Machine

Lecture 3:

Transformer
 What is a Transformer?

• A transformer is a static electrical machine which

transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
without changing the frequency.

• A transformer is a static electrical machine which raises

or lowers voltage or current at the same frequency.

• It works on the principle of MUTUAL INDUCTION.

 Transformer
• It consists of two windings insulated from each other
and wound on a common core made up of a magnetic
material.
• AC voltage is connected across one of the windings
called primary winding.
• Load is connected to the other winding called the
secondary winding.
• In both windings, EMF is induced by electromagnetic
induction.
 Principle of operation
• It is based on principle of MUTUAL INDUCTION.
According to which an e.m.f. is induced in a coil
when current in the neighbouring coil changes.
 Constructional details
• Main Components of a Transformer are,
 Magnetic core
 Primary & Secondary windings
 Insulation of windings
 Conservator tank & Explosion vent
 Bushings
 Buchholz relay
 Breather
 Cooling arrangements
 Magnetic Core
• Magnetic circuit consists of an iron core.
• Core is made up of stacks of thin laminations (0.35mm
thickness) of Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon
steel.
• These laminations are lightly insulated with varnish.
• Two types of magnetic circuit are core type and shell type.
Magnetic Core
 Core type construction
• In the core type, the windings are wound around two
legs of a rectangular magnetic core.

• Windings surround the core & it has only one

magnetic path
 Shell type construction
• In shell type, the windings are wound around the
center leg of a three-legged core

• Core surrounds the windings

 Windings

• A transformer has two windings namely primary and

secondary.

• These windings consist of a series of turns called

coils, wound around the core.

• Transformer windings are made of solid or stranded

copper or aluminium strip conductors.
 Conservator and Explosion Vent
• Conservator is used to provide adequate space for the
expansion of oil when transformer is loaded or when
ambient temperature changes.

• Explosion Vent is used to discharge excess pressure

developed inside the transformer during loading, to the
atmosphere.
 Breather
• It sucks the moisture from the air which is taken by
transformer so that dry air is taken by transformer
 Bushings
• Transformers are connected to high
voltage lines.
• Extreme care should be taken to
prevent the conductors touching the
transformer tank.
• So the connections in and out of
the transformer are made by the use
of bushings.
• Bushings are normally porcelain
insulators.
 Buchholz Relay

• It is a safety device connected between main tank

and conservator tank.

• In case of slow developing faults, it sounds an alarm

to alert the operator.

• If serious fault occur in the transformer, it

disconnects the transformer to protect it.
 Losses in a Transformer
• The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;
Core or Iron losses and Copper losses
• Core or Iron losses: This loss consists of hysteresis and eddy
current loss and occur in the transformer core due to the
alternating flux.
• These losses can be determined by open-circuit test.
16
Hysteresis loss, Ph = K h Bmax f v watts
2
Eddy current loss, Pe = K e Bmax f 2 t 2 v watts
• Both the above losses depend on Bm and frequency which are
constant.
• Hence, core or iron losses are practically the same at all loads.
 Copper losses (PC)
• These losses occur in both the primary and
secondary windings due to their ohmic resistance.
• These losses can be determined by short-circuit
test.
𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2 = 𝐼12 𝑅01 = 𝐼22 𝑅02
• Copper losses vary as the square of load current.
• Copper losses account for about 90% of the total
losses.
 Summary

Core loss Copper loss or I2R loss

It is the Constant loss It is a variable loss

Does not change even Also called as I2R loss

as the load current Proportional to square of

changes the load current

Occurs in the winding

Proportional to supply
resistances
voltage and frequency
It is dissipated as heat
Impedance Ratio
 Shifting Impedances

• When transferring resistance or reactance from

primary to secondary, multiply it by K2.

• When transferring resistance or reactance from

secondary to primary, divide it by K2
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary
Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary
Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to
Secondary Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to
Secondary Side
 Testing of Transformers

• The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage

regulation of a transformer can be determined
by two simple tests.
(i) Open-circuit test
(ii) Short-circuit lest
 Open Circuit Test
 This test is conducted to determine R0 & X0
 Rated voltage is applied on LV side & HV side is kept open.
 At no load, current taken by the transformer is 3-5% of full
load current. So I2R loss is negligible.
 Therefore power consumed by the transformer on no load is
considered as core loss.
 Open Circuit Test
Data observed from the test
 Supply voltage = V0 volts
 No load current = I0 amps
 Iron losses = W0 watts
W0 = V0I0 CosФ0
CosФ0 = W0/(V0I0)
IW = I0 CosФ0
Im = I0 SinФ0
R0 = V1/IW
X0 = V1/Im
 Short Circuit Test
 This test is conducted to determine R02 & X02
 LV side of the Tfr is short circuited & the test is conducted
on HV side.
 A low voltage is applied on the HV side to circulate the
rated current on both the windings.
 Power drawn during this test is considered as copper loss.
 Short Circuit Test
Data observed from the test
 Applied voltage = VSC volts
 Short circuit current = ISC amps
 Copper losses = WSC watts
WSC = ISC2R02

R02= WSC/ISC2

Z02=VSC/ISC

X02=[Z022-R022]1/2
 Efficiency
• F.L. Iron loss = Pi ...from open-circuit test

• F.L. Cu loss = PC ...from short-circuit test

• Total losses = Pi + PC

• Full-load efficiency of the transformer at any p.f.

Full load VA × P. F
F. L. efficiency, ηfl =
Full load VA × P. F + Pi + PC
 Efficiency
• At any load (X times full-load), the total losses
will be
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑋 2 𝑃𝐶
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝜂𝑋

(𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹)
=
𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑋 2 𝑃𝐶

• Note that iron loss remains the same at all loads.

 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary,
then,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼22 . 𝑅02
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝐶

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝐼22 . 𝑅02

𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑃𝑖
𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2 + + 𝐼2 . 𝑅02
𝐼2
 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
𝑑
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝐼2

𝑑 Pi
V2 cos Φ2 + + I2 . R 02 = 0
𝑑𝐼2 I2

𝑃𝑖
0 − 2 + R 02 = 0
𝐼2
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼22 R 02

• i.e, Iron loss = Copper loss

 Condition for Maximum Efficiency
• Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum
when copper losses are equal to iron losses.

• From above equation, the load current I2

corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by,

𝑃𝑖
𝐼2 =
R 02
 Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum
Efficiency
• PC = Copper losses at full-load kVA
• Pi = Iron losses
• X = Fraction of full-load kVA at which efficiency is
maximum
• Total Cu losses = X2 PC
• For maximum efficiency, Pi = X2 PC
Pi
∴ X=
PC
 Output kVA Corresponding to
Maximum Efficiency
Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency
= 𝑋 × Full load kVA
Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency

Pi
= Full load kVA ×
PC

• It may be noted that the value of kVA, at which the efficiency

is maximum, is independent of p.f. of the load.
 Voltage Regulation
• Change in secondary terminal voltage, when full load at
a given power factor and at rated voltage is thrown off,
is expressed as a percentage of rated terminal voltage.

• The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load

to full load expressed as a percentage of full load
voltage.

𝑽𝟐 𝑵.𝑳 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
% 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
 Voltage Regulation at Different Power
factors
• Voltage regulation for lagging p.f at load X,
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 + 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐

= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
• Voltage regulation at leading p.f at load X,
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 − 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐

= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
• Voltage regulation at Unity p.f at load X,
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 . 𝑹𝟎𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐