Unit -3

Memory is the main component of every system that stores data and instructions. A computer's
memory is mainly categorized into two types: primary and secondary memory. Primary memory
is the main memory of the system, and it is often random access memory (RAM) and is used to
store data that the CPU requires quick access to. Secondary memory is the additional memory of
the system. It is used to store the data that the CPU does not require immediate access to, which is
typically in the form of hard drives, solid-state drives, or detachable storage devices (such as USB
drives).

Memory system can be divided into 4 categories:

 CPU register
 Cache memory
 Primary / Main memory
 Secondary Memory / Mass Storage
They can be represented in a hierarchical form as:

Computer Memory
1. Primary / Main memory: Primary memory is the computer memory that is directly
accessible by CPU. It is comprised of DRAM and provides the actual working space to the
processor. It holds the data and instructions that the processor is currently working on.

2. Secondary Memory / Mass Storage: The contents of the secondary memory first get
transferred to the primary memory and then are accessed by the processor, this is because the
processor does not directly interact with the secondary memory. Now, let’s see the difference
between Primary memory and Secondary memory:

Primary memory Secondary memory

Primary memory is temporary. Secondary memory is permanent.

Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly accessible

Processor/CPU. by the CPU.

Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies,

It’s always Non-volatile in nature.
RAM- volatile in nature. ROM- Non-volatile.

Secondary memory devices are less

Primary memory devices are more expensive
expensive when compared to primary
than secondary storage devices.
memory devices.

The memory devices used for primary memory The secondary memory devices are magnetic
are semiconductor memories. and optical memories.

Primary memory is also known as Main Secondary memory is also known as External
memory or Internal memory. memory or Auxiliary memory.
Primary memory Secondary memory

Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk,
PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. Magnetic Tapes, etc.

Data storage & retrieval methods

Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables; restated, pieces of data are individual
pieces of information. Data is measured, collected and reported, and analyzed, whereupon it can
be visualized using graphs or images. Data as a general concept refers to the fact that some existing
information or knowledge is represented or coded in some form suitable for better usage or
processing.

Raw data, i.e. unprocessed data, is a collection of numbers, characters; data processing commonly
occurs by stages, and the “processed data” from one stage may be considered the “raw data” of the
next. Field data is raw data that is collected in an uncontrolled in situ environment. Experimental
data is data that is generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and
recording.

Strictly speaking, data is the plural of datum, a single piece of information. In practice, however,
people use data as both the singular and plural form of the word.

DATA STORAGE

Data storage can refer to:

• Computer data storage; memory, components, devices and media that retain digital computer
data used for computing for some interval of time.

• Any data storage device; that records (stores) or retrieves (reads) information (data) from any
medium, including the medium itself.

Data storage is a general term for archiving data in electromagnetic or other forms for use by a
computer or device. Different types of data storage play different roles in a computing
environment. In addition to forms of hard data storage, there are now new options for remote data
storage, such as cloud computing, that can revolutionize the ways that users access data.

DATA RETRIEVAL

Data retrieval means obtaining data from a database management system such as ODBMS. In this
case, it is considered that data is represented in a structured way, and there is no ambiguity in data.

In order to retrieve the desired data the user present a set of criteria by a query. Then the Database
Management System (DBMS), software for managing databases, selects the demanded data from
the database. The retrieved data may be stored in a file, printed, or viewed on the screen.

A query language, such as Structured Query Language (SQL), is used to prepare the queries. SQL
is an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standardized query language developed
specifically to write database queries. Each DBMS may have its own language, but most relational
DBMSs also support SQL.

RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

Computers process information stored in their memory consisting of data storage units. Storage
devices such as CD and DVD drives are termed the external or auxiliary storage units, whereas
the principal memory devices that are immediately accessible from computers are called the
internal or main storage units, which depend on semiconductor memory chips.

There are principally two types of semiconductor memory: random-access memory (RAM) and
read-only memory (ROM). RAM is a temporary data storage region, whereas ROM assists as a
semi-permanent storage domain. If RAM is thought to be a record or memo pad, then ROM is
comparable to dictionaries and textbooks.

What is ROM

A ROM (read-only memory) is a sort of semiconductor memory technology applied where the
data is written once and then not changed. This type of memory is used where data requires to be
stored permanently, even when the power is switched, as many memory technologies lose the data
once the power is switched.
ROM can be understood as a semiconductor memory designed to hold data permanently or do not
change frequently. During normal operation, no new data can be written into ROM but data can
be read from ROM. It is a non-volatile memory that can retain information even after the power
supply is turned off.

 As against volatile memory in the non-volatile type of memory, the data is maintained in
the memory even if the power supply is removed.
 Thus we can assume that in non-volatile memory the data is stored permanently.
 As a result, this type of semiconductor memory technology is widely used for storing
programs and data that must be sustained when a computer or processor is powered down.
For illustration, the BIOS of a computer will be saved in ROM.
 Several home appliances such as rice cookers and washing machines use ROM devices to
store pre-set programs. ROM is designed specifically for reading data.
 It may be possible to erase or write data on ROM, but it takes an inordinately long time to
do so. To correct this deficiency, new kinds of devices have developed in recent years that
serve as a cross between ROM and RAM, including flash memory and EPROM.
 Depending on the technology employed in the ROM, writing the data into the ROM
initially may demand special hardware.
 Although it is often possible to modify the data, this gain requires special hardware to erase
the data ready for new data to be written in.

Types of ROM

 PROM (programmable read-only memory).

 EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory).
 EEPROM( electrically erasable programmable ROM).

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

PROM is a type of read-only memory that can be amended only once by a user. The user buys an
empty PROM and inputs the required data using a PROM program. It consists of the small fuses
inside which are burnt open during programming. It is possible to program this memory only once
and is not erasable.

Erasable & Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

It is possible to erase EPROM by exposing it to ultraviolet light for a period of up to 40 minutes.

Normally, an EPROM eraser performs this operation. An electrical charge is stored in an insulated
gate region while programming. The charge is held for more than 10 years as there is no leakage
path.

To erase this charge, ultraviolet light is passed via a quartz crystal window (lid). This process of
exposure to UV light dissipates the charge. The quartz lid is hidden with a sticker during normal
usage.

Electrically Erasable & Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be programmed and erased using electricity. It is possible to erase and reprogram it
about ten thousand times. Erasing or programming, both take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond) time.
In EEPROM, any desired location can be separately erased and programmed.

It is possible to erase EEPROMs at the rate of one byte at a time, instead of erasing the entire chip
all at once. That is why the technique of reprogramming is quite flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

 It is a non-volatile type of memory.

 This type of memory cannot be randomly modified.
 More affordable than RAMs.
 Simple to examine.
 More reliable than RAMs.
 Static and do not require refreshment.
A secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or external to
the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that enables permanent data
storage. A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage
device, tier 2 storage, or external storage. These devices store virtually all programs and
applications on a computer, including the operating system, device drivers, applications and
general user data.

The Secondary storage media can be fixed or removable. Fixed Storage media is an internal storage
medium like a hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. A storage medium that is portable and
can be taken outside the computer is termed removable storage media. The main advantage of
using secondary storage devices is:

In Secondary storage devices, the stored data might not be under the direct control of the operating
system. For example, many organizations store their archival data or critical documents on
secondary storage drives, which their main network cannot access to ensure their preservation
whenever a data breach occurs.

Since these drives do not interact directly with the main infrastructure and can be situated in a
remote or secure site, it is unlikely that a hacker may access these drives unless they're physically
stolen.

Why do we need Secondary Storage?

Computers use main memory such as random access memory (RAM) and cache to hold data that
is being processed. However, this type of memory is volatile, and it loses its data when the
computer is switched off. General-purpose computers, such as personal computers and tablets,
need to store programs and data for later use.

That's why secondary storage is needed to keep programs and data long term. Secondary storage
is non-volatile and able to keep data as long term storage. They are used for various purposes such
as backup data used for future restores or disaster recovery, long-term archiving of data that is not
frequently accessed, and storage of non-critical data in lower-performing, less expensive drives.
Without secondary storage, all programs and data would be lost when the computer is switched
off.

Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory,
such as:

 It is non-volatile, which means it retains data when power is switched off

 It allows for the storage of data ranging from a few megabytes to petabytes.
 It is cheaper as compared to primary memory.

Secondary storage devices like CDs and flash drives can transfer the data from one device to
another.

Types of Secondary Storage Device

Here are the two types of secondary storage devices, i.e., fixed storage and removable storage.

Secondary Storage Devices in Computer Organization

1. Fixed Storage

Fixed storage is an internal media device used by a computer system to store data. Usually, these
are referred to as the fixed disk drives or Hard Drives.

Fixed storage devices are not fixed. These can be removed from the system for repairing work,
maintenance purposes, and also for an upgrade, etc. But in general, this can not be done without a
proper toolkit to open up the computer system to provide physical access, which needs to be done
by an engineer.

Technically, almost all data, i.e. being processed on a computer system, is stored on some built-in
fixed storage device. We have the following types of fixed storage:

 Internal flash memory (rare)

 SSD (solid-state disk) units
 Hard disk drives (HDD)
2. Removable Storage

Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a computer system to store data.
Usually, these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives or the External Drives. Removable
storage is any storage device that can be removed from a computer system while the system is
running. Examples of external devices include CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray disk drives, and diskettes and
USB drives. Removable storage makes it easier for a user to transfer data from one computer
system to another.

The main benefit of removable disks in storage factors is that they can provide the fast data transfer
rates associated with storage area networks (SANs). We have the following types of Removable
Storage:

 Optical discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs)

 Memory cards
 Floppy disks
 Magnetic tapes
 Disk packs
 Paper storage (punched tapes, punched cards)

Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

The following image shows the classification of commonly used secondary storage devices.
Secondary Storage Devices in Computer Organization

Sequential Access Storage Device

It is a class of data storage devices that read stored data in a sequence. This is in contrast to random
access memory (RAM), where data can access in any order, and magnetic tape is the common
sequential access storage device.

Magnetic tape: It is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a
long, narrow strip of plastic film. Devices that record and play audio and video using magnetic
tape are tape recorders and videotape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic
tape is known as a tape drive.

It was a key technology in early computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to
be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and rapidly accessed.

Direct Access Storage Devices

A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name for secondary storage devices that store
data in discrete locations with a unique address, such as hard disk drives, optical drives and most
magnetic storage devices.
1. Magnetic disks: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a magnetization process to write,
rewrite and access data. It is covered with a magnetic coating and stores data in the form of tracks,
spots and sectors. Hard disks, zip disks and floppy disks are common examples of magnetic disks.

Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a magnetic coating on it, and it is packaged
inside a protective plastic envelope. These are among the oldest portable storage devices that could
store up to 1.44 MB of data, but now they are not used due to very little memory storage.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks called platters
arranged one over the other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of non-
magnetic material like aluminium alloy and coated with 10-20 nm magnetic material. The standard
diameter of these disks is 14 inches, and they rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm (rotations
per minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for servers.

Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is
used to read data from and write data to the disks. A typical modern HDD has a capacity in
terabytes (TB).

2. Optical Disk: An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and
technology to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses
laser beams to read and write data.

CD Drive: CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers,
to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than
a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into the CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can
eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs:

CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory): The manufacturer recorded the data on these
CDs. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.

CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable): The user can write data once on the CD-R. It cannot be
deleted or modified later.

CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewritable): Data can repeatedly be written and deleted on these optical
disks.
DVD Drive: DVD stands for digital video display. DVD is an optical device that can store 15 times
the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage
capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties - read-only, recordable and rewritable.

Blu Ray Disk: Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media that stores high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia files. BD uses a shorter wavelength laser than CD/DVD, enabling the
writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB
of data.

3. Memory Storage Devices: A memory device contains trillions of interconnected memory cells
that store data. When switched on or off, these cells hold millions of transistors representing 1s
and 0s in binary code, allowing a computer to read and write information. It includes USB drives,
flash memory devices, SD and memory cards, which you'll recognize as the storage medium used
in digital cameras.

Flash Drive: A flash drive is a small, ultra-portable storage device. USB flash drives were essential
for easily moving files from one device to another. Flash drives connect to computers and other
devices via a built-in USB Type-Aor USB-C plug, making one a USB device and cable
combination.

Flash drives are often referred to as pen drives, thumb drives, or jump drives. The terms USB drive
and solid-state drive (SSD) are also sometimes used, but most of the time, those refer to larger,
not-so-mobile USB-based storage devices like external hard drives.

These days, a USB flash drive can hold up to 2 TB of storage. They're more expensive per gigabyte
than an external hard drive, but they have prevailed as a simple, convenient solution for storing
and transferring smaller files.

Pen drive has the following advantages in computer organization, such as:

Transfer Files: A pen drive is a device plugged into a USB port of the system that is used to transfer
files, documents, and photos to a PC and vice versa.

Portability: The lightweight nature and smaller size of a pen drive make it possible to carry it from
place to place, making data transportation an easier task.
Backup Storage: Most of the pen drives now come with the feature of having password encryption,
important information related to family, medical records, and photos can be stored on them as a
backup.

Transport Data: Professionals or Students can now easily transport large data files and video, audio
lectures on a pen drive and access them from anywhere. Independent PC technicians can store
work-related utility tools, various programs, and files on a high-speed 64 GB pen drive and move
from one site to another.

Memory card: A memory card or memory cartridge is an electronic data storage device used for
storing digital information, typically using flash memory. These are commonly used in portable
electronic devices, such as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, tablets, PDAs,
portable media players, video game consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and digital
pianos, and allow adding memory to such devices without compromising ergonomy, as the card is
usually contained within the device rather than protruding like USB flash drives.