag
t. The uprights should be rigid and
4, The tipe of the object and imaBe n
adjusted at the same heis! bene
4. To locate the position of the image, the eve mus
the image needle.
vertical
e ical centre of the conve
ew vere the convex lens ng
eld at a distance of about 36 ,
behing
5. Parallax must be removed tip 10 HP: ;
Fer eteira for scan oust Po carefully determined and correctly applied
vi not be placed between the forus and the optical centre of he :
he eng I
7, The object needle shou!
because it produces only 2
8. The object needle should be
white paper over it
9, ‘The object and image n
10, The values of wand 0 shou!
of f-
+ [[ sources oF Enron
4, The uprights may not be vertical
2. Parallax might not have been removed completely
§. Errors may oceur in the result if the top of the optica! bench ig not horizontal and if the
if the two optical needles and the optical centre of the convex (ete ato not at thee,
horizontal level.
vyirtual image:
distinguished from the image needle by fixing a small pic
cadles should not be interchanged during the course of the exporim,
et
Idnot differ much, This minimises the error in the determina
DK DG
EXPERIMENT
fam
Li tit fa ce is sn comes
[ppparatus AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
An optical bench with f i i
omens i eee geaepial needles (one thin and one thick), a thin concave
eng cree ergo al ene }) smaller than that of the concave lens, index/knittin,
[taeonyworkine FORMULA
A concave lens alwa i
ys forms a virtual and erect i
accurately. The difficulty is overcom | erect image. So its focal length termi
concave lens and ei im: by interposing a convex lens a tears and ‘
age.
oe Ficlets fier Ea For this the focal length of the convex lens must be snl
be the real i
; real image of the obj
interposed between the lens bject O formed by a convex | i
‘ lens L,. conca'
1 and image 1,, the rays after pe a a Chapter 9 SPHERICAL LENsEs
ve lens 1p 40 that the real image ig shifted
by the eonea! away from the convex lens to
J The image 1y Serves asa virtual object for the concn’ Hens Which forms real imoge 1,
ss
this 08°
Object distance =u 1,1, ; Image distance «y= 1,1, |
_f of the concave lens can be determined from the thin lens, formula, |
aed
|
ptr concen Mess} are poate ar w « f 00 f 19 negative
converging combination with the
must be Joss than that of concave lens.
the sun or a distant object. ag MANUAL PHYS
sm the convex [ens han itaf
wo at-a distance sf the lens by removin, 4
Adjust the object needle 7G the ther ide of the fens BY removing Parallax i,t
(tei el mere PME, ie 1 Note the positions of object needle O, Jon, 6m
cates ra the second ECL a) bench my
ee As on the scale of the optical . i
image needle | on vex and concave lenses
locate th formed by the combination of convex and ca ie
To locate the image ir interpose it between the conver |
ts upright an : lens
6 Mount the concave lene Fin cave let Fairly elose to needle I. It willbe fou u
image edie [Fist KOE 1 Sj te comes jens. Bring the concave lens qj
1 is fairly larBe- :
> tip parall
real inverted image
the convex lens unti
7. Now shift the needle [te
the two. See that the post
the second part of the experimen’
8, Repeat the experiment three oF
relitive to convex lens L, or that of obje
the image 1, formed by the combination ™
distinctly visible, try to locate it by bringing concave
In any case, the object needle O must lie between F an
these observations in a tabular form.
1, by it, by removing Ui
1 this shift |
2X betnee |
renner iene te 10% data
focate the image
abject necdle
‘positions of concave
‘oar times by changing the position of concave len
‘relative to convex lens L, or both, j.
ct needle
f convex and concave lenses is blurred
ens closer to the position of iman
image
2 F of the convex lens. Ri
cond 4
lens L, and the image ""
Oand #
ons of the
1, Note the
To determine the index correction
jedle with a half-metre scale. Let it be
xem,
9, Measure the length of the index/knitting ne
40. Hold the knitting needle between the centre of
rede 1. Note the distance between the two uprights. Let it be y cm. The index correctig
ction for
both the object distance u and image distance v will be, e=x—y
f the concave lens L, and the tip of th
imap
[ osservarions ano Carcutations
Rough focal length of the convex lens 1,
‘Actual length of the knitting needle, x=___cm
Observed length of the knitting needle between concave lens L, and image needle 1, y
2 Ty om
om
cm.
Index correction for both wand v, ¢=x—y
‘Table 9.2 ; Determination of u, v and f for convex lens
Corrected distances |Foat eng
Positions of uprights
Concave} First | Second w
lens Z, |image 7, | image =v] w=uw' or Wises
feat [en | fon)? aims cel
on of a beam of light incident obiquely on
te *
gular glass slab (preferably of larger size), a drawi
P ), a drawing board, white paper sheet,
[drawing pins, alpins, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil and eraser,
e E. por oe Path ABCD of a ray suffering refraction through a rectangular glass slab
‘Fig. 5 Refraction through 2 glass slab.
i to the incident ray AB But the emergent ray gets laterally
Bice ray, The perpendicular distance between the incident and
hen light is inci abliquely ona refracting slab with paral faces called lateral shift
1d by a glass slab increases with
se in thickness tof glass slab,
ae the value of angle of incidence and
“refractive index 1 of the glass slab. 1. Fixa white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing Pits
2. Place the glass slab breadthwise on the white sheet [Fig. 6(a)]. Mark its boundary PQRS with *®
sharp pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab. Take a point B, on face AB Draw normal BN, on PQ With the help of *
protractor, draw an incident ray 4, B, making an angle of incidence of 40° with the normal 5, 8
4. Again, place the glass slab within its boundary PORS. Fix two alpins P, and P, vertically &
the incident ray A, B,, about 8 to 10 cm apart.
5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face SP, position the eye in such a way that the feet
pins P, and P, appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P, and P, vertically le
with pins P, and P, as viewed through the slab.
6. Remove the alpins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the path o!
‘ray of light 4, B,C, D,.Draw perpendicular C,E, on A,B, produced and measure the lenet*
of C,E,. This gives a measure of lateral displacement d.
7. Place the glass slab |engthwise as shown in Fig. 6(b). Repeat the experiment for the same
angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
8. Place the glass slab thicknesswise as shown in |. Repeat the experiment for the
pie atte bekconen Awe ovat aogier =.
9. By placing the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Figs, 6(4) and (c), repeat the experiment 8°
for anges of incidence of 50° and 6°. Measure the laters! cioplacerent in cach cote Section B ACTIVITIES
the length, breadth
ae and thickn
jons in a tabular form, ess of the glass slab using a ruler. Record all your
IS AND CALCULATIONS
of the protractor — eis
Se cm; Leng
.. ie igth of the glass slab, t, cm
Blass ett; Thickness of the glass slab, 1, cm
Angle of incidence | Angle of
emergence | Difference i~ e | taterat iy
HU Casgrees) € (degrees (degrees) Se ratio 2
oe aaa
:
40° 4,
4, © =
a ieee Ee
5 Ie
50" i |
60° : |
rence i~ ¢is small, so i=e When light refracts through a glass sleb, the emergent ray
sl to the direction of incident ray.
limits of experimental error, from observations 1, 2 and 3 we see that the ratio
tant. The lateral displacement of the emergent ray is directly proportional to the
, of the glass slab (for constant ).
evations 2, 4 and5, we note the lateral displacement of the emergent ray increases
se in the angle of incidence i (for constant #)-
of the glass slab should be marked with a sharp pencil.
be fixed vertically and about 8 to 10 cm apart.
¢ the alpins and not their heads should be adjusted in the same straight line.
er removing an alpin, encircle the pin-prick with a sharp pencil.
‘of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°
fence, the lateral, shift
3. For what) angie of incids
ed if ss slab is zero?
prostucel By 2 parallel sided sla
For r= 0"; lateral shift is 7er0.
{ incidence, the lateral, shilt
1 sided glass lab is maximum ?
4 Ror what angle Oo!
produced by a paral
sor 1 = 907, lateral shift is
tees sickness of the glass slab.
and is equal 10 Section B - Activities
edges of the two blades should be held
es Parallel and quite close to each oth
electric bulb should be held at a distan meas
lee more than 2 m form the slit
fraction is prominent when we use a narrow slit
‘of bending of light around the having parallel edges. Such a slit can be obtained by
‘obstacles or apertures and its using two blades and not by using two fingers
5: Why does the intensity of secondary maximum
become less as compared fo central maximum
The central maximum is due to the constructive
interference of wavelets from all parts ofthe slit. With
the increase in the value of n, the wavelets from lesser
and lesser parts of the slit produce constructive
interference to form a secondary maximum. Hence
the intensity of secondary maximum decreases with
the increase in the value of
nent through a
a slit formed
Ave TVA y
‘by a convex lens on a screen by
Ma atanees ofthe candle om the lens).
ERI £D
Ee eee a convex lens of smal focal length, a conde a cardboart
tre scale and a match box. LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XIl
[tutory
The position, nature and size of image formed by é
object with respect to the lens. Following ray diagrams show the various
‘a convex lens depends on the position of the
possible cases,
(f Object between F and optical centre
ig. 9 The position, nature and size ofthe image 4'8' formed by a convex lens for different positions of object AB.
l WORKING DIAGRAMS:
i Screen |
in Iinage
z a £ (\ |
F 2 a 2F
=
Ove
e Object
@
‘ 0
v
)
Fig 10 Real images of Ughted candle fora conver lens: a) u- f?
be the effective value of the combination ? When the lenses are placed d distance apart, ‘he
Here f,=+20cm, f,=~10cm formula
(1 au
pe AIO oy ee
ae % Sir a
2 fa conver lens is dipped completely in water, what Nill not be valid
will be the effect on its focel length ? ‘The modified formula is
1
Tera
“The refractive index of glass with respect to water is.
Jess than the refractive index of glass with respect to. =
air Le, “Hg
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