Elementary mathematics

Mamadou Ndao

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Elementary Mathematics I

M AMADOU N DAO
2

Introduction
This book is a course given to L0 students at UFAZ during the first semester of
the academic years 2019-2020, 2020-2021 and 2021-2022. The Frecnh-Azerbaijani
University called this year the foundation year because it allows to fill the gap that
between the French High School program and Azerbaijan High School’s program.
Its main objective is to give general backgrounds in mathematics to students who
integrate UFAZ, in order to allow them to be able to follow first year’s courses of
the University of Strasbourg. In other words this year corresponds to the ”Termi-
nale” of french program. This book is concerned by the first Semester. It consists
of integration courses and deals with complex numbers, generalities on sequences,
arithmetic and geometric sequences proof by induction, geometry in the plane and
geometry in space. In this book, we follow the following methodology: each chapter
is composed of three parts. In the main part of each chapter we recall the general
results of the topic and give examples that help to understand this subject. To bet-
ter understand the lecture we propose a list of exercises with their corrections. For
students who want to go further we add a list of exercises without any correction
in order to challenger them. We emphasize that most of the problems and exercises
come from the web site APMEP. They were given during the Baccalaureat in the
previous years. We took also some exercises from the list of homework given by
Fuad Aliyev (UFAZ) and Loic Célier (UFAZ).
 ACKNOWLEDGE
My most sincere thanks go to my dear colleagues Ulviyya Abdulkarimova, Javanshir Azizov, Fuad
Aliyev and Sabina Samadova for their help and support
 To A Group 2021
To my dear friend Allahverdi Gasimov
Elementary Mathematics I

Mamadou Ndao
II
 CONTENTS

1 Introduction to Complex Numbers 1

1.1 Algebraic Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Sum and Multiplication of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Division of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Modulus of a complex number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Exponential Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Second Order Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Equation With Real Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Equations With Complex Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Nth Roots of a Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 The nth Roots of the Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 The nth Roots of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 General Properties of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Introduction To Sequences 35
2.1 Generalities on Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.1 Computation of the Terms of a Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.2 Bounded Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1.3 Monotonic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Proof by Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.1 First Form of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.2 Second Form of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Study of Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1 Definitions of Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2 General Theorems on Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.3 Elementary Operations on Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

III
IV CONTENTS

2.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3 Arithmetic and Geometric Sequences 71

3.1 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 Variations of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.2 Explicit Expression of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.3 Sum of the n First Terms of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . 76
3.2 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.1 Explicit Expression of a Geometric Sequence . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2.2 Sum of the n First Terms of a Geometric Sequence . . . . . . 83
3.2.3 Limits of Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Arithmetico-geometric sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 Limits of Arithmetico-Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4 Introduction to Geometry in the Plane 101

4.1 Generalities on Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2 Elementary Operations on Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.1 Sum of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.2 Multiplication by a Real Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3 Basis in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4 Scalar Product in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.1 Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4.2 Scalar Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5 Transformations in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.6 Determinant of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.7 Introduction to Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.8 Lines in The Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.9 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

5 Introduction to Geometry in Space 131

5.1 Basis in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Scalar Product in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Lines in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4 Vectorial Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.5 Study of Planes in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6 Some Properties of the Mixed Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.7 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

6 Introduction to Coordinate Systems 161

6.1 Cartesian Coordinate Systems in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.1.1 Change of the Origin of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1.2 Change of the Basis of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2 Polar Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.1 Conversion From Polar to Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . 165
6.2.2 Conversion From Cartesian to Polar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
CONTENTS V

6.3.1 From Cylindrical to Cartesian coordinate System . . . . . . . 170

6.3.2 From Cartesian to Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . 171
6.4 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.1 From Spherical To Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4.2 From Cartesian To Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.4.3 From Spherical To Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4.4 From Cylindrical To Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.5 Circles and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.5.1 Equations of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.5.2 Equation of Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

A Second Order Polynomial Functions 183

A.1 Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
A.2 Solving 2nd Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
A.3 Sign Table of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
A.4 Variations of 2nd Order Polynomial Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

B Exams 191
VI CONTENTS
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX
NUMBERS

Contents
1.1 Algebraic Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Sum and Multiplication of Complex Numbers . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Division of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Modulus of a complex number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Exponential Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Second Order Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Equation With Real Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Equations With Complex Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Nth Roots of a Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.1 The nth Roots of the Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.2 The nth Roots of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 General Properties of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

The familiar set of real numbers R offers several applications in mathematics.

However it seems to have a lot of deficiencies. Indeed considering the equation

x2 + 1 = 0, (1.0.1)

we observe that there is no x ∈ R which verifies (1.0.1). The main goal of this
chapter is to introduce a set in which we can be able to define solutions to (1.0.1).

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Equation (1.0.1) is equivalent to x2 = −1. But we know that −1 cannot be the

square of a real number. To tackle (1.0.1) we suppose that there is a number i, such
that, i2 = −1. This involves x2 = i2 . Combining this with (1.0.1) we write

x2 − i2 = x − i x + i = 0.



(1.0.2)

In this case one finds that the solutions of (1.0.1) are x = i or x = −i.
The new field in which (1.0.1) admits solutions is called the set of complex
numbers and we denote it C.
To study complex numbers in details we proceed as follows. In section 1 we define
the algebraic form of a complex number. In section 2 and 3 we study respectively
the polar form and the exponential form of complex numbers. In section 4 we
investigate second order polynomial equations. The section 5 is devoted to some
general results on complex numbers. We end this chapter by a list of problems.

1.1 Algebraic Form of a Complex Number

As indicated in the introduction, the objective of this section is to investigate the
algebraic form of complex numbers. It is presented in this way. In subsection 1
we deal with the sum , the multiplication and the division of complex numbers. In
subsection 2 and 3 we tackle conjugates and modulus of complex numbers

Definition 1.1.1. We have i2 = −1

Definition 1.1.2. We say that , z is a complex number if there are two reals
numbers a and b, such that,
z = a + i b. (1.1.1)

The real numbers a and b are respectively called the real part and the imaginary
part of z. We denote a := Re(z) and b := Im(z).
Remark 1.1.3. In the formula (1.1.1),
1. when b = 0, then, z = a is a real number
2. when a = 0, z = i b is called a purely imaginary number.
Example 1.1.4. We consider the complex numbers z1 = 3 and z2 = 5 i.
We can see that z1 is real and z2 is purely imaginary number.

Definition 1.1.5. The formula (1.1.1) is called the algebraic form of the complex
number z.
Example 1.1.6. Let z = 4 − 3i. Then, we have Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = −3.
Example 1.1.7. We consider the complex number z = −3 + i. In this case, we
have Re(z) = −3 and Im(z) = 1.
Exercise 1.1.8. Determine the real and the imaginary part of the following complex
numbers

1. z1 = −2i, 2. z2 = 2 − 4i, 3. z3 = −1, 4. z4 = 10 + 30i, z5 = −3 − 5i.

1.1. ALGEBRAIC FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 3

If we take the horizontal line passing through 0 as the real axis and the vertical
line that passes through 0 as the imaginary axis, we can represent the complex
number z = a + ib in this way

Im
b •a + i b

a Re

Let z = a + i b be a complex number. We associate to z the unique point M (a, b)

in the plane. Reciprocally to any point M (xM , yM ) in the plane we can associate
the complex number zM = xM + i yM .

Proposition 1.1.9. There exists a one-to-one correspndance between the set of

all complex numbers and the set of all points in the plane.

Consider two complex numbers z1 and z2 . We specify that It is meaningless to

say that z1 is less than z2 or z2 is less than z1 . In the set of complex numbers the
only comparison criterion that exists is equality.

Proposition 1.1.10. Let z1 and z2 be two complex numbers. Then, z1 = z2 , if

and only if Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) and Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ).

Proof. if z1 and z2 are two complex numbers such that z1 = z2 , then, one has



z1 − z2 = Re(z1 ) − Re(z2 ) + i Im(z1 ) − Im(z2 ) = 0.

Therefore Re(z1 ) − Re(z2 ) = 0 and Im(z1 ) − Im(z2 ) = 0.

Conversly, when Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) and Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ), we have

z1 = Re(z1 ) + i Im(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) + i Im(z2 ) = z2 .

Example 1.1.11. The complex numbers z1 = 52 + 32 i and z2 = 2.5 + 1.5i are equal.
But the complex numbers z3 = 1 − i and z4 = 1 + i are different. Because
Im(z3 ) 6= Im(z4 ).

In the next subsection we define elementary algebraic operations on the set of

complex numbers.

1.1.1 Sum and Multiplication of Complex Numbers

In this subsection we define sum, multiplication and division of complex numbers.
These operations are a little bit different as in R. Addition and multiplication of
complex numbers are defined as follows:
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Proposition 1.1.12. If z1 = a + i b and z2 = c + i d are complex numbers. Then,

1. z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d)
2. z1 − z2 = (a − c) + i (b − d)
3. z1 · z2 = (ac − bd) + i (ab + dc).

Proof. Take z1 = a + i b and z2 = c + i d. Therefore, we have

z1 + z2 = a + i b + c + i d = (a + c) + i (b + d) and
z1 − z2 = a + i b − c − i d = (a − c) + i (b − d).
To prove 3, we consider again z1 = a + i b and z2 = c + i d. One has :
z1 · z2 = (a + i b)(c + i d) = ac + i ad + i bc + i2 bd = ac + i ad + i bc − bd
= (ac − bd) + i (ad + bc).

Example 1.1.13. For instance, we consider z1 = −2−3i and z2 = 1−4i. Therefore

z1 + z2 = −2 − 3i + 1 − 4i = −1 − 7i, z1 − z2 = −2 − 3i − 1 + 4i = −3 + i,
and z1 · z2 = −14 + 5i.
Exercise 1.1.14. Simplify the expressions of the following complex numbers
1. (1 + i) − (3 − 2 i) + 3(2 + 5 i) − (1 + 3i)(3 − i)), 2. (2 + 3 i)2 + 4 − i,
3. (3 − 4 i)2 − (2 − i)2 + i (6 − 3i).
The real and imaginary parts of complex numbers share the following properties
Proposition 1.1.15. If λ ∈ R, z1 ∈ C and z2 ∈ C, we have
1. Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(z1 ) + Re(z2 ) and Im(z1 + z2 ) = Im(z1 ) + Im(z2 ).
2. Re(λz1 ) = λRe(z1 ) and Im(λz1 ) = λIm(z1 ).

Remark 1.1.16. As in R, in the set of complex addition and multiplication verify

these properties
• they are commutative : for two complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have
z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 and z1 · z2 = z2 · z1 .

• multiplication is distributive with respect to addition

z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 · z2 + z1 · z3 .

At this stage we cannot deal with division. Because to divide two complex
numbers, we need to define the conjugate of the complex number.

1.1.2 Conjugate of a Complex Number

In this subsection we investigate properties of conjugates of complex numbers.
1.1. ALGEBRAIC FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 5

Definition 1.1.17. The conjugate of the complex number z = a + i b is the

complex number defined by
z = a − i b.

Im

×
z = a + ib

Re
z = a − ib
×

Example 1.1.18. The conjugate of z = 2 − i is z = 2 + i and the conjugate of

z 0 = 3 + 5i is z 0 = 3 − 5i.
Exercise 1.1.19. Determine the conjugates of the following complex numbers
1. z1 = 2 + 4 i, 2. z2 = −1 − 7 i, 3. z3 = 3 i, 4. z4 = 21, 5. z5 = −5 i, 6. z6 = −3.

Proposition 1.1.20. If z and z 0 are complex numbers. Then,

1. z + z = 2Re(z) and z − z = 2 i Im(z),
2. z + z 0 = z + z 0 and z · z 0 = z · z 0

Proof. To prove 1, we fix z = a + i b. One deduces that,

z +z = a+i b+a−i b = 2a = 2Re(z) and z −z = (a+i b)−(a−i b) = 2i b = 2i Im(z).

For 2, we should point out that if we define the complex number z 0 = c + i d we
obtain
z + z 0 = a + ib + c + id = (a + c) + i(b + d) = a + c − ib − id = (a − ib) + (c − id)
= z + z0.
For the last identity of 2. we have
z · z 0 = (ac − bd) − i (ad + bc) = a(c − i d) + i2 bd − i bc = a(c − id) − ib(c − id)
= (a − ib) · (c − id) = z · z 0 .

n
Theorem 1.1.21. If z is a complex number, then, z n = z .

Lemma 1.1.22. If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then,

1. z1 · z 2 + z 1 · z2 = 2 Re(z1 · z 2 ),

2. z1 · z 2 − z 1 · z2 = 2 i Im(z1 · z 2 ).
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Proof. Take z1 = a + i b and z2 = c + i d. We observe that

z1 .z2 + z1 .z2 = ac − i ad + i bc + bd + ac + i ad − i bc + bd = 2ac + 2bd.
Since, Re(z1 · z 2 ) = ac + bd, one concludes that
z1 · z 2 + z 1 · z2 = 2 Re(z1 · z 2 ).
The proof of the second identity is the same by taking z1 · z 2 − z 1 · z2 .
Using conjugates of complex numbers we are in a position to define division of
complex numbers.

1.1.3 Division of Complex Numbers

The objective of this subsection is to study divisions of complex numbers. To this
end we remind the following properties

Lemma 1.1.23. For any nonzero complex number z we have

 
1 1
= ·
z z

Proof. Take z = a + ib 6= 0. Multiplying in the numerator and the denomitor by z,

we obtain
 
1 a − ib 1 a + ib
= 2 ⇒ = 2 ·
z a + b2 z a + b2
Let z = a + ib be a nonzero complex number. Then, we have
1 z a + ib
= = 2
z z·z a + b2
This completes the proof of the lemma.

Lemma 1.1.24. If z and z 0 are complex numbers such that z 0 6= 0, then,

z z
= ·
z0 z0

Proof. We consider two complex numbers z and z 0 , such that, z 0 6= 0. Then, com-
bining proposition 1.1.20 and lemma 1.1.23, we have
z  
1 1 z
0
= z · = z · 0 = 0·
z z z z

Consider two complex numbers z and z 0 . We suppose that z 0 6= 0. To determine

the division of z by z 0 , we multiply the numerator and the denominator of this
fraction by z 0 .
1.1. ALGEBRAIC FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 7

Proposition 1.1.25. If z = a + ib and z 0 = c + id are two complex numbers,

such that, z 0 6= 0, then,

z (ac + bd) + i (bc − ad)

= · (1.1.2)
z0 c2 + d2

Proof. Take z = a + i b and z 0 = c + i d 6= 0. Therefore, we have

z a + ib z · z0 a + ib c − id (ac + bd) + i (bc − ad)

0
= = 0 0 = × = ·
z c + id z ·z c + id c − id c2 + d 2

Example 1.1.26. We consider z1 = 7 + 2i and z2 = 3 − 5i, then, we have

7 + 2i 7 + 2i 3 + 5i 21 + 35i + 6i + 10i2 11 + 41i
= · = = ·
3 − 5i 3 − 5i 3 + 5i 32 − (5i)2 34
Example 1.1.27. we have
1+i (1 + i)(−1 − 2i) 1 − 3i
= = ·
2i − 1 4+1 5
Exercise 1.1.28. Simplify the expression of the following complex numbers
2+i 1 3i 1+i 3 − 2i 7+i −1 − 2i
1. , 2. , 3. , 4. , 5. , 6. , 7. ·
3 − 5i 5 − 6i 4 + 3i 2i −1 − i 3 − 4i 1−i

1.1.4 Modulus of a complex number

This subsection is devoted to modulus of complex numbers. We begin by defining
modulus of complex numbers. In a second time we study the properties of modulus
of complex numbers.
Let z = a + i b be the complex number represented in the plane by the point
M (a , b) as in the figure below.

Im M (z = a + i b)
b× •

|z|

O a Re

We defined the modulus of the complex number z = a + i b as the distance between

the point O(0, 0) [the origin] to the point M (a, b). We denoted the modulus by |z|.
Definition 1.1.29. The modulus of the complex z = a + i b is the nonnegative
real number |z| defined by p
|z| = a2 + b2 . (1.1.3)
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Example 1.1.30. For instance we consider the complex numbers z1 = 3 + 4i and

z2 = 1 − i. Then, we have
p √ √
|z1 | = |3 + 4 i| = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5
p √ √
|z2 | = |1 − i| = 12 + (−1)2 = 1 + 1 = 2.
Exercise 1.1.31. Determine the modulus of the following complex numbers
z1 = −1 − 5 i, z2 = 3 + 2 i, z3 = −1 − i, z4 = −3 i, z5 = 12, z6 = −3 + 4 i.
Remark 1.1.32. We point out that, if z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then,
z2 − z1 = z1 − z2 .
Now we consider a complex number z = a + i b. Multplying z by its conjugate
z yields
z · z = (a + i b)(a − i b) = a2 + i ab − i ab + b2 = a2 + b2 .
This proves the following lemma
Lemma 1.1.33. For any complex number z, we have

z · z = |z|2 .

From this Lemma we deduce that two things: first we see that z · z ∈ R+ .
Secondly we have |z| = |z|.

Theorem 1.1.34. if z and z 0 are complex numbers such that z 0 6= 0, then

1. |z · z 0 | = |z| · |z 0 |

2. |z n | = |z|n
1 1
3. =
z |z|

Proof. To prove 1, we define z = a + i b and z 0 = c + i d. In this case one has

|z · z 0 |2 = (ac − bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 = a2 c2 + b2 d2 + a2 d2 + b2 c2
= a2 (c2 + d2 ) + b2 (c2 + d2 ) = (a2 + b2 )(c2 + d2 ) = |z|2 · |z 0 |2
To prove 2 we use 1 and an induction argument.
To establish 3, we consider the complex number z 0 = c + i d 6= 0. One has
√
1 c − id |c − i d| c2 + d 2 |z 0 | 1
0
= 2 2
= 0 2
= 0 2
= 02 = 0 ·
z c +d |z | |z | |z | |z |

Exercise 1.1.35. Determine the modulus of these complex numbers

−2 (2 − i)3
(3 + i)(−2 − i), , (−1 + i)6 , , (1 − i)(2 + i)(3 − 5 i), 3 i, −3.
4 − 5i (3 + 2 i)2
1.2. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 9

Proposition 1.1.36. If z and z 0 are two complex numbers such that z 0 6= 0, then

z |z|
= 0 ·
z0 |z |

Proof. We take two complex numbers z and z 0 such that z 0 6= 0. One sees that

z 1 |z|
0
= |z| · 0 = 0 ·
z |z | |z |

Lemma 1.1.37. For any natural numbers n, m and any complex numbers z and
z 0 such that z 0 6= 0, we have
zn |z|n
= ·
z0m |z 0 |m

Lemma 1.1.38. For any complex numbers z1 and z2 , we have

1. |Re(z1 )| ≤ |z1 |
2. |Im(z1 )| ≤ |z1 |

3. |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

The inequality 3 is called the triangular inequality.

Proof. We define z1 = a + i b and z2 = c + i d. Then, the real and the imaginary
part of z1 verify the following identities
√ p
Re(z1 ) = |a| = a2 ≤ a2 + b2 = |z1 |
√ p
Im(z1 ) = |b| = b2 ≤ a2 + b2 = |z1 |.

To establish the last inequality we proceed in this way: we write

|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 )(z 1 + z 2 ) = z1 · z 1 + z1 z 2 + z 1 · z2 + z2 · z 2

2
= |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2Re(z1 z 2 ) ≤ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2|z1 | · |z2 | = (|z1 | + |z2 |)

Considering the square root of the inequality above, we obtain the point 3.

1.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number

In this section we define the polar forms of a complex number. To do so we need at
first to define the argument of a complex. Using arguments of a complex numbers
we will be able to define the polar form of a complex number. We emphasize that
here the expression polar form and trigonometric form have the same meaning.
Indeed if M (a , b) is the point in the plane associated to the complex number
z = a + i b and θ is the angle between the real axis and the line OM : see the figure
below:
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Im M (z = a + i b)
•

θ = arg(z)
O Re

The angle θ is called an argument of the complex number z.

Definition 1.2.1. An argument of the complex z is given by the measure of angle

θ between the real axis and the line OM. We denote

θ := arg(z).

Remark 1.2.2. We draw the readers attention that an argument of the complex
number z is determined up on a multiple of 2π. This means that if θ is an argument
of the complex number z, then

θ + 2kπ with k ∈ Z,

is also another argument of the complex number z.

To determine an argument of a complex number z = a + i b one may follow the
following steps.

Step 1: We compute the modulus of the complex number z,

p
|z| = a2 + b2

Step 2: if z = 0, we have arg(z) = 2 k π, for some k ∈ Z

Step 3: Now we assume that z 6= 0 and we define θ := arg(z). In this case one
has
Re(z) a Im(z) b
cos(θ) = = and sin(θ) = = · (1.2.1)
|z| |z| |z| |z|

Step 4: We determine the argument of z by using one of the following functions

arccos,arcsin and arctan .

√ √ √
Example 1.2.3. Let z = −1 + 3. We deduce that |z| = 1+3 = 4 = 2. If we
denote θ := arg(z), one obtains
√
1 3
cos(θ) = − and sin(θ) = ·
2 2
This implies that
π
arg(z) = π − ·
3
1.2. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 11
√
Example 1.2.4. We define z = −1 − i and θ := arg(z). Then, we obtain |z| = 2
and √ √
− 2 − 2
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = ·
2 2
Therefore we have
π
arg(z) = π + ·
4
Using the argument of the complex number z and its modulus we can express
the complex number z in terms of cos and sin. This expression wil be called the
polar or Trigonometric form.
Definition 1.2.5. The polar or trigonometric form of z which has argument θ
is  
z = |z| cos(θ) + i sin(θ) . (1.2.2)

Example 1.2.6. Define the polar or trigonometric forms of the complex numbers
√ √
z1 = 1 + i, z2 = 1 + i 3, z3 = −1, z4 = 3 + i.
√ √
Solution. 1. We consider z1 = 1+i, then |z1 | = 1 + 1 = 2. Defing θ := arg(z1 )
one obtains
√ √
1 2 1 2
cos(θ) = √ = and sin(θ) = √ = ·
2 2 2 2
This leads to
π
θ= + 2 k π,
4
with some k ∈ Z. Hence the polar form of z1 ,
√  π  π 
z1 = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
√ √
2. For z2 = 1 + i 3, one has |z2 | = 1 + 3 = 2. Taking θ := arg(z2 ), we have
√
1 3
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = ·
2 2
Therefore we obtain,
π
θ = + 2kπ, where k ∈ Z.
3
We conclude that the trigonometric form of z2 is
 π  π 
z2 = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3
3. We consider the complex number z3 = −1. We can see |z3 | = 1. Now we fix
θ := arg(z3 ). This means that
cos(θ) = −1 and sin(θ) = 0.
In this case
θ = π + 2kπ, with k ∈ Z.
The polar form of z3 is
z3 = cos(π).
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
√
4. Let z4 = 3 + i. We have |z4 | = 2. Setting θ := arg(z4 ) the following properties
hold:
  √3   1
cos θ = and sin θ = ·
2 2
Therefore one has
π
θ = + 2kπ, with k ∈ Z.
6
Hence the trigonometric form is
 π  π 
z4 = 2 cos + i sin .
6 6
Exercise 1.2.7. Determine the polar form of the following complex numbers
√ √ √ √
− 1 − i, 1 − i 3, 3 − i, − 3 + i, −2 + 2 i, (1 + i)( 3 − i), −3i, 2.

Before going further we remind the following trigonometric properties.

Lemma 1.2.8. For every real numbers θ and φ we have

cos(θ + φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) − sin(θ) sin(φ) (1.2.3)

cos(θ − φ) = cos(θ) cos(φ) + sin(θ) sin(φ) (1.2.4)
sin(θ + φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) + cos(θ) sin(φ) (1.2.5)
sin(θ − φ) = sin(θ) cos(φ) − cos(θ) sin(φ). (1.2.6)

Using the previous lemma we can prove the following properties.

Proposition 1.2.9. If z and z 0 are two complex numbers such that z 0 6= 0, then
we have
 
1. arg z10 = arg z 0 = −arg(z 0 ),

2. arg(z · z 0 ) = arg(z) + arg(z 0 ),

3. arg zz0 = arg(z) − arg(z 0 ).

Proof. We consider two complex numbers z and z 0 such that z 0 6= 0. We define

θ1 := arg(z) and θ2 := arg(z 0 ). One has

z 0 = |z 0 | cos(θ2 ) + i sin(θ2 ) and z 0 = |z 0 | cos(θ2 ) − i sin(θ2 ) .

The identities cos(−θ2 ) = cos(θ2 ) and sin(−θ2 ) = − sin(θ2 ) imply that

z 0 = |z| cos(−θ2 ) + i sin(−θ2 ) .

Thus, we conclude that arg(z 0 ) = −θ2 . Therefore, one deduces that

z0
1  
arg = arg = arg(z 0 ) = −arg(z 0 ).
z0 |z 0 |2
1.2. POLAR FORM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 13
 
To prove 2, we recall that z = |z| cos(θ1 ) + i sin(θ1 ) . This involves
 
z.z 0 = |z| |z 0 | cos(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) + i cos(θ1 ) sin(θ2 ) − sin(θ1 ) sin(θ2 )
h
i
= |z||z 0 | cos(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) − sin(θ1 ) sin(θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 ) cos(θ2 ) + cos(θ1 ) sin(θ2 )
h i
= |z||z 0 | cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ) .

This means that , arg(z · z 0 ) = θ1 + θ2 .

To establish the last identity we write
z    
1 1
arg 0 = arg z · 0 = arg(z) + arg = arg(z) − arg(z 0 ).
z z z0

Example 1.2.10. Define the polar form of the following complex numbers:
√ 1+i
(1 + i)( 3 − i) and √ ·
3−i
√ √ π
Solution. We define z1 = 1+i and z2 = 3−i. In this case, |z1 | = 2, arg(z1 ) = 4,
|z2 | = 2 and arg(z2 ) = − π6 . Using the proposition above we conclude that
√ 


z1 · z2 = 2 2 cos π/12 + i sin π/12
√     
z1 2 5π 5π
= cos + i sin .
z2 2 12 12
Exercise 1.2.11. For each of the following complex numbers define its polar form
√ √
√ − 3−i √ 1+i 1 2i 1−i 3
(1 − i)(2 + 2 3 i), , − 3 − i, , , √ , ·
−1 − i 5 − 5i 3i 3+i 2
In General one can prove the following lemma wich is a generalization of the
second point in the proposition above.
Lemma 1.2.12. For every complex numbers z1 , z2 , · · · , zn , we have
n
X
arg(z1 · z2 · · · · · zn ) = arg(z1 ) + · · · + arg(zn ) = arg (zk ) .
k=1

Let n be some positive integer and z = a + ib be any complex number. We

define the complex number Z = z n . A hard and complicate way to treat Z is to use
Newton’s binomial formula. Another method to tackle Z is to consider exponential
forms of complex numbers. Using the exponential form of z we can easily treat the
case z n . Before going further we reimind Euler’s formula.
Lemma 1.2.13. For every real number θ, we have
 
exp i θ = cos(θ) + i sin(θ), (1.2.7)

where exp denotes exponential function.

We will see that the exponential form of a complex number is more adapted to
calculate powers of complex numbers.
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

1.3 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

In this section we investigate the exponential form of a complex number. Using the
exponential we will be able to calculate easily power of complex numbers.
Definition 1.3.1. The exponential form of z that has argument θ is defined by


z = |z| exp i θ . (1.3.1)

Using Euler’s formula we observe that for every real number θ we have



exp − i θ = cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ) = cos(θ) − i sin(θ) = exp i θ .

Lemma 1.3.2. Let z be a complex number with argument θ. Then, the exponen-
tial form of the conjugate of z is


z = |z| exp − i θ .

Proposition 1.3.3. For every real number θ, we have

1  1 
cos(θ) = exp(i θ)+exp(−i θ) and sin(θ) = exp(i θ)−exp(−i θ) . (1.3.2)
2 2i

To prove this proposition we have to write

exp(i θ) = cos(θ) + i sin(θ)

exp(−i θ) = cos(θ) − i sin(θ).

Hence, one sees that

exp(i θ) + exp(−i θ) = 2 cos(θ) and exp(i θ) − exp(−i θ) = 2 i sin(θ).

The most important theorem of this section is De Moivre’s theorem which runs in
this way:

Theorem 1.3.4 (De Moivre’s Theorem). For any complex number that has ar-
gument θ and any positive integer n we have
 
z n = |z|n cos(n θ) + i sin(n θ) (1.3.3)

Proof. Since θ is an argument of z, we have z = |z| exp(i θ). Elevating z to the

power n we obtain

n
z n = |z|n exp(i θ) = |z|n exp(n i θ) = |z|n cos(n θ) + i sin(n θ)

This completes the proof.

To determine the expression of the complex number z n we proceed in three
steps:
1.4. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 15

Step 1: we have to determine the modulus of the complex number z: |z|

Step 2: we define an argument of the complex number z: arg(z)
Step 3: we apply De Moivre’s theorem in order to obtain the polar form of z n :

z n = |z|n cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) .

Example 1.3.5. Determine the polar form of the following complex numbers

5  √ 7
1. 1 + i 2. 1 − i 3 .
√
Solution. We define z1 = 1 + i. In this case one obtains |z1 | = 2 and arg(z) = π4 ·
This implies that
√
    
5π 5π
z15 = 4 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
√ √
We take z2 = 1 − i 3. This means that |z2 | = 1 + 3 = 2 and arg(z2 ) = − π3 ·
Hence one has     
7 7π 7π
z2 = 2 cos − + i sin − .
3 3
Exercise 1.3.6. Using De Moivre’s theorem determine the polar forms of the fol-
lowing complex numbers
 √ 5  √ 11  √ 8  3  √ 6
− 3+i , −1−i 3 , − 3 − 3i 3 , 1−i , − 3−i .

Readers may remember that we have introduced complex numbers in order to

be able to define solutions to all second order polynomial equations.

1.4 Second Order Polynomial Equations

This section deals with second order polynomial equations. We start by treating
second order polynomial equations with real coefficients. In the second part we
investigate second order polynomial equation with complex coefficients.

1.4.1 Equation With Real Coefficients

This subsection is devoted to second order equations with real coefficient. We
remind that a second polynomial equation is an equation in the form

az 2 + bz + c = 0 (1.4.1)

where a, b and c are real numbers such that a 6= 0.

To tackle 1.4.1, first we calculate ∆ = b2 − 4ac. According to the sign of ∆, we
distinguish three cases:
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Theorem 1.4.1. If a, b and c are three real numbers such that a 6= 0 and we
define
∆ = b2 − 4a c,
then,
when ∆ > 0, equation (1.4.1) has two real solutions
√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
z1 = or z2 = · (1.4.2)
2a 2a

when ∆ = 0, equation (1.4.1) has only one real solution, which is defined by

−b
z0 = · (1.4.3)
2a

when ∆ < 0, equation (1.4.1) has two solutions

√ √
−b − i −∆ −b + i −∆
z1 = or z2 = (1.4.4)
2a 2a

Example 1.4.2. Find the solutions of the following equations, z 2 + 4z + 3 = 0 and

z 2 − 5 z + 4 = 0.
Solution. To determine solutions of the equations above we proceed as follows:
1. if we consider the equation z 2 + 4z + 3 = 0, one has

∆ = b2 − 4ac = 16 − 12 = 4 > 0.

Therefore, we have two real solutions which are

√ √
−4 − 4 −6 −4 + 4 −2
z1 = = = −3 or z2 = = = −1·
2×1 2 2×1 2
2. For the equation z 2 − 5 z + 4 = 0 we have ∆ = 25 − 16 = 9 > 0. Then, one
obtains √ √
5− 9 2 5+ 9 8
z1 = = = 1 or z2 = = = 4·
2×1 2 2×1 2
Example 1.4.3. Determine the solutions of the following equations z 2 − 2z + 1 = 0
and z 2 + 6 z + 9 = 0.
Solution. We seek for z ∈ C solution to z 2 − 2z + 1 = 0. We have ∆ = b2 − 4ac =
4 − 4 = 0. Consequently, there is only one real solution

−(−2) 2
z0 = = = 1.
2 2
2. We consider the equation z 2 +6 z +9 = 0. Then, ∆ = 62 −4×9 = 36−36 = 0.
Therefore we have one real solution
−6
z0 = = −3.
2
1.4. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 17

Example 1.4.4. Find a complex number z solution to these equations

z 2 + z + 1 = 0 and −z 2 + 3 z − 4 = 0.
Solution. Let z be a complex number.
1. Consider the equation z 2 + z + 1 = 0. Then, ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 1 − 4 = −3.
Then there are two solutions that are complex numbers
√ √ √ √
−1 − i 3 −1 − i 3 −1 + i 3 −1 + i 3
z1 = = or z2 = = ·
2×1 2 2×1 2
2. Define the equation −z 2 + 3 z − 4 = 0. Then, ∆ = 9 − 16 = −7 < 0. Therefore
one obtains two solutions which are complex numbers
√ √ √ √
−3 − i 7 3+i 7 −3 + i 7 3−i 7
z1 = = or z2 = = ·
2 × (−1) 2 2 × (−1) 2
Exercise 1.4.5. Find the solutions of the following second order polynomial equa-
tions

z 2 + 3 z + 2 = 0, z 2 + 6 z + 8 = 0, z 2 + 7 z + 9 = 0, z 2 + 4 z + 2 = 0.

Exercise 1.4.6. Solve the following equations

z 2 + 2 z + 1 = 0, z 2 − 4 z + 4 = 0, z 2 − 6 z + 9 = 0, z 2 − 8 z + 16 = 0.

Exercise 1.4.7. Determine the solutions of the following equations

z 2 + z + 5 = 0, z 2 + 2 z + 4 = 0, z 2 + 3 z + 5 = 0, z 2 + 5 z + 7 = 0.

Remark 1.4.8. When ∆ < 0, the solutions z1 and z2 are two conjugate complex
numbers.
In the following subsection we will see how to study second order polynomial
equations with complex coefficients.

1.4.2 Equations With Complex Coefficients

As we pointed it out above, this subsection deals with second order equations with
coefficients in C. To explain how to solve equations of the form az 2 + bz + c = 0,
with a, b and c are in C we start by this elementary case z 2 = −x, for some positive
real number x. Equation z 2 = −x is equivalent to
 √ 2 √  √  √ 
z2 = i x ⇐⇒ z 2 − (i x)2 = 0 ⇐⇒ z − i x z + i x = 0
√ √
⇐⇒ z = i x or z = −i x.

This leads to the following result.

Proposition 1.4.9. Any complex number has two square roots z1 and z2 .

Proof. We fix the complex a + ib for two real numbers a and b. Let z = x + i y be a
complex number such that,
z 2 = a + i b. (1.4.5)
To determine the solutions of this equation we proceed in four steps
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Step 1: We specify that the identity (1.4.5) is equivalent to

x2 − y 2 + 2i xy = a + i b.

This leads to the following system

 2
 x − y 2 = a,

2xy = b.


√
Step 2: We emphasize that |z|2 = |x + i y|2 = x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 . This holds the
following identities
p
x2 − y 2 = a, x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 and 2xy = b.

Consequently one deduces that

√ √
2 a2 + b2 + a 2 a2 + b2 − a
x = and y =
2 2

Step 3: From step 2, we deduce that

s√ s√
a2 + b2 + a a2 + b2 − a
x=± and y=±
2 2

Step 4: Now we use the sign of b = 2 xy to determine the exact values of x and y.

Example 1.4.10. Find the square roots of the following complex numbers

1. 8 + 6 i, 2. 3 − 4 i.

+ 6 i. Then we have z 2 = 8 + 6 i.
Solution. 1.Let z = x + i y be a square root of 8 √
2 2 2 2
We obtain x − y = 8 , 2x y = 6, and x + y = 82 + 62 = 10. We have
√ √
2 82 + 6 2 + 8 2 82 + 62 − 8
x = =9 and y = = 1.
2 2
Therefore x = ±3 and y = ±1. Since x · y = 3 > 0, then, x and y have the same
sign. Hence
case 1: when x = 3, we have y = 1. In this case z1 = 3 + i
case 2: when x = −3, the real number y = −1 then z2 = −3 − i.
2. We define z = x + i y such that z 2 = 3 − 4 i. Then, z 2 = (x + i y)2 = 3 − 4 i.
This involves x2 − y 2 = 3, 2xy = −4 and x2 + y 2 = 5. Thus we obtain
√ √
2 32 + 42 + 3 2 32 + 4 2 − 3
x = =4 y = = 1.
2 2
That is x = ±2 and y = ±1. Now we use the sign of xy = −2 < 0 to determine x
and y.
1.4. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS 19

case 1: when x = 2, we have y = −1. Then, z1 = 2 − i

case 2: when x = −2, we obtain y = 1. In this case we have z2 = −2 + i.
Exercise 1.4.11. Find the square roots of the following complex numbers

− 1 + 3 i, 2 + i, 7 + 5 i, 4 − 2 i, 8 − 7 i, −2 + i, 4 − 9 i, −1 − i, 3 i.

Let a, b and c belong to C such that a 6= 0. We consider the following second

order polynomial equation
az 2 + bz + c = 0, (1.4.6)
Equation (1.4.6) can be rewritten in this way
" 2 #
b2 b2 b2 − 4ac
 
2 2 b c b
az + bz + c = a z + 2 z + 2 − 2 + =a z+ − =0
2a 4a 4a a 2a 4a2

Here, we define the complex number ∆ = b2 − 4a c. If α ∈ C is a square root of ∆

one may have
 2  
b α 2  b α  b α
z+ − =0⇔ z+ − z+ + = 0.
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
Therefore, we have
b+α b−α
z1 = − or z2 = − ·
2a 2a
Lemma 1.4.12. Let a, b and c be three complex numbers such that a 6= 0 and
∆ = b2 − 4 a c. We asume that the complex number α is a square root of ∆ and
we consider equation (1.4.6). Then,
when ∆ = 0. Equation (1.4.6) has one solution

−b
z= ·
2a

when ∆ 6= 0. Equation (1.4.6) has two solutions which are defined

b+α b−α
z1 = − or z2 = − .
2a 2a

Example 1.4.13. Find the solutions of the equation z 2 + 2i z − 4 − 4 i = 0.

Solution. To find the solution to z 2 + 2i z − 4 − 4 i = 0 we proceed as follows
Step 1: We define ∆ = (2i)2 − 4 × (−4 − 4 i) = −4 + 16 + 16 i = 12 + 16 i.
Step 2: We must find α that is a square root of ∆. We set (x + i y)2 = 12 + 16 i.
We know that |12 + 16 i| = 20. Then,
√ √
122 + 162 + 12 122 + 162 − 12
x2 = = 16 and y2 = = 4.
2 2
That is, x = ±4 and y = ±2. Using the identity 2xy = 16 we have α = 4 + 2 i
or α = −4 − 2 i.
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Step 3: Therefore, we obtain

b+α 2i + 4 + 2i
z1 = − =− = −2 − 2 i or
2a 2
−b + α 2i − 4 − 2i 4
z2 = =− = =2
2a 2 2
Exercise 1.4.14. Find the solution of the following equations

i z 2 + (1 + i)z + 2 + 3 i = 0, 3z 2 + 5 iz + 3 + 2 i = 0, z 2 + (2 + 3i)z + 1 = 0.

Fix some natural n ≥ 3. For every complex number z we are woundering if these
equations z n = 1 and z n = a + i b have solutions.
In the next section we will tackle the previous equations. We just precise that,
the solutions of the first one are called the nth roots of the unit and the solutions
of the second one are called nth roots of the complex number z.

1.5 Nth Roots of a Complex Numbers

In this section we study nth roots of unit and nth roots of a general complex number.

1.5.1 The nth Roots of the Unit

Let z be a complex number. We consider the equation z n = 1. We assume that
arg(z) := θ and r := |z|. We define z = r ei θ . In this case, we have

z n = rn ei n θ = 1.

On the other hand we know that 1 = e2 i kπ , for some integer k. Hence

rn exp(i n θ) = exp(2 i kπ).

This is equivalent to say that r = 1 and n θ = 2 kπ. Consequently we have

2kπ
θ= .
n
We conclude that the solutions of equation z n = 1 are given by
 
2ikπ
zk = exp , k ∈ N. (1.5.1)
n
We observe that z0 = zn = 1. Then, we will just consider k between 0 and n − 1.
This leads to these expressions
     
2 iπ 4 iπ 2(n − 1) iπ
z1 = exp , z2 = exp , · · · , zn−1 = exp .
n n n
Proposition 1.5.1. If z is a complex number and n some natural number, then,
the equation z n = 1 has n solutions that are the elements of this set
   
2 ikπ
Un = zk = exp ; 0≤k ≤n−1 . (1.5.2)
n
1.5. NTH ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBERS 21

Example 1.5.2. Find the solution of the following equations z 3 = 1 and z 4 = 1

Solution. 1.To find solutions of the equation z 3 = 1, we define θ := arg(z) and
r := |z|. Then, r3 e3iθ = e2ikπ . This implies r = 1 and θ = 2kπ 3 · for 0 ≤ k ≤ 2
Therefore
  √   √
2iπ 1 3 4iπ 1 3
z0 = 1, z1 = exp =− + i, z2 = exp =− − i.
3 2 2 3 2 2
2. Now we consider the equation z 4 = 1. Setting θ := arg(z) and r = |z|, we get
θ = 2 k4 π . Then, for k such that 0 ≤ k ≤ 3, one has
   
iπ 6iπ
z0 = 1, z1 = exp = i, z2 = exp (iπ) = −1, z3 = exp = −i.
2 4
Exercise 1.5.3. Determine the solutions of the following equations
z 5 = 1, z 8 = 1, z 21 = 1, z 7 = 1, z 9 = 1, z 8 = 1, z 11 = 1.
The solutions to the equation z n = 1 share the following properties.
Lemma 1.5.4. We consider the equation z n = 1. Then,
1. the sum of all elements of Un is equal to 0
2. if we denote by Mk the point in the plan which is associated to zk , then the
points Mk belong to the circle with center O and radius 1

3. The points Mk form a regular polygon that is inscribed in the circle of center
O and radius 1.

1.5.2 The nth Roots of a Complex Number

In this section we deal with the equation z n = a + i b for some real numbers a and
b. To determine the solutions of this equation, we define ρ := |z| and ω := arg(z).
Assuming that the comlex number a + i b = r exp(i θ), we write
z n = ρn exp(n i ω) = a + ib = r exp(i θ).
Therefore the following identities hold ρn = r and n ω = θ + 2 k π, for some integer
k. This means that
√ θ + 2kπ
ρ= n r and ω= ·
n
Then,the solutions of the equation z n = a + i b are defined by:
√
 
θ + 2 kπ
zk = n r exp i , k ∈ N. (1.5.3)
n
Proposition 1.5.5.
Let a and b be two real numbers. We define r := a + i b
and θ := arg a + i b . Then, the equation z n = a + i b has n solution, which are
given by the following formula
√ √
      
n
θ + 2 kπ n
θ + 2 kπ θ + 2 kπ
zk = r exp i = r cos + i sin .
n n n

Here k is a positive integer such that, 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1.

22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Example 1.5.6. Find the solution of the following equation z 9 = 1 + i

√
Solution. To find the solution to the equation z 9 = 1+i we specify that |1+i| = 2
π
and θ = arg(1+i) = · Using the formula (1.5.3), one deduces that for every integer
4
k, such that 0 ≤ k ≤ 8,

9 √ 9 √
q   q  
θ + 2i πk π/4 + 2i πk
zk = 2 exp i = 2 exp i ,
9 9

Remark 1.5.7. When θ = 0, that correspond to the case a + ib = 1 we obtain the

nth roots of unit.

Exercise 1.5.8. Determine the solutions of the following equations

√ √ √
z 7 = −i, z 5 = 1 + i 3, z 3 = −1 − i, z 6 = − 3 − i, z 10 = 3 − i, z 4 = i.

1.6 General Properties of Complex Numbers

In this section we just remind some important properties on complex numbers.
Let z1 and z2 belong to C. Then, |z1 | = |z1 −z2 +z2 | ≤ |z1 −z2 |+|z2 |. On the other
hand, we have |z2 | = |z2 − z1 + z1 | ≤ |z2 − z1 | + |z1 | Therefore |z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 |
and |z2 | − |z1 | ≤ |z1 − z2 |. Consequently we obtain |z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 |.

Lemma 1.6.1. If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then,

|z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 | (1.6.1)

Inequality (1.6.1) is called the second triangular inequality.

Lemma 1.6.2. Let z = x + i y be a complex number. Then,

|ez | = ex and arg(ez ) = y.

Proof. We consider a complex number z = x + i y. Then,

 
ez = ex+i y = ex × eiy = ex cos(y) + i sin(y) .
p
Since ex ≥ 0 and |eiy | = cos(y)2 + sin(y)2 = 1. One deduces that |ex+i y | = ex .
We saw above that exp(z) = exp(x) × exp(i y). Then,

arg(exp(z)) = arg(exp(x) × exp(i y)) = arg(exp(x)) + arg(exp(i y)).

As we know that exp(x) is a positive real number. Then, arg(exp(x)) = 0 + 2 k π.

Hence arg(exp(z)) = arg(exp(i y)) = y.

Lemma 1.6.3. If z is a complex number that satisfies |z| = 1 then, there exists
a real number θ, such that,
z = exp(i θ).
1.7. EXERCISE SESSION 23

Proof. Let z = x + i y, such that |z|2 = x2 + y 2 = 1. Therefore, there exists a real

number θ, such that x = cos(θ) and y = sin(θ). In this case one has

z = cos(θ) + i sin(θ).

Using Euler’s formula we establish that z = cos(θ) + i sin(θ) = exp(i θ).

1.7 Exercise Session

Most of the exercises proposed here were given in the Bacalaureat in France in the
previous years. They was taken from the web site apemp. We modify the little some
statement in order to adapt them to our situation.

Exercise 1.7.1. In the complex plane, we define i as the complex number that
has modulus 1 and argument π2 ·

6
1. Prove that 1 + i = −8i.

2. Now we consider the equation (E) : z 2 + 8i = 0.

a. Deduce from 1. a solution of (E).
b. Give the algebraic form of the other solution.
3. Deduce from 1. and 2. a solution of the equation z 3 = −8i.

Comments. We make the following comments on the exercise.

• To determine the exponent of a complex number, it is better to use the expo-
nential form of the complex number.
• Let z1 be a complex number. For some complex number ω we define the
equation
z2 = ω
and we assume that z1 is a solution of this equation. To find another solution
to z 2 = ω, we write

z 2 − z12 = 0 ⇔ z − z1 z + z1 = 0.

Hence the second solution is given by −z1 .

Solution. Let z be a complex number. The exponential form of z is given by
z = |z| ei arg(z) .
1. In particular if we take z0 = 1 + i, we have
√
• z0 = 2.
√ √
• Defining θ := arg(z0 ), we obtain cos(θ) = 2
2
and sin(θ) = 2
2 ·
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

• From this we deduce that θ = π

+ 2kπ, for some k ∈ Z·
4
√  
Since for every k ∈ Z, exp(2kπi) = 1, one has z0 = 2 exp i π4 . This implies

√ 6 
6π
 
3π
   
3π
 
3π
z06 = 2 exp i = 8 exp i = 8 cos + i sin = −8i
4 2 2 2

2. We consider the equation (E) z 2 + 8i = 0 and we define the complex number

3
z1 = 1 + i .
a. Then, from 1. we deduce that

3 2
6
z12 = 1 + i = 1 + i = −8i.

3
Therefore the complex number z1 = 1 + i is a solution of (E). Straight-
forward calculations show that
√
 
3π
z1 = 2 2 exp i = −2 + 2i.
4

b. Using the second point in the comment above, one finds that

2
z 2 − − 2 + 2i = z + (−2 + 2i) z − (−2 + 2i) = 0

This involves z = 2 − 2i or z = −2 + 2i.

We conclude that the solutions of (E) are z1 = −2 + 2i and z2 = 2 − 2i.

2
6
3. Let z3 = 1 + i . Applying 1, we obtain z33 = 1 + i = −8i. Consequently

2
z3 = 1 + i is a solution of the equation z33 = −8i. Moreover we have

2
z3 = 1 + i = 1 + 2i − 1 = 2i

p √ p √
Exercise 1.7.2. We consider the complex number z = − 2 + 2 + i 2 − 2.
1. Determine the algebraic form of z 2 .
2. Find the exponential form of z 2 .

3. Deduce from 2. the exponential form of z.

4. Define the polar

form of z and deduce from this the exact values of cos π/8
and sin π/8 .

Comments. As comments we just remind the following properties

• If a and b are two real numbers then,

2
a + ib = a2 − b2 + 2iab

2
a − ib = a2 − b2 − 2iab
1.7. EXERCISE SESSION 25

• Let z be a complex number with argument θ, then, we have

– exponential form of z: z = |z| exp i θ


– polar form of z: z = |z| cos(θ) + i sin(θ) .
– an identification of the polar and algebraic forms gives

Re(z) Im(z)
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = ·
|z| |z|

• If the exponential form of ω 2 = |ω|2 exp i θ1 , then, ω = ±|ω| exp i θ21

p √ p √
Solution. We consider the complex number z = − 2 + 2 + i 2 − 2.
1. Using the first point of the comments we obtain

√ √ 2
 q q 
2
z = − 2+ 2+i 2− 2
√ √
q √
√
√ √
= 2 + 2 − 2 − 2 − 2 i 2 + 2 2 − 2 = 2 2 − 2i 2

2. From the algebraic from one can easily deduce that |z 2 | = 4 and arg(z 2 ) = − π4 ·
This implies that  π
z 2 = 4 exp −i
4
3. The third point of the comments combines with 2 imply that
 π  π
z = 2 exp −i or z = −2 exp −i
8 8
Remarking that −1 = eiπ , we write −e−iπ/8 = ei(π−π/8) . Then, we have
 π   π 
z = 2 exp −i or z = 2 exp i π −
8 8
π



As we know that cos(θ) is negative, we conclude that z = 2 exp i π − 8 ·
In this case we obtain
  π  π 
z = 2 cos π − + i sin π − .
8 8

4. Since we know that cos π − π8 = − cos π8 and sin π − π8 = sin π

8 , we
have p √ p √
π 2+ 2 π 2− 2
cos = and sin = ·
8 2 8 2

Exercise 1.7.3. Let U be the point associated to the complex number 1 and V
the point associated to i. We consider a complex number z 6= 0 and define the
complex
1
z0 = ·
z
1. Prove that arg(z 0 ) = arg(z) + 2kπ for some integer k.
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

2. Determine the set of all point M with affix z in the plane suh that
1
= z.
z

3. Establish that
z0 − 1
 
z−1
= −i ·
z0 − i z−i

4. Let M be the point associated to the complex number z. Prove that when M
belongs to the line (U V ), z−1
z−i is a real number.
 0 
5. Deduce from the previous questions arg zz0−1 −i ·

Comments. As a comment, we remind the following properties.

• For any complex number z, we have arg z = −arg(z)

• If z1 and z2 are two compex numbers, we have

– z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2 and z1 − z2 = z 1 − z 2
– for z2 6= 0 one has
 
z1 z1
=
z2 z2
– for any real numbers a and b, such that z2 6= b
 
z1 − a z1 − a z1 − a
= =
z2 − b z2 − b z2 − b

– z2 6= i, then for any real number a we have

 
z1 − a z1 − a z1 − a
= =
z2 + i z2 + i z2 − i

– arg(z1 · z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )

– for any complex number z2 6= 0
 
z1
arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
z2

• arg(i) = π
2·
2
• For any complex number z, we have z · z = z .
• If ~u and ~v are two vectors, we define the oriented angle between ~u and ~v by


~u, ~v .

• If A is the point associated to zA and B is associated to zB , then, we can

−−→
associte to the vector AB the complex number z−→ = zB − zA .
−
AB
1.7. EXERCISE SESSION 27

• We adopt the following notations:

– the vector ~u is associated to the complex number 1
– the vector ~v is associated to the complex number i
 −−→
• the argument of the complex number z−
−→ is defined by the angle ~
AB
u, AB :
   −−→
arg z−
−→ = ~
AB
u, AB .

• For any complex number zA which is associated to the point A, we have

 −→
arg(zA ) = ~u, OA

−−→ −→
• If AB (z−
−→ ) and AC (z−→ ) are two non-zero vectors then, one has
AB AC
!
z−→
AC
     −→  −−→ −−→ −→
arg = arg z−→ − arg z−
−→ = ~u, AC − ~u, AB = AB, AC .
z−
−→ AC AB
AB

Solution. Let z be a nonzero complex number. Then,

1. we have arg(z 0 ) = arg(1) − arg(z). As we know that arg(1) = 2kπ for some
integer k and arg(z) = −arg(z). Therefore, one obtains

arg(z 0 ) = 2kπ − (−arg(z)) = 2kπ + arg(z).

2. Let M be the point that is associated to the complex number z. We assume

2
that z satisfies z1 = z. This involves z · z = z = 1. If we set z = x + iy, we
obtain
x2 + y 2 = 1 (1.7.1)
Equation (1.7.1) is the equation of a circle with center O and radius 1. We
conclude that the set of all complex number such that, z1 = z is the circle with
center O and radius 1.
3. If z is a complex number that is different to 1 and i, we have

z0 − 1
 
z−1 z−1 z−1 1 z−1 z−1
= = =
= · = −i ·
z0 − i iz − 1 iz + i2 i z+i i z−i z−i

4. In this question we assume that M (z) belongs to the line (U V ) and is different
to the points U and V . In this case, we can associate to the complex number
−−→ −−→
z − 1 the vector U M and V M to the complex z − i. One deduces that
  
z−1 −−→ −−→
arg = V M, UM .
z−i
−−→ −−→
Since M , U and V belong to the line (U V ), then, V M , U M = 0 + kπ, for
z−1
some integer k. Hence z−i is a real number.
28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

5. Using questions 3. and 4. we have

 0   !  !
z −1 z−1 z−1 π
arg = arg −i = arg(−i) + arg = − + kπ,
z0 − i z−i z−i 2

for some integer k.

Exercise 1.7.4. Find the solutions of the following equations

1. z 2 + z + 1 = 0, 2. z 2 + 5z + 4 = 0, 3. z 2 + 6z + 9 = 0, 4. z 4 + 4z 2 + 3 = 0.

Comments. Here we remind the method to solve second order polynomial equa-
tions.
• To find the solution of the equation az 2 + bz + c = 0, where a 6= 0, we proceed
as follows: We compute the discriminant

∆ = b2 − 4ac

Case 1: ∆ > 0. We have two real solutions

√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
z1 = or z2 = ·
2a 2a
Case 2: ∆ = 0. We have one real solution
−b
z0 = ·
2a
Case 3: ∆ < 0. We have two solutions which are complex numbers:
√ √
−b − i −∆ −b + i −∆
z1 = or z2 = ·
2a 2a
• To deal with equations of the form az 4 + bz 2 + c = 0, we make the following
substitution Z = z 2 . In this case the equation becomes

aZ 2 + bZ + c = 0.

We find Z by proceeding as in the previous point and we deduce z.

Solution. In this exercise we deal with equations of degre 2.
1. We consider the equation z 2 + z + 1 = 0. Then, ∆ = 1 − 4 = −3 < 0. In this
case, we have two solutions which are complex numbers
√ √
−1 − i 3 −1 + i 3
z1 = or z2 = ·
2 2

2. We are looking for z, such that, z 2 + 5z + 4 = 0. To find z we define

∆ = 25 − 16 = 9 > 0. Therefore, we have two real solutions which are given
by
−5 − 3 −5 + 3
z1 = = −4 or z2 = = −1·
2 2
1.7. EXERCISE SESSION 29

3. We define the equation z 2 + 6z + 9 = 0. Hence, ∆ = 0. This implies that the

unique real solution is given by
−6
z0 = = −3·
2

4. Now we consider the equation z 4 + 4z 2 + 3 = 0. We use the following substi-

tution Z = z 2 . The previous equation becomes

Z 2 + 4Z + 3 = 0. (1.7.2)

To determine Z, we set ∆ = 16 − 12 = 4 > 0. Then (1.7.2) has two real

solutions
−4 − 2 −4 + 2
Z1 = = −3 or Z2 = = −1·
2 2
To find z we have to point out that
√
Z1 = −3 ⇔ z12 = 3i2 ⇔ z1 = ±i 3 and Z22 = −1 ⇔ z22 = i2 ⇔ z2 = ±i.
n √ √ o
S = −i 3 ; i 3 , −i ; i

Exercise 1.7.5. Find the solutions of the following equations

√
1. z 6 = 8, 2. z 4 = 1 − i, 3. z 7 = 1 − i 3,

Comments. In this exercise we have to tackle exponent of complex numbers:

z n = a + ib

• As we pointed it out in exercise 1.7.1, to compute powers of complex numbers,

the exponential form is more adapted.

• We have to determine

the exponential form of the complex number a+ib which
is |a + ib| exp i θ , where arg(a + ib) = θ + 2 iπ.

• Identifying |a + ib| exp i θ to z n = |z|n exp(i n ω), where ω = arg(z), we will

be able to determine the n solutions z0 , z1 , · · · , zn−1 of the equation z n = a+ib

Solution. Let z be a complex number which satisfies z n = a + ib. Therefore, we

have

• θ = arg(a + ib)

• r = |a + ib|

• ω = arg(z)

• a + ib = r exp(iθ)

• z = |z| exp(i ω)
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

From this we deduce that,

z n = |z|n exp i n ω = r exp(i (θ + 2kπ)).

This identity is equivalent to |z|n = r and n ω = θ + 2kπ. We have

√ θ + 2kπ
|z| = n
r and ω= ·
n
Consequently, for every integer k, such that, 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, we have

√
 
θ + 2kπ
n
zk = r exp i ·
n
√ √
1. We consider the equation z 6 = 8. In this case we have |z| = 6
8= 2 and
θ = 0. We conclude that
√ √
   
2kπ kπ
zk = 2 exp i = 2 exp i ,
6 3

for 0 ≤ k ≤ 5. This involves

√
z0 = 2
√ √
√
2 6
z1 = 2 cos(π/3) + i sin(π/3) = +i
2 √ 2 √
√
2 6
z2 = 2 cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3) = − +i
√ √ 2 2


z3 = 2 cos(π) + i sin(π) = − 2
√ √
√
2 6
z4 = 2 cos(π + π/3) + i sin(π + π/3) = − −i
√2 √2
√
2 6
z5 = 2 cos(2π − π/3) + i sin(2π − π/3) = −i ·
2 2

p
4
√ √
2. For the equation z 4 = 1 − i, we have |z| = 2 = 8 2 and θ = − π4 · Then,
for 0 ≤ k ≤ 3, we have
√
  
8 π kπ
zk = 2 exp i − + ·
16 2
√ √
3. Now we consider the equation z 7 = 1 − i 3. Then, |z| = 7 2 and θ = − π3 .
From this we deduce that
√
  
7 π 2kπ
zk = 2 exp i − + ,
21 7

for 0 ≤ k ≤ 6.
1.8. PROBLEMS 31

Exercise 1.7.6. Find the solution of the following equation z 3 + 3z 2 + 4z = 0.

Comments. To find the solution of an equation of the form a3 z 3 +a2 z 2 +a1 z+a0 =
0, we proceed as follows:
• We find a particular solution z0 of the equation.
• We write this equation in the form (z − z0 )(az 2 + bz + c) = 0.
• We determine the solutions of the equation az 2 + bz + c = 0.
Solution. We consider the equation z 3 + 3z + 4z = 0. If we replace z by 0, we
obtain 0 + 3 · 0 + 4 · 0 = 0. Therefore z0 = 0 is a solution to the equation. Now we
have to write the equation in the form

z az 2 + bz + c = 0.

Now we should find a, b and c. To determine a, b and c, we point out that

z(az 2 + bz + c) = az 3 + bz 2 + cz = z 3 + 3z 2 + 4z

Identifying the coefficients of the two polynomes we obatin a = 1, b = 3 and c = 4.

Hence we have

z(z 2 + 3z + 4) = 0 ⇐⇒ z = 0 or z 2 + 3z + 4 = 0.

For the equation z 2 + 3z + 4 = 0, we have ∆ = −7. Consequently,

√ √
−3 − i 7 −3 + i 7
z1 = or z2 = ·
2 2
We conclude that ( √ √ )
−3 − i 7 −3 + i 7
S= 0; ; ·
2 2

1.8 Problems
Problem 1.8.1. Let x and y be two real numbers. We define the complex number
z = x + i y. We suppose that z 6= 1 − 3i. and we consider the complex number
z + 3 + 7i
Z= ·
z − 1 + 3i
1. Determine the algebraic and the trigonometric form of Z.
2. Let M (x, y) be the point of the plane associated to z. Find the set of all points
M in the plane such that,
a. Z is a real number
32 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS

b. Z is a purely imaginary number.

Problem 1.8.2. Find the solutions of the following equations
z−1 (3 − 2 i) z+1
1. 3 − 2 iz + i = 0, 2. = i, 3. = i − 5, 4. = 1 + i,
z+1 z+2 z−1
5. 2z = i − 1, 6. (2 z + 1 − i)(z + i − 2) = 0, 7. 3(z − z) + 5z = 3z − 2 i.

Problem 1.8.3. Let z belong to C. We define the function P (z) = z 3 + z 2 + 2z − 4.

1. Check that P (z) = (z − 1)(z 2 + 2z + 4).
2. Find the solutions of the equation P (z) = 0.
Problem 1.8.4. Let f (z) = z 4 − 8z 3 + 26z 2 − 8z + 25 be a complex function.
1. Check that for every z ∈ C, f (z) = (z 2 + 1)(z 2 − z + 25)
2. Find the solutions to the equation z 4 − 8z 3 + 26z 2 − 8z + 25 = 0.
Problem 1.8.5. Compute the following complex numbers

7  √ n
2019 √
5 √
3
1. 1 − i , 2. i − 3 , 3. 1 + i , 4. − 1 − 3 , 5. 3−i .

Problem 1.8.6. Find the solutions of the following equations

1. (1 + i)z 2 − z − (1 − i) = 0, 2. 2z 2 − 2z + 5 = 0, 3. z 4 + 5z + 4 = 0,
√
4. z 4 − 2z 2 cos(θ) + 1 = 0, 5. z 3 = 3 − i.
√

Problem 1.8.7. Consider the complex number Z = (1 + i) 3−i .
1. Determine the algebraic and the trigonometric form of Z.
π π



2. Deduce from 1 the exact values of cos 12 and sin 12 ·
Problem 1.8.8. Let z be a complex number which is different to 1. We define the
complex number z 0 = 1 + z + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 .
1. Prove that
1 − z5
z0 = ·
1−z
2i π
, determine z 0


2. Taking z = exp 5

3. Deduce from 2 the value of 1 + cos 2π 4π 6π 8π

5 + cos 5 + cos 5 + cos 5

4. Show that cos 2π 8π

= 4 cos2 π5 − 2.




5 + cos 5

5. Establish that cos 4π 6π

= −2 cos π5 .




5 + cos 5

6. Deduce from the previous questions that cos π5 is a solution to the equation

4x2 − 2x − 1 = 0.

π


7. Solve the equation 4x2 − 2x − 1 = 0 and determine the exact value of cos 5 .
1.8. PROBLEMS 33

Problem 1.8.9. We consider the polynomial function P (z) = z 4 − 6z 3 + 23z 2 −

34z + 26.
1. a. Prove that P (u) = P (u).
b. Show that if P (u) = 0, then P (u) = 0.

2. Now we take z = 1 + i.
a. Compute P (1 + i).
b. Deduce from 2.a) another solution to the equation P (z) = 0.
c. Find the solutions of the equation P (z) = 0.

Problem 1.8.10. Find a necessary and sufficient conditions on α and β, such that

1 + exp(i α) + exp(i β) = 0.

Problem 1.8.11. Define the trigonometric form of the following complex numbers

1. 1 + cos(θ) + i sin(θ) with α, β ∈] − π/2, π/2[

2. ei α + ei β
3. ei α − ei β
4. (1 + i tan(α)) (1 − i tan(β)), with α, β ∈] − π/2, π/2[

Problem 1.8.12. Compute the following complex numbers

 √ n
n
1. (1 − cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) , 2. (1 − i)n , 3. i − 3 , 4. (1 + i)2019
n
5. (1 − i tan(θ)) , with θ ∈] − π/2, π/2[.

Problem 1.8.13. Let z belong to C. We define the function P (z) = z 3 +z 2 +2z −4.
1. Check that P (z) = (z − 1)(z 2 + 2z + 4).
2. Find the solutions of the following equation P (z) = 0.
34 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO
SEQUENCES

Contents
2.1 Generalities on Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.1.1 Computation of the Terms of a Sequence . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.2 Bounded Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1.3 Monotonic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Proof by Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.1 First Form of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.2 Second Form of Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 Study of Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.1 Definitions of Limits of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.2 General Theorems on Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.3 Elementary Operations on Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

In this chapter we deal with functions with domain the set of natural numbers
N or a subset of N. These particular functions are called sequences. In other words
a sequence can be defined as a function which goes from N into R. That is, we have
f : N → R or f : D → R, with D ⊂ N. Usually we denote f (n) the image of n
by the function f . Since the set N is countable, the range of N which is denoted

by f (N) is also countable. In this case we can enumerate the elements of f N .
This allows to use the

notation fn instead of f (n). In this situation the set f (N) is
represented by fn n∈N .
We specify that the real number fn is called the nth term of the sequence
(fn )n∈N . The readers should make the difference between fn and (fn )n∈N . By
(fn )n∈N we mean all the terms of the sequence while fn designates the nth term

35
36 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

of the sequence.Sequences have several applications in Physic, Chemistry,Biology,

Ecology, · · · · In this chapter we will essentially be concerned by induction and
convergence of sequences.
The remain of this chapter is organized as follows. In section 1 we give a list of
definitions. In section 2 we introduce and study induction. The section 3 is devoted
to limits and convergence.
Before going further, we draw the readers attention that we will sometimes start
counting from 0 instead of 1. This means that the expressions f0 or u0 would be
sometimes used and would represent the first term of the sequence.

2.1 Generalities on Sequences

In this section we will attempt to precise the definitions which will be needed for the
sequel. We start by specifying the definition of explicitly and recursively defined
sequences. Because at this stage, we think that it is so important to make the
difference between these two types of sequences. We should however mention that in
this chapter the terms recursively defined sequence and sequence defined by induction
are equivalent. They have the same meaning. In the list of definitions we will give
the definition of increasing and decreasing sequences. Another important property
which plays an important role in the study of sequences is boundedness, therefore
we will define in this section the different type of boundedness that can exist for a
sequence.

Definition 2.1.1. A sequence (un )n≥n0 is explicitly defined if it is in the form

un = f (n), (2.1.1)

for some real function f : R −→ R and any natural number n ≥ n0 .

We emphasize that the natural number n0 can be 0 if the first term of the
sequence is u0 . It can be 1 if the first term is u1 , · · · · We will specify later on what
we mean by the first term of a sequence. This definition means that the term un
depends directly on n.

Example 2.1.2. The following sequences are explicitly defined:

1
• ∀ n ∈ N, un = 2n , • ∀ n ≥ 1, vn = , • ∀ n ∈ N, wn = n + 1.
n
Definition 2.1.3. A sequence (un )n≥n0 is recursively defined if its first term un0
is given and for all n ≥ n0 we have

un+1 = f (un ). (2.1.2)

for some natural number n0 and some real function f : R −→ R.

We usually use the following representation for recursive sequenses


 un0 ∈ R

un+1 = f (un ), ∀ n ≥ n0 .

2.1. GENERALITIES ON SEQUENCES 37

In this definition one can observe that the term un+1 depends on the previous one:
un . The relation of dependance is defined by the function f .

Example 2.1.4. The following sequences are recursively defined :


 v1 = 2

 u0 = 3 
• • vn

un+1 = un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0,  vn+1 =
 , ∀ n ≥ 1.
vn + 1

Definition 2.1.5. The initial term or the first term of a sequence (un ) is the
term that has the smallest index.

As it was pointed out that a sequence is a particular function, we should be able

to determine the image of any natural number which is in the domaine. That can
be possible but it is not always easy. For the sake of clarity we distinguish the case
of explicitly defined sequences to the case of recursively defined sequences.

2.1.1 Computation of the Terms of a Sequence

In this subsection, we illustrate how to proceed if we want to determine the terms
of a sequences.

For Explicitely defined Sequences

We remind briefly that a sequence is explicitly defined if there exists some n0 ∈ N,

such that for all n ≥ n0 , un = f (n), for some real function f.
To obtain un0 we have to calculate

un0 = f (n0 ).

Let n1 > n0 be some positive integer. In order to compute un1 , we use the following
formula
un1 = f (n1 ).

Example 2.1.6. For instance we consider the sequence un = 2 n + 3. Then, we

have

• u0 = 2 · 0 + 3 = 3, • u1 = 2 · 1 + 3 = 5, • u2 = 2 · 2 + 3 = 7,
• u10 = 2 · 10 + 3 = 23, • u100 = 2 · 100 + 3 = 203.

Exercise 2.1.7. For each of the following sequences determine u0 , u2 , u10 and u25

1. ∀ n ∈ N, un = 3 n + 1, 2. ∀ n ∈ N, un = (2 n + 1)2 + 5,
1
3. ∀ n ∈ N, un = 3n+1 − 2n , 4. ∀ n ∈ N, un = ,
n+3
5. ∀ n ∈ N, un = n3 − 2 n + 1.
38 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

For Recursively Defined Sequences

Let (un )n≥n0 be recursively defined by un0 = a ∈ R and for any natural number
n ≥ n0 , un+1 = f (un ), for some real function f . Here, the initial term un0 is given.
it is equal to a. In order to calculate un0 +1 we use the term un0 in the formula
above. We get
un0 +1 = f (un0 ) = f (a).

We emphasize that the function f must be defined at a. Otherwise the expression

f (a) does not make a sense. To obtain the term un0 +2 , we use the term un0 +1
as follows: un0 +2 = f (un0 +1 ). It is important to notice that, if we want to calcu-
late un0 +k we must compute all the terms un0 , un0 +1 , un0 +2 , ..., un0 +k−2 , un0 +k−1 .
Clearly if we want to get un0 +10 for example we must calculate all the terms from
un0 to un0 +9 .

Example 2.1.8. We consider the following sequence


 u0 = 2

∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 un + 1.


Here n0 = 0. To determine u1 , u2 , u3 and u4 we proceed as follows:

• u1 = 2 u0 + 1 = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5, • u2 = 2 u1 + 1 = 2 · 5 + 1 = 11,
• u3 = 2 u2 + 1 = 2 · 11 + 1 = 23, • u4 = 2 u3 + 1 = 2 · 23 + 1 = 47.

Example 2.1.9. As a second example we define the following sequence,


 u1 = 1

un
 ∀ n ≥ 1,
 un+1 = ·
un + 1

In this example, the initial term is u1 , then n0 = 1. To compute u2 and u3 we set :

1 1
u1 1 1 u2 2 1
• u2 = = = , • u3 = = = 2 = ·
u1 + 1 1+1 2 u2 + 1 1 3 3
+1
2 2

Exercise 2.1.10. Compute the five first terms of each of the following sequences
 
 u0 = 1  u1 = 0
1. 2.
∀n ≥ 0, un+1 = 3 un − 3, ∀n ≥ 1, un+1 = 2 u2n + 1,
 

u =1
 0

3.
 ∀n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 un + 1 ·

un

In the next section we investigate bounded sequences.

2.1. GENERALITIES ON SEQUENCES 39

2.1.2 Bounded Sequences

Sometimes the values taken by the sequence cannot exceed some real number M. In
this case we say the sequence is bounded above. If the values of the sequence cannot
go under some value m, we say that the sequence is bounded below. When the values
of a sequence is locate in an interval [m, M ], such that, m < M ,we say that the
sequence is bounded. To clarify these notions we introduce these definitions.

Definition 2.1.11. A sequence (un )n≥0 is bounded above , if there exists a real
number M such that, ∀ n ≥ 0,
un ≤ M.

Example 2.1.12. Let n ≥ 1 be a natural number. We define the sequence un = n1 ·

We can observe that sequence (un )n≥1 is bounded above. Indeed, ∀ n ≥ 1, we have

un ≤ 1.

Definition 2.1.13. A sequence (un )n≥0 is bounded below, if there exists m ∈ R,

such that, for every n ≥ 0
m ≤ un .

Example 2.1.14. We consider the sequence un = n2 , for any natural number n.

The sequence (un ) is bounded below. Because ∀ n ≥ 0,

0 ≤ un = n2

Definition 2.1.15. A sequence (un )n≥0 is said to be bounded, if, it is bounded

above and below.
Definition 2.1.15 means that, there exist real numbers m and M , such that,

∀ n ≥ 0, m ≤ un ≤ M (2.1.3)

Example 2.1.16. We define the sequence un = (−1)n , ∀n ∈ N. We know that,

∀ n ≥ 0, we have
−1 ≤ un ≤ 1.


Therefore, un n≥0 is bounded.

2.1.3 Monotonic Sequences

Since a sequence is a function, we need to know its variations. Here we mean by
variations of a sequence the fact that the sequence is increasing or decreasing.

Definition 2.1.17. A sequence (un )n≥0 is increasing, if for all n ≥ 0, we have,

un ≤ un+1 .

Example 2.1.18. Consider the sequence un = n2 , for all n ≥ 0. Then, the sequence
(un ) satisfies un = n2 ≤ (n + 1)2 = un+1 . Therefore it is increasing.
40 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Definition 2.1.19. We say that a sequence (un )n≥0 is decreasing, if for all n ≥ 0
we have,
un ≥ un+1 .

Example 2.1.20. The sequence un = n1 , ∀ n ≥ 1 is a decreasing sequence. Indeed

for any n ≥ 1, we have
1 1
un = ≥ = un+1 .
n n+1
Now, we focus on the inequalities un ≤ un+1 and un ≥ un+1 . They are respec-
tively equivalent to un+1 − un ≥ 0 and un+1 − un ≤ 0.
This means that the variations of the sequences (un ) depends on the sign of the
difference un+1 − un .


Theorem 2.1.21. Let un n≥0 be a real sequence. Then,


1. if un+1 − un ≥ 0, the sequence un n≥0 is increasing


2. if un+1 − un ≤ 0, the sequence un n≥0 is decreasing.

Proof. The proof of this theorem is quite simple. If for
all natural number n ≥ 0,
un+1 − un ≥ 0, then we have un+1 ≥ un . Therefore un n≥0 is increasing.
On the other hand if for every
natural number n,we have un+1 − un ≤ 0, then,
un+1 ≤ un . We conclude that un n≥0 is decreasing.

Remark 2.1.22. When the inequalities are strict we say that the sequence is strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing.
Example 2.1.23. We define the following sequence

 u0 = 2
3.
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = un + 3 n + 2.


Let n be any natural number. Then, we have un+1 − un = 3n + 2 ≥ 0. Therefore

the sequence (un ) is increasing.
Exercise 2.1.24. Study the variations of the following sequences.
 
 u0 = 0  u0 = 3
1. √ 2. √
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = un + 5,
 

5
3. ∀ n ≥ 1, un = 7 + ·
n2
Let n0 be a natural number. We consider the property P (n) for any natural
number n ≥ n0 . We would like to  show that for each n ≥ n0 the property P (n) is
true. But we know that the set n ∈ N ; n ≥ n0 is infinite. It seems to be a waste
of time to want to check P (n) for any n ≥ n0 . Nevertheless, proceeding intelligently
we can prove that P (n) is true for any n ≥ n0 . Our strategy will runs in this way,
2.2. PROOF BY INDUCTION 41

1. we check that P (n0 ) is true

2. we verify that P (n) is true, implies that P (n + 1) is true.
This procedure is called induction. In the next section we will study the different
forms of induction.

2.2 Proof by Induction

This section is devoted to induction. We will see that there are two forms of
induction: first form and second form. We summarize briefly the general ideas of
the different forms of induction before studying them in details
First Form: We consider the property P (n) depending on the positive integer n
satisfying n ≥ n0 for some integer n0 .
• We check that P (n0 ) is true.
• After this we assume that the property P (k) is true and we prove P (k+1).
Second Form: Let n0 be a natural number. For any n ≥ n0 , we define the prop-
erty P (n).
• We check that P (n0 ) is true.
• Secondly we assume that the property P (k 0 ) is true for any natural num-
ber less than or equal to k and we prove that P (k + 1) is true.

2.2.1 First Form of Induction

In this subsection, we describe the first form of proof by induction. We fixed a
natural number n0 . We define the property P (n), ∀n ≥ n0 . To prove P (n) we
proceed in three steps:
Step 1: We set n = n0 and we check that P (n0 ) is true.
Step 2: We assume P (k) for some positive integer k.
Step 3: Now we prove that P (k + 1) holds
Conclusion: We conclude that for all natural number n ≥ n0 , P (n) is true.
To make more understandable the procedure of induction we proceed by examples
Example 2.2.1. Prove by induction that ∀n ≥ 1,

n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = ·
2
We define
n (n + 1)
P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 1, 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = ·
2
To establish P (n) for n ≥ 1, we proceed in three steps.
1 (1+1)
Step 1: We consider n = 1, then , 1 = 2 = 1. Therefore P (1) is true.
42 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Step 2: We assume P (k) for some k ≥ 2. In other words we suppose that

k (k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = ·
2
Step 3: Now we want to prove P (k + 1). This is equivalent to establish that
(k + 1) (k + 2)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = ·
2
For any natural number k ≥ 2 we have,
k (k + 1) k (k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) =
2 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= ·
2
n (n+1)
Conclusion: Therefore, For all n ≥ 1, we have 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = 2 ·
Example 2.2.2. Prove that for any natural number n, 2n > n. We define
P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 0, 2n > n.
To establish this property we proceed as follows:
Step 1: We fix n = 0. Therefore we have 20 = 1 > 0. The property is true for 0.
Step 2: Now we assume that the property holds for some natural number k ≥ 2.
That is, 2k > k.
Step 3: Now we want to establish that the property holds for k + 1. In other words
we have 2k+1 > (k + 1).
We know by definition that 2k+1 = 2k · 2. Since we have assumed that 2k > k,
one deduces that 2k+1 > 2k. As we took k > 2, then, 2k > k + 2 > k + 1.
Therefore we can see that 2k+1 > k + 1. Hence, P (k + 1) is true
Conclusion: We conclude that for all n ≥ 0, we have 2n > n.
Example 2.2.3. To prove that for every n ≥ 4, n! ≥ n2 , we define the property
P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 4, n! ≥ n2
and we use a proof by induction
Step 1: We consider n = 4. On one hand we have 4! = 24. On the other hand, we
see that 42 = 16. Then, 4! ≥ 42 . Consequently P (4) is true.
Step 2: Now, we assume P (k) for some natural number k ≥ 5. This involves
k! ≥ k 2 .
Step 3: We have to establish P (k + 1). That is, we should prove that

2
(k + 1)! ≥ k + 1 .

As we assumed k ≥ 5, using step 2, one obtains k! ≥ k 2 ≥ (k + 1). Multiplying

by (k + 1) in both sides of the previous inequalities, we find that
k! (k + 1) = (k + 1)! ≥ (k + 1)2 .
Hence P (k + 1) is true.
2.2. PROOF BY INDUCTION 43

Conclusion: We conclude that for any n ≥ 4 we have n! ≥ n2 .

Exercise 2.2.4. Prove by induction the following properties.

n (n+1)(2 n+1)
1. P (n) : ∀n ≥ 1, 1 + 4 + 9 + ... + n2 = 6 ·

n2 (n+1)2
2. P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 1, 1 + 8 + 27 + ... + n3 = 4 ·

n (n+1)(6 n3 +9 n2 +n−1)
3. P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 1, 1 + 16 + 81 + ... + n4 = 30 ·

Exercise 2.2.5. We consider the sequence defined by

1

 u0 = 2

q
 un+1 = 1+un , ∀ n ≥ 0.

2

Prove that for all n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 1.

2.2.2 Second Form of Induction

We start by precising that the second form of induction is stronger than the first
one. Because it requires in step 2 of the proof by induction, to assume that the
property is true for every k 0 ≤ k in order to be able to establish P (k + 1). Appart
from this additional constraint the process remains the same.
We consider the proposition ∀ n ≥ n0 , P (n). To prove P (n), we proceed as in
the preceding subsection. At first, we check P(n0 ). Secondly we assume P (k 0 ) for
0 ≤ k 0 ≤ k for some positive integer k. We establish that this implies P (k + 1).
This can be clearly summarize in the following steps

Step 1: We fix n = n0 and we check P (n0 )

Step 2: We consider some natural number k and for n0 ≤ k 0 ≤ k we assume P(k 0 )

Step 3: In this step we establish that P (k + 1).

Conclusion: We conclude that for every n ≥ n0 , the property P (n) is true.

Example 2.2.6. We consider the following sequence


 u0 = 1
√
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 + un .


Establish that P (n) : ∀ n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 2.

Step 1: If we take n = 0 we obtain 0 < u0 = 1 < 2. Hence, P (0) is true.

Step 2: We assume that the property holds for any positive integer less than k for
some natural number k. That is for every k 0 such that 0 ≤ k 0 ≤ k we have

0 ≤ uk0 ≤ 2.
44 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Step 3: Now we have to establish that 0 ≤ uk+1 ≤ 2.

Since 0 ≤ uk ≤ 2, we have 2 ≤ 2 + uk ≤ 4 This implies that
√ √ √
0 ≤ 2 ≤ 2 + uk ≤ 4 = 2.
The property is true for k + 1.
Conclusion: We conclude that for any n ≥ 0, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ 2.
Exercise 2.2.7. We consider the following sequence

 u0 = 2

∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 4 un − 1.


5
Establish that for all n ≥ 0, un = 3 4n + 31 ·
If there is no risk of ambiguity we will adopt from now on, the following no-
tations: we will write (un ) instead of (un )n≥n0 or (un )n≥0 , in order to simplify
notations. But when the situation seems to be confused, for the sake of clarity we
will specify the indices. Moreover throughout this chapter we will be concerned by
real sequences.
Let (un ) be a sequence. As (un ) is a function, we can be attempted to study
the behaviour of (un ) when n approaches +∞. Since we cannot reach +∞, in this
case we say that we are looking for the limit of the sequence at +∞. Below, we aim
to specify the nature of (un ) in accordance with the value of the limit.
We notice that the limit of a sequence holds only at +∞.

2.3 Study of Limits of Sequences

This section is devoted to limits. Here we define what we mean by limit of a
sequence. According to the value of the limit, we can say whether the sequence is
convergent or divergent.

2.3.1 Definitions of Limits of Sequences

Consider a real number `. The expression ` is the limit of (un ) when n goes to +∞
means that when n is large enough the terms un , un+1 , un+2 , · · · are as close as
we want to `. In other words there exists a natural number N , such that, for any
n ≥ N , we can make the positive real number |un − `| as small as we want. This can
be reformulated by saying that for all positive real ε > 0 small enough (the positive
real number ε > 0 can be chosen as small as possible), there exists N ∈ N, such
that, for any n ≥ N we have |un − `| ≤ ε. This leads to the following definition.
Definition 2.3.1. A real number ` is the limit of the sequence (un ), if for all
ε > 0, there exists a natural number N , such that, for every n ≥ N we have

un − ` ≤ ε.

In this case we write

lim un = `.
n→+∞
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 45

This definion can be rewriten as follows: there exists N ∈ N such that, for any
n ≥ N the term un belongs to a neighborhood of `. We interpret this by saying
that for any n ≥ N the term un is approximately equal to `. Using the absolute
value we write
lim |un − `| = 0.
n→+∞

Definition 2.3.2. We say that the sequence (un ) converges to the real number
`, if
lim un = `.
n→+∞

In this case the sequence (un ) is called a convergent sequence. If the limit ` is
+∞ or −∞, we say that (un ) is a divergent sequence. We will see below another
characterization of divergent sequences.
1
Example 2.3.3. For all n ≥ 1, we define the sequence un = n· Then, we have
1
lim un = lim = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ n
Therefore, the sequence (un ) converges to 0.
The following example shows a sequence which is divergent.
Example 2.3.4. We consider the sequence un = 2 n, for every n ≥ 0. One sees
that
lim un = lim 2 n = +∞.
n→+∞ n→+∞
Hence, the sequence (un ) is divergent.

Definition 2.3.5. A sequence (un ) converges to +∞, if for any real number
A > 0, there exists some natural number n, such that,

un > A.

Remark 2.3.6. This definition means that the sequence (un ) cannot be bounded
above.
Example 2.3.7. We take the sequence un = n2 , ∀ n ≥ 0. Then
lim n2 = +∞.
n→+∞

This sequence goes to +∞ when n goes to +∞.

Definition 2.3.8. A sequence (un ) converges to −∞, if for any real number A,
one can find some natural number n such that,

un < A, ∀ n ≥ N.

Remark 2.3.9. A sequence which converges to −∞ cannot be bounded below.

Example 2.3.10. For any n ≥ 0, we consider the sequence un = −n. Then,
lim −n = −∞.
n→+∞

Hence, the sequence (un ) converges to −∞.

46 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

2.3.2 General Theorems on Convergence

The main purpose of this subsection is to give a list of some of the most usefull
theorems in the study of convergence sequences. In the first result we will be
concerned by the uniqueness of the limit. From this theorem, we deduce that if a
sequence has more than one limit, then, this sequence is divergent. Other theorems
like monotonic convergence theorem, sandwich theorem and others will be stated.
In the previous subsection we established that a sequence is convergent if it has
a finite limit. One may wonder now if this limit is unique. The answer to this
question, we will the contents of the following theorem

Theorem 2.3.11. If `1 and `2 are two real numbers and (un ) a sequence such
that
lim un = `1 and lim un = `2 ,
n→+∞ n→+∞

then, `1 = `2 .

Remark 2.3.12. This theorem clarifies the fact that any convergent sequence has
a unique limit.
Proof. Let (un ) be a convergent sequence. We assume

lim un = `1 , and lim un = `2 .

n→+∞ n→+∞

Since (un ) is convergent we deduce that `1 and `2 are finite. Therefore, we have

lim un − un = lim un − lim un = `1 − `2 = 0.

n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞

Consequently we obtain `1 = `2 .
As a consequence of this lemma, we have the following corollary.

Corollary 2.3.13. Any real sequence (un ) that has more than one limit is di-
vergent.

Example 2.3.14. An example of such sequence is given by un = (−1)n for n ≥ 0.

For any n ≥ 0 we define 
 vn = u2n = 1

wn = u2n+1 = −1


It is obvious that

lim u2 n = 1 and lim u2 n+1 = −1.

n→+∞ n→+∞

From this we observe that the sequence (un ) has two different limits. Then, the
previous corollary implies (un ) is diverges.

Theorem 2.3.15. If (un ) and (vn ) be two real sequences and N some natural
number such that for every n ≥ N , un ≤ vn then

lim un ≤ lim vn .
n→+∞ n→+∞
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 47

Proof. We consider two real sequences (un ) and (vn ) and we suppose that there
exists a natural number N , such that, for avery n ≥ N , we have un ≤ vn . We define
wn = un − vn and we assume that

lim wn = ` > 0.
n→+∞

The fact that (wn ) converges to a strictly positive real number ` means that
for some n large enough (n → +∞) we have wn > 0. That is, there exists a
natural number N0 ≥ N such that for every n ≥ N0 one has wn > 0. This involves
un − vn > 0, which is absurd. Hence, we have

lim wn = lim (un − vn ) = lim un − lim vn ≤ 0.

n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞

This completes the proof.

As a consequence of this theorem we can state the following corollary.

Corollary 2.3.16. If (un ) is a real sequence, and N some natural number, such
that, for every n ≥ N , 0 ≤ un , then,

0 ≤ lim un .
n→+∞

In the corollary of theorem 2.3.11 we have shown that a sequence which has
two different limits diverges. The following theorem, will show that a divergent
sequence can have a unique limit. In this case this limit is equal to +∞ or −∞.

Theorem 2.3.17. Any increasing sequence which is not bounded above converges
to +∞.

Proof. We consider an increasing sequence (un ) which is not bounded above. Hence,
for all real number A > 0, we can find a natural number N , such that, uN > A.
Since (un ) is an increasing sequence, we deduce that for all n ≥ N , un > A.
Therefore using definition 2.3.5 we have

lim un = +∞.
n→+∞

This proves the theorem.

Theorem 2.3.18. Any decreasing sequence which is not bounded below converges
to −∞.

Proof. We take a decreasing sequence (un ). We assume that (un ) is not bounded
below. Therefore for any real number B < 0 there exists N ∈ N such that uN < B.
Since (un ) is a decreasing sequence, we have un < B, for all n ≥ N. From definition
2.3.8 we deduce that
lim un = −∞.
n→+∞
48 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

In many situations, we are not able to give the exact value of the limit when
a sequence converges. In these cases the best option which offers to us is just
to say that the sequence converges without specifying its limit. The monotonic
convergence theorem is one of such result that will allow us to say that a sequence
is convergent without giving its limit.

Theorem 2.3.19 (Monotonic Covergence Theorem). Let (un ) be a real sequence

sequence. We assume that (un ) is increasing and bounded above or decreasing
and bounded below. Then, (un ) is convergent
Proof. To prove the theorem we use the property that if (A) and (B) are two
propositions such that (A ⇒ B) then,
(nonB ⇒ nonA).
Now we consider an increasing sequence (un ) which is not bounded above. Ap-
plying theorem 2.3.17 one deduces,
lim un = +∞.
n→+∞

Then the first part of the theorem holds.

If (un ) is a decreasing sequence that is not bounded below, then by theorem
2.3.17 we have
lim un = −∞.
n→+∞
The second part of the theorem holds. This completes the proof.
Example 2.3.20. We consider the following sequence

 u0 = 1
√
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 + un .


1. Establish that ∀ n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 2.
2. Prove that (un ) is an increasing sequence.
3. Is the sequence (un ) convergent ?
Solution. We consider the previous sequence and we aim to prove that P (n) : ∀ n ≥
0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 2
1. To this end we proceed by indution
Step 1: We fix n = 0 then we have 0 < u0 = 1 < 2. This implies P (0).
Step 2: We assume now that the property holds for all positive integer less
than or equal to some natural number k. That is, for every k 0 such that
k 0 ≤ k, one has 0 ≤ uk0 ≤ 2.
Step 3: Now we have to prove P (k + 1). In other words we want to establish
that
0 ≤ uk+1 ≤ 2.
Since 0 ≤ uk ≤ 2, we have
√ √
2 ≤ 2 + uk ≤ 4 ⇒ 0 ≤ 2≤ 2 + uk ≤ 2.
Then the property is true for k + 1
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 49

Conclusion: For any n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 2.

2. To prove that the sequence (un ) is increasing, we must compute un+1 − un .
For all n ≥ 0,
√ 2 + un − u2n
un+1 − un = 2 − un − un = √ .
un + un + 2
We study the sign of the second order polynomial function −u2n + un + 2. To
this end we define the function f (x) = −x2 + x + 2. One deduces the following
sign table:
x −∞ −1 2 +∞
−x2 + x + 2 − 0+ 0 − .
For more details on the sign of second order polynomial functions see appendix.
Since ∀n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 2, one obtains un+1 − un ≥ 0. Therefore (un ) is an
increasing sequence.
3. As (un ) is increasing and bounded above, hence it is convergent.
Example 2.3.21. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by

 u0 = 2
√
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 un − 1.


1. Prove ∀n ≥ 0, 1 ≤ un
2. Study the variations of the sequence (un ).
3. Deduce from the two previous questions that (un ) converges.
Solution. 1. We define the property P (n) : ∀n ≥ 0, 1 ≤ un . To prove P (n) we
proceed in this way.
Step 1: We set n = 0. Then, we have u0 = 2 > 1. Then, P (0) holds.
Step 2: We consider some natural number k and we assume that the property
is satisfied by any positive integer k 0 ≤ k. Therefore, ∀ k 0 such that
k 0 ≤ k, we have 1 ≤ uk0 .
Step 3: Now we have to prove that 1 ≤ uk+1 . We recall that we assumed in
the previous step that for all k 0 ≤ k, uk0 ≥ 1. Then 1 ≤ uk . Multiplying
by 2 in the previous inequality, one gets 2 ≤ 2 uk . Thus one obtains
1 ≤ 2 uk − 1. Considering the square root in the previous inequality, we
obtain √
1 ≤ 2 uk − 1 = uk+1 .
Therefore P (k + 1) is true.
Conclusion: For any n ≥ 0, un ≥ 1.
2. We know that to study the variations of a sequence, we have to find the sign
of un+1 − un . For any n we have
√ −u2n + 2 un − 1 −(un − 1)2
un+1 − un = 2 un − 1 − un = √ = √ ≤ 0·
un + 2 un − 1 un + 2 un − 1
50 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

This provides
un+1 − un ≤ 0.
Therefore (un ) is a decreasing sequence.

3. Since (un ) is decreasing and bounded below, it is convergent.

Exercise 2.3.22. Let (un )n≥0 and (vn )n≥0 be two real sequences, such that, u0 > 0,
v0 > 0. For every natural number n ≥ 1 we define
 √
 un+1 = un vn


 vn+1 = un + vn ·

2
1. Establish that for all n ≥ 1, un ≤ vn .

2. Prove that (un ) is an increasing sequence and (vn ) is a decreasing sequence.

3. Deduce from the two previous questions that (un ) and (vn ) are convergent
sequences and they have the same limit.

Exercise 2.3.23. We consider the sequence (un )


 u0 = 0
√
∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 3 un + 4.


1. Prove , for all n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 4

2. Prove (un ) is an increasing sequence.

3. Is (un ) a convergent sequence ?

In reality, in the case of the monotonic convergence theorem we can prove a

more precise result. Refining a little bit our reasoning we can define the limit of a
sequence.

Theorem 2.3.24. If (un )n≥0 is an increasing sequence which is bounded above,

then, we have
lim un = sup un .
n→+∞ n≥0

Proof. We consider an increasing and bounded sequence (un ) as in the theorem.

Since, any subset of real numbers which is bounded above admits a least upper
bound, then , supn≥0 un is defined. Let us now denote M := supn≥0 un . Then, for
every n ≥ 0, un ≤ M.
Take ε > 0. According to the definition of the supremum, there exists a natural
number N , such that M − ε ≤ uN ≤ M. Using the fact that (un ) is increasing, one
deduces that for all n ≥ 0,

M − ε ≤ uN ≤ un ≤ M.
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 51

On the other hand we have M + ε ≥ M for any ε > 0. This yields the following
property: for all ε > 0, there exist a natural number N , such that, for avery n ≥ N ,
we have
M − ε ≤ un ≤ M + ε.
This can be rewritten in this way:for all ε > 0, there exist a natural number N ,
such that, for avery n ≥ N , un − M ≤ ε. This prove that

lim un = sup un .
n→+∞ n≥0

This proves the theorem.

Theorem 2.3.25. If (un )n≥0 is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below ,

then,
lim un = inf un .
n→+∞ n≥0

Proof. Take the decreasing and bounded below sequence (un ). Then, the real num-
ber m := inf n≥0 un is defined and for every n ≥ 0, m ≤ un . Let ε > 0. There exists
some natural number N , such that, m ≤ uN ≤ m + ε. As the sequence (un ) is
decreasing, we have for all n ≥ N ,

m ≤ un ≤ uN ≤ m + ε.

This implies that, for every ε > 0, there exists a natural number N , such that for
every n ≥ N , m − ε ≤ un ≤ m + ε. From this we deduce that for every ε > 0, there
exists a natural number N , such that for every n ≥ N , we have un − m ≤ ε. Hence
we have
lim un = m = inf un .
n→+∞ n≥0

This completes the proof.

When the sequence (un ) is only bounded, and there is no information on its
variations, we cannot say that the sequence is convergent. But what we know is we
can extract a convergent sequence from (un ).

Theorem 2.3.26. Any bounded real sequence amits a convergent subsequence.

Another useful theorem to study convergence is the sandwich theorem.

Theorem 2.3.27 (Sandwich Theorem). If (un ), (vn ) and (wn ) are three se-
quences such that vn ≤ un ≤ wn for every n ≥ N for some natural number N.
Moreover we suppose that

lim vn = lim wn = `,
n→+∞ n→+∞

then,
lim un = `.
n→+∞
52 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Proof. We consider three sequences (un ), (vn ) and (wn ), such that, vn ≤ un ≤
wn for every n ≥ N for some natural number N. Moreover we assume that,
limn→+∞ vn = limn→+∞ wn = `. Therefore we have

` ≤ lim un ≤ `.
n→+∞

That is,
lim un = `.
n→+∞

This completes the proof.

Example 2.3.28. To determine the limit of the following sequence

cos(n)
un =
n
∀n ≥ 1 we use the properties of the function cosinus. For all n ≥ 1, −1 ≤ cos(n) ≤
1. This means that
−1 cos(n) 1
≤ ≤ ·
n n n
−1
As we know that, limn→+∞ = limn→+∞ n1 = 0, we conclude that
n
cos(n)
lim = 0·
n→+∞ n
Exercise 2.3.29. Find the limits of the following sequences:

(−1)n cos(n) 2 n sin(5 n2 )

1. ∀n ≥ 1, un = , 2. ∀ n ≥ 1, un = , 3. ∀ n ≥ 0, u n = ·
n n2 n2 + 1
To establish that a sequence is bounded we can use the following theorem.

Theorem 2.3.30. Any convergent sequence is bounded.

Proof. Take the sequence (un ) which converges to `. There exists a natural number
N such that for every n ≥ N , un − ` is bounded by 1. In other words, |un − `| < 1
for n ≥ N. Let n be a natural number, such that, n ≥ N then we have

|un | = |(un − `) + `| ≤ |un − `| + |`| < (1 + |`|).

Now, we define the positive real number

M := max |u0 |, |u1 |, · · · , |uN −1 |, 1 + |`| .

Then, for every n ∈ N, we have |un | ≤ M. Therefore, the sequence (un ) is bounded.

Example 2.3.31. To establish that the sequence un = 2n+3

n+1 is bounded, we point
out that
2n + 3
lim un = lim = 2.
n→+∞ n→+∞ n + 1

Then, the sequence (un ) is convergent. Therefore it is bounded.

2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 53

4n+1 +1
Example 2.3.32. To prove that the sequence vn = 5n is bounded we show that
4n+1 + 1
lim vn = lim = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ 5n
We deduce that the sequence (vn ) is convergent. Hence it is bounded.
Since we defined the limit of a sequence, we want to know if the set of convergent
sequences is stable by the elementary algebraic operations.

2.3.3 Elementary Operations on Limits

This subsection deals with the addition, multiplication and division of limits of
convergent sequences.
Proposition 2.3.33. If (un ) and (vn ) are two convergent sequences, such that,

lim un = `, and lim vn = `0 ,

n→+∞ n→+∞

then,
lim (un + vn ) = lim un + lim vn = ` + `0 .
n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞

From this proposition, we deduce that

lim (un − vn ) = lim un − lim vn = ` − `0
n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞
0
for two real numbers ` and ` .
Proof. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two convergent sequences. We suppose that
lim un = ` and lim vn = `0 .
n→+∞ n→+∞

Given ε > 0, there exist two real numbers N1 and N2 , such that, for every n ≥ N1 ,
|un − `| ≤ 2ε and for every n ≥ N2 , |vn − `0 | ≤ 2ε .
Considering N = max(N1 , N2 ), and n ≥ N we have
ε ε
|un − `| ≤ and |vn − `0 | ≤ ·
2 2
Hence
|un + vn − (` + `0 )| = |(un − `) + (vn − `0 )| ≤ |un − `| + |vn − `0 | ≤ ε.
We conclude that
lim un + vn = ` + `0 .
n→+∞
This completes the proof.

Proposition 2.3.34. If (un ) is a real sequence, such that,

lim un = `,
n→+∞

then, for any real number λ, we have

lim λun = λ `.
n→+∞
54 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Proof. To prove this proposition, we consider a real convergent sequence (un ), such
that,
lim un = `.
n→+∞
Let λ ∈ R. If λ = 0 the result holds.
Now we assume that λ 6= 0. The convergence of (un ) to ` implies that, for all
ε > 0, there exist some N ∈ N, such that, for every n ≥ N , we have
ε
|un − `| ≤ .
|λ|
Now we consider a natural n ≥ N. Straightforward computations show that
ε
λ un − λ ` = |λ| |un − `| ≤ |λ| = ε.
|λ|
Therefore,
lim λ un = λ `.
n→+∞
The proposition is proved.
Now, we want to investigate the limit of the product of two convergent sequences.
Proposition 2.3.35. If (un ) and (vn ) are tw real sequences, such that,

lim un = `, and lim vn = `0 ,

n→+∞ n→+∞

then,
lim (un · vn ) = lim un · lim vn = ` · `0 .
n→+∞ n→+∞ n→+∞

Proof. To prove the proposition we consider the following identity:

un vn − ` `0 = un − ` vn − `0 + ` vn − `0 + `0 un − ` .

Given ε > 0, we can find two natural numbers N1 and N2 , such that,
for every n ≥ N1 , |un − `| ≤ ε
for every n ≥ N2 , |vn − `0 | ≤ ε·
From this we deduce that for every n ≥ N = max(N1 , N2 ), we have
|un vn − ` `0 | ≤ |un − `| |vn − `0 | + |`| |vn − `0 | + |`0 | |un − `| ≤ ε2 + |`|ε + |`0 |ε.

Consequently, limn→+∞ un vn = ` `0 .
Remark 2.3.36. We insist on the fact that (un ) and (vn ) should be convergent, if
we want to be sure to get a limit for un + vn or for vn · vn . Otherwise the existence
of the limit of un + vn or un vn is not guaranteed.
Such pathological cases will be investigated below. From the previous propo-
sition readers can easily conclude that the set of convergent sequences has the
property of a vector space.
In the theorem below we study the cases when ` and `0 are not necessarily real
numbers. They can be also +∞ or −∞.
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 55

Theorem 2.3.37. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two real sequences, such that,

lim un = ` and lim vn = `0 .

n→+∞ n→+∞

Then, one of the following cases holds

Case 1: if ` and `0 are real number, we have

lim un + vn = ` + `0
n→+∞

Case 2: if ` is a real number and `0 = ±∞, we have

lim un + vn = ` ± ∞ = ±∞
n→+∞

Case 3: if ` = ±∞ and `0 is a real number , we have

lim un + vn = ±∞ + `0 = ±∞
n→+∞

Case 4: if ` = +∞ and `0 = +∞, we have

lim un + vn = +∞
n→+∞

Case 5: if ` = −∞ and `0 = −∞, we have

lim un + vn = −∞
n→+∞

Case 6: if ` = +∞ and `0 = −∞, we have

lim un + vn = +∞ − ∞ = undefined
n→+∞

Case 7: if ` = −∞ and `0 = +∞, we have

lim un + vn = −∞ + ∞ = undefined.
n→+∞

Proposition 2.3.38. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two sequences and ` a real number,
such that,
lim un = ` and lim vn = +∞.
n→+∞ n→+∞

Then,

lim un · vn = +∞ if `>0
n→+∞

lim un · vn = −∞ if `<0
n→+∞

lim un · vn = undefined if ` = 0.
n→+∞
56 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Proposition 2.3.39. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two sequences and ` a real number,
such that,
lim un = ` and lim vn = −∞.
n→+∞ n→+∞

Then,

lim un · vn = −∞ if `>0
n→+∞

lim un · vn = +∞ if `<0
n→+∞

lim un · vn = undefined if ` = 0.
n→+∞

The same results hold when ` = ±∞ and `0 a real number.

Proposition 2.3.40. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two sequences, such that,

lim un = ±∞ and lim vn = ±∞.

n→+∞ n→+∞

Then,
lim un · vn = ±∞.
n→+∞

After addition and multiplication it is important to investigate the limit of di-

vision of sequences. But for division of sequences we should be careful, because the
limit of the sequence which is in the denominator should be different to 0. Below we
aim to determine the limit of un /vn , where (un ) and (vn ) are two real sequences.
To this end we proceed by steps in order to make the presentation clear.
In our first result we will establish that when, the limit ` of a sequence (un ) is
such that ` 6= 0, then the sequence un 6= 0, for all n greater than or equals to some
natural number N.

Proposition 2.3.41. If (un ) is a real sequence and ` ∈ R∗ , such that,

lim un = `.
n→+∞

Then, there exists some natural number N , such that, for every n ≥ N ,

|un | > 0.

Proof. Since (un ) converges to `, for every ε > 0, there exists a natural number N0
such that for every n ≥ N0 , |un − `| ≤ ε. In particular if we fix ε = 21 `, we can find
some natural number N1 , such that, for every n ≥ N1 , |un − `| < 21 |`|. Let n be a
natural number greatter than N1 , then, we have
1 1
|`| = |(` − un ) + un | ≤ |un − `| + |un | < |`| + |un | =⇒ |`| < |un |.
2 2
This proves the proposition.
Using this proposition we can prove the following theorem.
2.3. STUDY OF LIMITS OF SEQUENCES 57

Theorem 2.3.42. If (un ) is a real sequence and ` ∈ R∗ , such that,

1 1
lim un = `. Then, lim = · (2.3.1)
n→+∞ n→+∞ un `

Proof. We take a real sequence (un ) and we consider a real number ` 6= 0, such
that,
lim un = `.
n→+∞

Using Proposition 2.3.41 , we can find some natural number N0 , such that for every
natural number n greater than or equal to N0 , we have, 12 |`| < |un |.
The fact that (un ) converges to `, means that for every ε > 0, there exists
N1 ∈ N, such that, for every n ≥ N1 ,
1 2
|un − `| ≤ |`| ε.
2
Now, we take a natural number n ≥ max(N0 , N1 ). One has

1 1 un − ` |un − `| 1
− = = = · |un − `|·
un ` un ` |un | |`| |un | |`|

Since 12 |`| < |un |, one deduces that 1

|un | < 2
|`| · Therefore we have

1 1 2 |`|2
− ≤ 2 ε = ε·
un ` |`| 2

This completes the proof.

Theorem 2.3.43. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two real sequences. We consider ` ∈ R
and `0 ∈ R∗ ,such that,

lim un = ` and lim vn = `0 .

n→+∞ n→+∞

Then,
un `
lim = 0· (2.3.2)
n→+∞ vn `

Proof. As `0 6= 0, applying theorem 2.3.42, we have limn→+∞ 1/vn = 1/`0 . From

this we deduce that
un 1 `
lim = lim un · lim = 0·
n→+∞ vn n→+∞ n→+∞ vn `

We specify that in the preceding theorems we assumed that the limit of the
sequence which is in the denominator is a nonzero real number and the limit of the
numerator is a real number. This simplify a lot the computations of limits. In the
case where ` and `0 can be infinite the study of limit of division of sequences is more
complicate. To give an overview of this difficulty we state the following theorem.
58 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Theorem 2.3.44. Let (un ) and (vn ) be two real sequences, ` and `0 two real numbers
or ±∞, such that,
lim un = ` and lim vn = `0 .
n→+∞ n→+∞

Then, one of the following cases holds

Case 1: if ` ∈ R∗ and `0 = 0, we have

un
lim = ±∞
n→+∞ vn

Case 2: if ` = 0 and `0 = 0, we have

un
lim = undefined
n→+∞ vn

Case 3: if ` = ±∞ and `0 = ±∞, we have

un
lim = undefined
n→+∞ vn

Case 4: if ` ∈ R and `0 = ±∞, we have

un
lim = 0.
n→+∞ vn

Example 2.3.45. We consider the following sequences un = 2 n and vn = n2 + 1.

We know that limn→+∞ un = +∞ and limn→+∞ vn = +∞. Therefore
un
lim = undefined.
n→+∞ vn

In order to determine this limit we write

un 2n 2
= =  ·
vn
 1 1
n2 1+ 2 n 1+ 2
n n
1
Since limn→+∞ 1 + = 1. We deduce
n2
un 2
lim = lim = 0.
n→+∞ vn n→+∞ n

We have also
lim un − vn = undefined.
n→+∞

To determine this limit we write un − vn = n2 − 1 + n2 + n12 . Using this formula

we obtain  2 1
lim − 1 + + 2 = −1, and lim n = +∞.
n→+∞ n n n→+∞

Hence limn→+∞ un − vn = −∞.

2.4. EXERCISE SESSION 59

Exercise 2.3.46. Find the limits of the following sequences

 n+1
1
1−
4 n2 + 3 n − 1 4
1. un = , 2. un = 2 − n + (−1)n , 3. un = ·
2n + 1 1
1−
4
Exercise 2.3.47. Determine the limits of the following sequences
√
3 4 n2 + 1 4n − 3n 3n + 1
1. un = √ , 2. un = , 3. un = n , 4. un = √ ,
2 n + 17 n (2 n + 1) 4 + 2n 3+ n
√ √ p cos(n)
5. un n + 1 − n, 6. un = n2 + n − n, 7. un = −1 + ·
n
Exercise 2.3.48. Compute the limits of the following sequences
p √ n sin(n) 1
1. un = n2 + n + 1 − n, 2. un , 3. wn = + (−1)n .
n2 + 1 n

2.4 Exercise Session

The aim of this section is to explain the methodology to use if we face some problems
related to sequences. It is a good exercise for students to check whether they
understand the lecture or not.

Exercise 2.4.1. For every natural number n, we define the sequence (un )
1

 u0 =

2
 √
un+1 = un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


1. Compute the four first terms of (un ).

1
2. Prove that for every natural number n, 2 ≤ un ≤ 1.
3. Study the variations of (un ).
4. Prove that (un ) converges and specify its limit.

Comments. If we deal with sequences, we should be careful with the initial term
( first term ). Because the initial term is not necessarily the term with index 1. It
depends on the context. The following recommandations can be useful
• To prove any proposition with sequences, think in term of induction.
• To study variations of a sequence (un ) you should define the sign of

un+1 − un .
60 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

• If we know the variations of a sequence we use the monotonic convergence

theorem to determine its limit.
Solution. We consider the sequence (un ) defined above.
√
1. Since u0 = 12 and for any n ≥ 0, un+1 = un , we have
r √
√ 1 2
u1 = u0 = = ,
2 2
s√
√ 2
u2 = u1 = ,
2
vs
u √
2
u
·
t
u3 =
2
1
2. To prove that for any natural number n, we have 2 ≤ un ≤ 1, we proceed by
induction.
1
Step 1: We take n = 0. By definition of (un ) we have u0 = 2 < 1. Then, the
property is true for n = 0.
Step 2: Now, we assume that the property is true for some natural number k. This
means that 21 ≤ uk ≤ 1.
Step 3: In this step, we have to prove that the property is true for k + 1.
√ √ √
Indeed, since 21 ≤ uk ≤ 1, one has 22 ≤ uk ≤ 1. As we know that 1 < 2,
therefore, 21 ≤ uk+1 ≤ 1. The property is true for k + 1.
1
We conclude that for every natural number n, we have 2 ≤ un ≤ 1.
3. Let n ∈ N. Then, we have

√ un − u2n un (1 − un )
un+1 − un = un − un = √ = √ ·
un + un un + un
√
As we know that 12 ≤ un ≤ 1 one deduces that un 1 − un ≥ 0 and un + un ≥ 0.

Hence un+1 − un ≥ 0. The sequence (un ) is increasing.

4. The sequence (u)n≥0 is increasing and bounded above. Applying the monotonic
convergence theorem, we conclude that (un ) is convergent.
Now, we denote its limit by `. The limit ` satisfies

lim un = lim un+1 = `.

n→+∞ n→+∞

On the other hand we know that

√ √
lim un = lim un = ` = `.
n→+∞ n→+∞
√
This means

that ` = `. This identity is equivalent to `2 = `, which implies that
` ` − 1 = 0. This involves ` = 0 or ` = 1.
Using comparison theorem we have 12 ≤ limn→+∞ un ≤ 1. This leads to the
following inequalities 21 ≤ ` ≤ 1. We conclude that the limit ` = 1.
2.4. EXERCISE SESSION 61

Exercise
√ 2.4.2. The aim of this exercise is to define the positive real number
2. To this end we define the real sequence (un )


 u0 = 1,

 
1 2
u = u + , ∀ n ≥ 0.

 n+1
 n
2 un
√
1. Show that for any n ≥ 1, we have 2 ≤ un .
2. Establish that (un )n≥1 is a decreasing sequence and deduce from this, that
for every n ≥ 1
√ 3 √
un + 2 ≤ + 2.
2
3. Prove that for any n ≥ 0, we have
√ √ !2n
un − 2 1− 2
√ = √ .
un + 2 1+ 2

4. Prove that (un ) converges and determine its limit.

Comments. The comments are the same are in the previous exercise.

• To study the variations of a sequence we have to determine the sign of

un+1 − un .

• To prove any property of sequences think about induction.

• If q is a real number such that 0 ≤ q < 1, then

lim q n = 0.
n→+∞

Solution. We consider
√ the sequence (un ).
1. To prove that 2 ≤ un , for every n ≥
1, we proceed√ as follows: at first we fix
n = 1. In this case, we have u1 = 12 1 + 2 = 32 · Then, 2 ≤ u1 .
√
Secondly we assume that there exists some natural number k, such that, 2 ≤ uk .
Cosequently, we have
√ √
2
√ √ u2k − 2 2uk + 2 uk − 2
 
1 2
uk+1 − 2= uk + − 2= = ≥ 0.
2 uk 2 uk 2 uk
√ √
This means that uk+1 ≥ 2. We conclude that for any n ≥ 1 we have 2 ≤ un .
2. For any natural number n ≥ 1, we have

1 2  2 − u2n
un+1 − un = un + − un = ≤ 0.
2 un 2 un
62 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES
√
Because 2 ≤ un for any n ≥ 1. As we have established that (un ) is decreasing for
every n ≥ 1, one deduces that un ≤ u1 = 32 . This implies that
√ 3 √
un + 2≤ + 2
2
3. Let n be a natural. It is obvious that when n = 0
√ √
u0 − 2 1− 2
√ = √ ·
u0 + 2 1+ 2
Then P (0) is true.
Now, we assume that the property holds for some natural number k. In this case,
we have
√ √ !2k
uk − 2 1− 2
√ = √ ·
uk + 2 1+ 2
The next step consist of proving that the property is true for k + 1. Indeed, we have
 √ √  √  √  √ 2
√
  
1 2
uk+1 − 2 2 uk + uk − 2 u k u k − 2 − 2 uk − 2 uk − 2
√ =   √ =  √  √  √ = √ 2
uk+1 + 2 1
uk + 2 + 2 uk uk + 2 + 2 uk + 2 u + 2
2 uk k

Using our assumption we conclude that

√
 √ 2 √ !2k ·2 √ !2k+1
uk+1 − 2 uk − 2 1− 2 1− 2
√ = √ 2 = 1 + √ 2 = √ ·
uk+1 + 2 u + 2 1+ 2
k

The property is true for k + 1. We conclude that for any n ≥ 0

√ √ !2n
un − 2 1− 2
√ = √ .
un + 2 1+ 2

4. Combining 2. and 3. we obtain

√ !2n 
√ 3 √

1− 2
un − 2≤ √ · + 2 .
1+ 2 2
√ √ √
1−√2
Since 1 + 2>1− 2, we obtain 1+ 2
< 1. Using Sandwich theorem, we obtain
√ !2n 
√ 3 √

1− 2
0 ≤ lim un − 2 = lim √ · + 2 = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ 1+ 2 2
√
From this we deduce that the limit of (un ) is 2.
Exercise 2.4.3. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by

 u0 = 1,


 un+1 = 1 un (20 − un ) ,

∀ n ≥ 0.
10
2.4. EXERCISE SESSION 63

1. Prove that for any n ≥ 0, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ un+1 ≤ 10.

2. Show that (un ) converges and specify its limit.

Comments. To study a sequence in the form un+1 = f (u) for some real function
f which is not affine, we to follow these steps.
• We have to determine the fixed points of f. We recall that a fixed point x0 is
a real number in the domain of f that satisfies f (x0 ) = x0 .
• We study the variations of the function f
• We identify the intervals which are stable

by f. In other words we have to find
the intervals [a , b] such that f [a , b] ⊂ [a , b].
• If the sequence admits a limit it should be a fixed point of f.
• To study the variations of (un ) we can use the variations of the function f
We remind also that the limit of a sequence which we know the variations, is given
by the monotonic convergence theorem. To prove any property of sequences use a
proof by induction.
Solution. Let x be in [0 , 20]. We define the function
1

f (x) = x 20 − x .
10
The function f is differentiable and f 0 (x) = 2 − 15 x. Therefore f is increasing in
[0 , 10] and decreasing in [10 , 20]. Moreover we observe that f (0) = 0 and f (10) =
10. The real numbers 0 and 10 are the fixed points of f. One can easily check that


f [0 , 10] = [0 , 10].

Then the interval [0 , 10] is stable by f. This means that if 0 ≤ x ≤ 10, then,
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 10.
1. Let n be a natural number to prove that 0 ≤ un ≤ un+1 ≤ 10, we proceed in two
steps
Step 1: we prove that for every n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 10.
If we fix n = 0, we obtain 0 < u0 = 1 < 10. The property is true for 0.
Now we assume that 0 ≤ uk ≤ 10 for some natural number k. Here we can
see that
1

uk+1 = uk 20 − uk ≥ 0.
10
Because 0 ≤ uk ≤ 10, which implies that 20 − uk ≥ 0. On the other hand, we
have
1
1 2
1
2
uk+1 −10 = uk 20−uk −10 = − uk −20uk +100 = − uk −10 ≤ 0.
10 10 10
This means that uk+1 ≤ 10.
We conclude that for every natural number n, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ 10.
64 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Step 2: we consider n ∈ N and we aim to prove that un ≤ un+1 .

19
We have u1 = 10 > 1 = u0 . The property is true for n = 0.
We suppose that uk−1 ≤ uk for some natural number k. Applying f one obtains

f (uk−1 ) ≤ f (uk ).

This is due to the fact that f is increasing in [0 , 10]. The definition of the
sequence (un ) implies that uk ≤ uk+1 .
Combining step 1and step 2 we conclude that 0 ≤ un ≤ un+1 ≤ 10, for any natural
number n.
2. Since (un ) is increasing and bounded above, then, the monotonic convergence
theorem implies that (un ) converges. To determine the limit of (un ), we emphasize
that the limit ` satisfies

lim f (un ) = lim un = `.

n→+∞ n→+∞

As we know that limn→+∞ un = `, one has

lim f (un ) = f (`).

n→+∞

This leads to the identity f (`) = `. The real number ` is a fixed point. In this case
there are two possibilities ` = 0 or ` = 10. We claim that ` cannot be 0, because
1 ≤ un for any n ≥ 0 and (un ) is increasing. Finally we have ` = 10.

Exercise 2.4.4. Let (un ) be the sequence, such that, u0 = 13 and for any n ≥ 0,
1 4
un+1 = un + ·
5 5
We associate to (un ) the sequence (sn ) defined by
n
X
sn = uk = u0 + u1 + · · · + un .
k=0

12
1. Prove that for every n ≥ 0, we have un = 1 + 5n ·

2. Deduce from 1. the limit of (un ).

3. Study the variations of the sequence of (sn ).
4. Find the explicit form of (sn ).
5. Determine the limit of (sn ).

Comments. Let (un ) be a real sequence. To establish any properties think at first
in terms of induction.
If q is any real number then,
n
X 1 − q n+1
1 + q + · · · + qn = qk = ·
1−q
k=0
2.4. EXERCISE SESSION 65

Solution. 1. To prove that un = 1 + 512n , we proceed as follows: We start by fixing

n = 0. In this case we have u0 = 1 + 12 = 13. Then, u0 satisfies the property.
Now, we assume that uk = 1 + 51k · From this we deduce that
 
1 4 1 12 4 1 12 4 12
uk+1 = uk + = 1 + k + = + k+1 + = 1 + k+1 ·
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Hence uk+1 satisfies the property. We conclude that for every n ≥ 0, we have
12
un = 1 + ·
5n
12


2. Since the sequence 5n tends to 0 we deduce from 1 that

lim un = 1.
n→+∞

3. Let n be an arbitrary natural number. We define

n+1
X n
X n
X n
X
sn+1 − sn = uk − uk = un+1 + uk − uk = un+1 > 0.
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0

The sequence (sn ) is strictly increasing.

4. Using the expression of un one has
n n   n
X X 12 X 1
sn = uk = 1 + k = (n + 1) + 12
5 5k
k=0 k=0 k=0

Using the second point of comments, we obtain

 n+1
1
n 1−  n+1 !  n
X 1 5 1 1
12 = 12 · = 15 · 1 − = 15 − 3 · .
5 k 1 5 5
k=0 1−
5
This involves,  n
1
sn = (n + 1) + 15 − 3 · ..
5
5. Emphasizing that  n
1
lim 15 − 3 · = 15,
n→+∞ 5
one concludes that

lim sn = lim (n + 1) + 15 = +∞.

n→+∞ n→+∞

Exercise 2.4.5. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by u0 = 6 and

un+1 = 1.4 un − 0.05 u2n , ∀ n ≥ 0.

1. Prove that 0 ≤ un ≤ un+1 ≤ 8, for all n ≥ 0.

2. Deduce from 1 that the sequence (un ) converges and determine its limit.
66 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

Comments. We make the same comments as in exercise 2.4.3.

Solution. 1. Let x be a real number which belongs to [0 , 14]. We define the real
function
f (x) = 1.4 x − 0.05 x2 .
The function f is differentiable and f 0 (x) = 1.4 − 0.10x. This implies that the
function f is increasing in [0 , 14]. We have


f (0) = 0, f (8) = 8 and f [0 , 8] ⊂ [0 , 8].

Thus, we can say that 0 and 8 are fixed points and the interval [0 , 8] is stable by f.
Now, we take n = 0, one has 0 < u0 < u1 < 8. The property is true for 0.
If we assume that there exist k ∈ N∗ such that, 0 ≤ uk−1 ≤ uk ≤ 8, then,

f (0) ≤ f (uk−1 ) ≤ f (uk ) ≤ f (8).

This means that 0 ≤ uk ≤ uk+1 ≤ 8. The property is true for k + 1. We conclude

that for all n ≥ 0, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ un+1 ≤ 8.
2. The sequence (un ) is increasing and bounded above, then, it is convergent. The
limit ` of (un ) satisfies the following identity f (`) = `. Using the fact that un > 0
for every n ∈ N, we have ` = 8.

2.5 Problems
√
Problem 2.5.1. The aim of this exercise is to define the positive real number 2.
To this end we define the real sequence (un )


 u0 = 1,

 
1 2
 un+1 = un + , ∀ n ≥ 0.


2 un

1. Establish that (un ) is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below.

2. Prove that (un ) converges and determine its limit.

3. Establish that the limit of (un ) satisfies `2 = `.

Problem 2.5.2. We define the real sequence (un )

5

 u0 = ,


 2
 
 1 5
, ∀ n ≥ 0.

 un+1 =
 un +
2 un

1. Establish that (un ) is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below.

2.5. PROBLEMS 67

2. Prove that for any n ≥ 0, we have

√ √ !2n
un − 5 u0 − 5
√ = √ .
un + 5 u0 + 5

3. Prove that (un ) converges and determine its limit.

Problem 2.5.3. We consider the real number a > 1 and we consider the real
sequence (un ) defined by
 a
 u0 = ,
2



 
 1 a
 un+1 = un + , ∀ n ≥ 0.


2 un
1. Establish that (un ) is a decreasing sequence which is bounded below.
2. Prove that for any n ≥ 0, we have
√  √ 2n
un − a u0 − a
√ = √ .
un + a u0 + a

3. Prove that (un ) converges and determine its limit.

Problem 2.5.4. Let a and b be two real numbers such that 0 < a < b. We define
the sequences (un ) and (vn ) by u0 = a, v0 = b and all n ≥ 0,
1

 un+1 = (un + vn ) ,

2
 √
vn+1 = un+1 vn , ∀ n ≥ 0.


1. Prove that for every n ≥ 0, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ vn .

2. Establish that (un ) is an increasing sequence and (vn ) is a decreasing sequence.
3. Show that (un ) and (vn ) are convergent sequences.
Problem 2.5.5. We consider the sequence (vn ) defined by v0 = 20092 − 1 and for
every n ≥ 0,
5
vn+1 = (vn + 1) − 1.
1. Prove that 5 is a divisor of v0 .
2. Using Newton’s binominial formula establish that
h
i
vn+1 = vn vn4 + 5 vn3 + 2vn2 + 2vn + 1 .

3. Prove that for every n ≥ 1, vn is divisible by 5n+1 .

1
Problem 2.5.6. Let (wn ) be the sequence, such that, w0 = 2 and for all n ≥ 0, we
have
4 wn − ln(wn )
wn+1 = ·
5
68 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

1. Prove that for every n ≥ 0, we have 0.5 ≤ wn ≤ wn+1 ≤ 1.

2. Deduce from 1. that (wn ) converges.
Problem 2.5.7. Let (xn ) be the sequence given by

 x0 = 1


 xn+1 = 1 xn + n − 2,

∀ n ≥ 0.
3
1. Compute x1 , x2 and x3 .
2. Prove that for every n ≥ 4, xn ≥ 0.
3. Deduce from 2. that for every n ≥ 5 , we have xn ≥ n − 3.
4. Find the limit of (xn )
Problem 2.5.8. We consider the sequence (tn ) defined by

 t0 = 1,


tn+1 = tn − ln t2n + 1 , ∀ n ≥ 0.


1. Prove that for every n ≥ 0, we have 0 ≤ tn ≤ 1.

2. Study the variations of (tn ) and deduce that (tn ) converges.
3. Determine the limit of (tn ).
Problem 2.5.9. We consider the sequence define as follows: for every n ≥ 1,
 n
1
un = 1 + .
n
To determine the limit of this sequence we define the sequence
 
1
vn = n ln 1 + , ∀n ≥ 1.
n
1. Study the variations of (vn ).
2. Prove that for all n ≥ 1, we have 0 ≤ vn ≤ 1.
3. Now we agree that the limit of (vn ) is 1. Using the property an = en ln(a) , for
any natural number n and some real number a > 0, prove that
 n
1
lim 1+ = e.
n→+∞ n

Problem 2.5.10. Let (un ) and (vn ) be the sequences defined by

 n
1  a n
un = 1 − and vn = 1 + ,
n n
for any natural number n ≥ 1 and for some real number a > 0. We admit that
 
1  a
lim n ln 1 − = −1 and lim n ln 1 + =a
n→+∞ n n→+∞ n
2.5. PROBLEMS 69

Establish that
1
lim un = and lim vn = ea .
n→+∞ e n→+∞

Problem 2.5.11. Study the following sequences


 u0 = −1

 n+1
1. 2 2. ∀ n ∈ N, un =
un n+2
 un+1 = , ∀ n ≥ 0,


2 un + 3

 u0 = 2
3.∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = n2 − 3n + 12, 4.
un+1 = −u2n + 2 un + 1, ∀ n ≥ 0.


Problem 2.5.12. Investigate the behavior of the following sequences

u0 = a
 
u = 3
 0
 

 

1. 2. un
1 un+1 = r + un − p , ∀n ≥ 0
 u
 n+1
 = √ , ∀ n ≥ 0, 
 1 + u2n
2 − un


and r ∈ ]0 , 1[.

Problem 2.5.13. Study the following sequences

u ∈R

 u 0 ∈ R+

 0

1. 2.
p
 un+1 = a un − 1
un+1 = (n + 1) + un , ∀ n ≥ 0, , ∀ n ≥ 0.
 
n+1


Problem 2.5.14. We consider the sequence un n≥1
defined by

2n
X 1 1 1 1
un = = + + ··· + · (2.5.1)
k n n+1 2n
k=n

1. Prove that for every n ≥ 1,

−3n − 2
un+1 − un = ·
n(2n + 2)(2n + 1)

2. Deduce from 1. the variations of (un ).

3. Establish that the sequence (un ) is convergent.
Problem 2.5.15. For every natural number n we define the sequence (un ) in this
way 
u =0
 0


 un+1 = 1 + un ,

∀ n ≥ 0,
1 + en
1. Show that for every n ∈ N, we have 0 ≤ un ≤ α, where α is a real number
which satisfies
1+α
α= ·
1 + eα
70 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO SEQUENCES

2. Deduce from 1. that (un ) converges and its limit verifies the following identity

1+`
`= ·
1 + e`

Problem 2.5.16. Let (un ) be the sequence defined by


 u0 = 4



 ln 1+un
un+1 = un − 1+un , ∀ n ≥ 0,


1. Prove that for any n ≥ 0, 0 ≤ un ≤ 4.

2. Study the variations of the sequence (un ).

3. Prove that the sequence (un ) converges and determine its limit.
 CHAPTER 3
ARITHMETIC AND
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Contents
3.1 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 Variations of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.2 Explicit Expression of an Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . 74
3.1.3 Sum of the n First Terms of an Arithmetic Sequence . . 76
3.2 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2.1 Explicit Expression of a Geometric Sequence . . . . . . 81
3.2.2 Sum of the n First Terms of a Geometric Sequence . . . 83
3.2.3 Limits of Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Arithmetico-geometric sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 Limits of Arithmetico-Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

In the previous chapter we studied sequences in their general setting. We did

not take care of simplifying the theory. In this chapter we will be concerned by
some particular sequences: arithmetic and geometric sequences. We will show how
it is easy to study variations and convergence of such sequences.
This chapter is organized as follows. In section 1 we study arithmetic sequences.
The section 2 deals with geometric sequences. Combing the section 1 and 2 we
define and investigate arithmetico-geometric sequences

3.1 Arithmetic Sequences

This section is devoted to arithmetic sequences. Here we will especially deal with
variations and convergence of arithmetic sequences.

71
72 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Definition 3.1.1. We say that (un )n≥n0 is an arithmetic sequence with initial
term un0 and common difference d, if it is in the form

 un0 ∈ R,

un+1 = un + d, ∀ n ≥ n0 .


Example 3.1.2. As an example we consider the sequence (un ) defined as follows


 u0 = 2

un+1 = un + 3, ∀ n ≥ 0.


The sequence (un ) is arithmetic with initial term u0 = 2, and common difference
d = 3.

Now, we consider a general sequence (un )n≥n0 . According to the definition above
to establish that (un ) is an arithmetic sequence we have to proceed in this way

• we compute un+1 − un for every n ≥ n0

case 1: when un+1 − un = d is a constant real number then, the sequence

(un ) is arithmetic with initial term un0 and common difference d.
case 2: when un+1 − un is not a constant real number, (un+1 − un depends
on n) then the sequence (un ) is not an arithmetic sequence.

Example 3.1.3. We define the real sequence (un )


 u0 = 3

un+1 = un − 2, ∀ n ≥ 0.


To establish that (un ) is arithmetic, we have to compute un+1 − un . Let n be a

natural number. We have

un+1 − un = un − 2 − un = −2.

Therefore, (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 = 3 and common

difference d = −2.

Example 3.1.4. We consider the real sequence (un ) defined by

un = n + 2 n , for all n ≥ 0.

To establish whether (un ) is arithmetic, we point out that for any natural number
n we have
un+1 − un = (n + 1) + 2n+1 − n − 2n = 1 + 2n .
Since un+1 − un depends on n, it is not a constant real number. Hence (un ) is not
an arithmetic sequence.
3.1. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES 73

Example 3.1.5. For every n ≥ 0, we define un = 3n + 2. Then, (un ) is an

arithmetic sequence.
Indeed, for all n ≥ 0,

un+1 − un = 3(n + 1) + 2 − 3n − 2 = 3n + 3 + 2 − 3n − 2 = 3.

Therefore (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 = 2 and common

difference d = 3.

To simplify notations we will sometimes write (un ) is arithmetic instead of (un ) is

an arithmetic sequence.

Exercise 3.1.6. Establish whether the following sequences are arithmetic. In the
case they are arithmetic precise the initial term and the common difference.
 
 u0 = 3  u0 = 1
1. 2.
un+1 = −2 + un , ∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 2 + un , ∀ n ≥ 0,
 

3. un = 8n−1 + 2n, ∀ n ≥ 0, 4. ∀ n ≥ 0, un = −n + 9.

3.1.1 Variations of an Arithmetic Sequence

Let n0 be some natural number. We consider an arithmetic sequence (un ) defined
for all n ≥ n0 . We denote by d its common difference. Then, it holds that

un+1 − un = d.

Consequently the variations of (un ) depend on the sign of d.

Theorem 3.1.7. If (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d,

then,
1. (un ) is an increasing sequence when d > 0,
2. (un ) is a decreasing sequence when d < 0,

We specify that when d = 0, we obtain un+1 = un . Therefore the sequence (un )

is constant.

Proof. Since (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term un0 and common
difference d, we have, un+1 − un = d, for all n ≥ n0 . Therefore

• if d > 0, we have un+1 − un > 0. Hence, (un ) is an increasing sequence

• if d < 0, one obtains un+1 − un < 0 for all n ≥ n0 . Then (un ) is a decreasing
sequence

• if d = 0, we have, un+1 = un , for all n ≥ n0 . Therefore (un ) is constant.

74 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Example 3.1.8. We consider the arithmetic sequence (un ) defined by


 u0 = 1

un+1 = un + 1.


In this example (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 = 1 and the
common difference d = 1 > 0. Then, (un ) is an increasing sequence.
Example 3.1.9. Let us consider the sequence:

 u0 = 2

un+1 = un − 3.


Here, (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d = −3 < 0. There-

fore, (un ) is a decreasing sequence.
Exercise 3.1.10. Study the variations of the following sequences.
 
 u0 = 3  u0 = 2
1. 2.
un+1 = 4 + un , ∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = −3 + un , ∀ n ≥ 0,
 

 u2 = 0
3. 4. for all n ≥ 0, un = 7 − 3n,
un+1 = 5 + un , ∀ n ≥ 0,


5. ∀n ≥ 0, un = 3 n − 2.

3.1.2 Explicit Expression of an Arithmetic Sequence

We fix a natural number n0 . For every natural number n ≥ n0 , we define the
arithmetic sequence (un ), with initial term un0 and common difference d for some
real number d. Using the recursive formula of (un ), we obtain

un0 +1 = un0 + d,
un0 +2 = un0 +1 + d = un0 + 2,
un0 +3 = un0 +2 + d = un0 + 3 d.

Repeating the process n times we obtain the following theorem

Theorem 3.1.11. If (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term un0 and
common difference d, then,

un = un0 + (n − n0 ) d, ∀ n ≥ n0 . (3.1.1)

Proof. We consider the proposition P (n) : ∀ n ≥ n0 , un+1 = un0 + (n − n0 ) d.

Step 1: We fix n = n0 . Therefore, one has un0 = un0 + (n0 − n0 ) d = un0 . This
implies P (n0 ) is true.
Step 2: We assume P (k) for some k ≥ n0 . This means that, uk = u0 + (k − n0 ) d.
3.1. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES 75

Step 3: We need to prove that P(k + 1) is true. In other words we should prove
that uk+1 = un0 + (k − n0 + 1) d. We remind that (un ) is an arithmetic
sequences with common difference d. The recursive expresion of (un ) involves

uk+1 = uk + d = un0 + (k − n0 ) d + d = un0 + (k − n0 + 1) d.

The property is true for k + 1.

Conlusion: We conclude that, ∀ n ≥ n0 , un = u0 + (n − n0 ) d.

Example 3.1.12. If (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term u1 = 8 and

common difference d = 3, then,

 u1 = 8

un+1 = 3 + un , ∀ n ≥ 1.


Applying theorem 3.1.11 one has

un = u1 + (n − 1) d = 8 + 3 (n − 1) = 5 + 3 n.

Example 3.1.13. We consider the arithmetic sequence (vn ) with initial term v5 = 4
and common difference d = −6. Then,

 v5 = 4

vn+1 = −6 + vn , ∀ n ≥ 5.


In this case, we have vn = v5 + (n − 5) d = 4 − 6 (n − 1) = 10 − 6 n.

If the initial term of an arithmetic sequence is u0 , we will be able to simplify

(3.1.1). In this case the following corollary holds.

Corollary 3.1.14. For any arithmetic sequence (un ) with initial term u0 and
common difference d, we have

un = u0 + n d. (3.1.2)

The proof of this corollary is quite simple, Because we have just to take n0 = 0
in the proof of the theorem 3.1.11.

Example 3.1.15. For instance, we consider the sequence


 u0 = 9

un+1 = un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0.


In this example the initial term is u0 = 9 and the common difference d = 2. Using
corollary (3.1.2), we obtain un = u0 + n d = 9 + 2 n.
76 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Formulas (3.1.1) and (3.1.2) are interesting when there are some given terms
and we seek for the common difference of an arithmetic sequence. Indeed assume
that, we aim to define the arithmetic sequence (un ), such that, there are two given
terms un1 and un2 , with n2 > n1 . To define the expression of (un ) we have to find
the common difference. Thus we proceed as follows:
Step 1: Using theorem (3.1.1), we have un2 = un1 + (n2 − n1 ) d. This involves
un2 − un1
d= ·
n2 − n1

Step 2: For every n ≥ n1 , we write

un2 − un1
un+1 = un + ·
n2 − n1

Example 3.1.16. we consider the arithmetic sequence (un ) which satisfies u3 = 23

and u8 = 7. Determine the expression of (un ).
To define the expression of (un ) we need to obtain the common difference d of
the sequence. Applying theorem (3.1.1) we obtain

u8 = u3 + (8 − 3) d = 23 + 5 d = 7.
−16
This involves 5 d = −16. Therefore d = 5 . Using the value of d, we obtain

 u3 = 23
16
un+1 = un − 5 , ∀ n ≥ 0.


Exercise 3.1.17. Let (un ) be an arithmetic sequence with initial term u5 = 8 and
common difference d = 3. Determine u100 , u1000 and u200 .
Exercise 3.1.18. We consider an arithmetic sequence (un ) which satisfies u2 = 10
and u10 = 12. Find the common difference, u5 , u7 and u20 .
Exercise 3.1.19. For every n ≥ 0 we define un = 7 − 5 n.
1. Find u0 , u1 and u2 and prove that (un ) is an arithmetic sequence.
2. Determine the common difference of (un ) and compute u11 .

3.1.3 Sum of the n First Terms of an Arithmetic Sequence

In this subsection we deal with the sum of the n first terms of an arithmetic se-
quence.To make the presentation clear and in order to deal easily with sums of
several terms of sequences, we introduce the following notations
n
X
un0 + · · · + un = uk .
k=n0

Now we take an arithmetic sequene (un ) with initial term, u0 and common
difference d. We attempt to determine the sum u0 + u1 + · · · + un .
3.1. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES 77

Theorem 3.1.20. If (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 and

common difference d, then
n
X (n + 1)(u0 + un )
u0 + u1 + · · · + un = uk = · (3.1.3)
2
k=0

Proof. Let (un ) be an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 , and common dif-
ference d. We have

u0 + u1 + · · · + un = u0 + u0 + d + · · · + u0 + n d
= (n + 1) u0 + d (1 + · · · + n)
n(n + 1) (n + 1) [u0 + (u0 + n d)]
= (n + 1) u0 + d = ·
2 2
Since un = u0 + n d, we obtain

(n + 1) (u0 + un )
u0 + u1 + · · · + un = ·
2
This proves the lemma.
Example 3.1.21. We take the arithmetic sequence

 u0 = 3

un+1 = un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0.


Using corollary (3.1.14) one can write un = 3 + 2 n. From this we deduce

(10 + 1) (u0 + u10 ) 11 · 26

u0 + u1 + · · · + u10 = = = 143.
2 2
Really the previous theorem is a particular case of the following one.

Theorem 3.1.22. Let (un ) be an arithmetic sequence with initial term up and
common difference d. Then,
n
X (n − p + 1) (up + un )
up + up+1 + · · · + un = uk = · (3.1.4)
2
k=p

To prove the theorem we use the same argument as in the preceding theorem.
Indeed, we have

up + up+1 + · · · + un = up + up + d + · · · + up + (n − p) d
= (n − p + 1) up + d (1 + 2 + · · · + (n − p))
(n − p + 1) (n − p) d
= (n − p + 1) up +
2
(n − p + 1) (up + up + (n − p) d) (n − p + 1) (up + un )
= = ·
2 2
78 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Example 3.1.23. For instance, we consider the sequence


 u5 = 1

un+1 = 3 + un , ∀ n ≥ 5.


To determine the sum u5 + u6 + · · · + u11 we define u11 = 1 + 3 · 11 = 34. Then,

applying theorem 3.1.22 we get

(11 − 5 + 1) (1 + 34) 7 × 35 245

u5 + u6 + · · · + u11 = = = ·
2 2 2
To end this section we investigate limits of arithmetic sequences.
Let (un ) be an arithmetic sequence with initial term un0 and common difference
d. Theorem 3.1.1 implies that un = un0 + nd. From this, we deduce that

lim un = +∞, when d > 0

n→+∞

lim un = −∞, when d < 0.

n→+∞

This proves the following theorem

Theorem 3.1.24. If (un ) is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d,

then
lim un = ±∞.
n→+∞

Another interesting particular sequence is the geometric sequence.

3.2 Geometric Sequences

This section is devoted to geometric sequences. In the first time, we define geometric
sequences. After defining geometric sequences we study their variations and limits.

Definition 3.2.1. We say that (un )n≥n0 is a geometric sequence with initial
term un0 ∈ R, if there exists some real number q, such that, for every natural
number n ≥ n0 ,
un+1 = q un .

Definition 3.2.2. The real number q in the definition 3.2.1 is called the common
ratio of the sequence (un ).

Example 3.2.3. As an example we consider the sequence (un ) defined by


 u0 = 2

un+1 = 3 un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


The sequence (un ) is geometric with initial term u0 = 2 and common ratio q = 3.
3.2. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 79

Example 3.2.4. Let (vn ) be the sequence given by


 v0 = −1

vn+1 = 2 vn , ∀ n ≥ 0.


We can see that the sequence (vn ) is geometric with initial term v0 = −1 and
common ratio q = 2.
Example 3.2.5. For every n ≥ 0, we set wn = 3n . Then, the sequence (wn ) is
geometric with initial term w0 = 1 and common ratio q = 3.
Indeed we have w0 = 30 = 1. Let n be a natural number, then,

wn+1 = 3n+1 = 3 × 3n .

Since wn = 3n , therefore, wn+1 = 3 wn .

Exercise 3.2.6. Say whether the following sequences are geometric
 
 u0 = −3  v1 = 7
1. 2.
un+1 = −4 vn , ∀ n ≥ 0, vn+1 = −3 vn , ∀ n ≥ 1.
 
1
3. ∀ n ≥ 0, wn = n , 4. xn = an , ∀ n ≥ 0.
3
Given a sequence (un ), we want to prove whether (un ) is geometric. From
definition 3.2.1, we know that a geometric sequence is entirely determined by its
common ratio q. According to the definition above, one maye think that the best
way to find the common ratio is to compute the quotient uun+1
n
· We agree that this
method works but it leads sometimes to long and complicated calculations. To
illustrate such complicate calculations and the disadvantages of this method we
consider the following example:

 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = a un + b, ∀ n ≥ 0,


for some real numbers a ∈ R\{0 ; 1} and b ∈ R∗ . For every natural number n ≥ 0,
we define
b
vn = un − ·
1−a
Then, (vn ) is a geometric sequence.
To prove this , we take n ∈ N, and we assume that vn 6= 0. Then, we have
b b
vn+1 un+1 − 1−a aun + b − 1−a aun + b−ba−b
1−a
ba
aun − 1−a
= b
= b
= b
= b
vn un − 1−a un − 1−a un − 1−a un − 1−a
 
b
a un − 1−a
= b
= a·
un − 1−a
b
The sequence (vn ) is geometric with initial term u0 − 1−a and commom ratio a.
What we wanted to point out in this example is the long and complicated calcu-
lations on which this method can lead. The second inconvenience is, the fact that
80 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

we should always be careful with the denominator. We need always to check if it is

not zero.
In view of these disadvantages, we favor a second method, which in our opinion
is easier to use. This method runs in this way: Let (un ) be a sequence. To establish
that (un ) is geometric we proceed as follows:

Step 1: We write the expression of un+1

Step 2: we perform computations and substitutions in the expression of un+1 in
order to obtain un+1 = q un for some constant real number q.

To clarify this method we use the following examples

Example 3.2.7. We consider the real sequence defined by


 u0 = 2

un+1 = 2 un + 1, ∀ n ≥ 0,


and we define the sequence vn = un + 1. Then, the sequence (vn ) is geometric. To

prove this proposition we proceed in two steps

Step 1: For any n ∈ N, we have vn+1 = un+1 + 1

Step 2: Substuting un+1 by 2un + 1, we obtain

vn+1 = 2un + 1 + 1 = 2un + 2 = 2 un + 1 .

As we know that vn = un + 1, one has vn+1 = 2vn . Hence the sequence (vn ) is
geometric with initial term v0 = u0 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 and common ratio q = 2.

Example 3.2.8. We define the sequence


 u0 = 1

un+1 = 3 un − 4, ∀ n ≥ 0,


and we define the sequence vn = un − 2. Then we can prove that the sequence (vn )
is geometric.

Step 1: For every n ≥ 0 we write vn+1 = un+1 − 2

Step 2: Replacing un+1 by 3un − 4 in step 1 one has

vn+1 = 3un − 4 − 2 = 3un − 6 = 3 un − 2 .

Therefore vn+1 = 3vn . Consequently the sequence (vn ) is geometric with initial
term v0 = u0 − 2 = 1 − 2 = −1 and common ratio q = 3.
3.2. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 81

3.2.1 Explicit Expression of a Geometric Sequence

Now we consider a geometric sequence (un ) with initial term u0 and common ratio
q. Then, the sequence (un ) is in the form

 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = q un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


From the recursive formula of (un ), we deduce that,

u1 = q u0 ,
u2 = qu1 = q · qu0 = q 2 u0
u3 = qu2 = q · q 2 u0 = q 3 u0 .

Continuing this recursive procedure one can establish the following theorem

Theorem 3.2.9. If (un ) is a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common
ratio q, then for every n ≥ 0,
un = u0 · q n . (3.2.1)

Proof. Let (un ) be a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common ratio q.
We define the following proposition: P(n) : ∀ n ≥ 0, un = q n u0 . Our objective
now, is to prove P(n).

Step 1: Fixing n = 0, we obtain u0 = u0 · q 0 = u0 . The property is true for n = 0.

Step 2: We assume that the property holds for some natural number k. This
means that
uk = u0 · q k .

Step 3: Now we want to prove that uk+1 = u0 · q k+1 .

Since (un ) is geometric with common ratio q, one defines uk+1 = q uk . Using
our assumption we obtain

uk+1 = q × q k u0 = u0 · q k+1 .

Therefore, the property is satisfied by uk+1

Conclusion: We conclude that un = u0 · q n . for any n ≥ 0.

Example 3.2.10. Let (un ) be the sequence defined by


 u0 = 5

un+1 = −2 un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


Since u0 = 5 and q = −2 we obtain un = 5 · (−2)n .

82 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Example 3.2.11. We consider the sequence


 u0 = 2

un+1 = 7 un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


We have u0 = 2 and q = 7. Using theorem 3.2.9, one gets un = 2 · 7n .

Exercise 3.2.12. Determine the explicit forms of the following sequences:
 3
 u0 = 2

 u0 = −3 
1. 2.

un+1 = 5 un , ∀ n ≥ 0,  un+1 = 2 un , ∀ n ≥ 0.

3
Let p be some natural and (un ) a geometric sequence with initial term up and
common ratio q. We want to determine the explicit form of (un ). Applying the
recursive form of (un ), one has

up+1 = up · q,
up+2 = up+1 · q = up · q 2 ,
up+3 = up+2 · q = up · q 3 ,
up+4 = up+3 · q = up · q 4 .

Proceeding recursively, we establish this theorem.

Theorem 3.2.13. Let (un )n≥p be a geometric sequence with initial term up and
common ratio q. Then, ∀ n ≥ p,

un = up · q n−p . (3.2.2)

Proof. Let (un ) be a geometric sequence with initial term up and common ratio q.
To prove the theorem we need to check the following proposition:

P(n) : ∀ n ≥ p, un = up · q n−p .

Step 1: Fixing n = p,we have up = up · q p−p = up · q 0 = up . Therefore the property

is true for n = p
Step 2: We suppose that the property is true for some integer k ≥ p. This means
that uk = up · q k−p
Step 3: Now we need to establish the property for k + 1. In other words we have
to prove that uk+1 = up · q k+1−p . Using the definition of a geometric sequence
one has uk+1 = uk · q. Since uk = up · q k−p we deduce that

uk+1 = up · q × q k−p = up · q k+1−p .

The property is true for k + 1.

Conclusion: We conclude that for all n ≥ p, un = up · q n−p .
3.2. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 83

Example 3.2.14. Consider the following geometric sequence


 u3 = −2

un+1 = 5 un , ∀ n ≥ 3.


In this example, the initial term of the sequence is u3 = −2 and the common ratio
is q = 5. Using theorem 3.2.13, we obtain

un = u3 · q n−3 = −2 · 5n−3 .

Example 3.2.15. We take the geometric sequence


 u5 = 3

un+1 = − 21 un , ∀ n ≥ 3.


As we have, u5 = 3 and q = −1/2 one has

 n−5
−1
un = u5 · q n−5 = 3 · ·
2

Exercise 3.2.16. Determine the explicit form of each of the following sequences
 
 w7 = 2
  u1 = 1.5

1. 2.
 wn+1 = wn , ∀ n ≥ 7,
  un+1 = 2 un , ∀ n ≥ 1.

3 3

3.2.2 Sum of the n First Terms of a Geometric Sequence

Now we want to define the sum of the n first terms of a geometric progression. To
this end we remind this important result. Let q be a real number. We define
n
X
Tn = 1 + q + q 2 + · · · + q n = qk . (3.2.3)
k=0

We observe that if q = 1, q n = 1. Hence, Tn = n + 1. When q 6= 1 the sum Tn

satisfies the following property.

Lemma 3.2.17. For any real number q 6= 1 we have

1 − q n+1
Tn = · (3.2.4)
1−q

Proof. We remind that this lemma can be proved by induction. But here we present
another method to prove it. We define

q Tn = q + q 2 + · · · q n + q n+1 .
84 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Hence, we have
(1 − q)Tn = Tn − q Tn = 1 + q + · · · + q n − q − q 2 − · · · − q n − q n+1
Xn Xn
=1+ qk − q k − q n+1 = 1 − q n+1 .
k=1 k=1

Since q 6= 1, we can divide by 1 − q. Therefore,

1 − q n+1
Tn = ·
1−q
This completes the proof.
Using this lemma we can define the sum of the n first terms of a geometric
sequence.
Theorem 3.2.18. Let (un ) be a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and
common ratio q 6= 1. Then ,
n
X 1 − q n+1
Sn = u0 + u1 + · · · + un = uk = u0 · · (3.2.5)
1−q
k=0

Proof. Let (un ) be a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common ratio q.
Then,
 
u0 + u1 + · · · + un = u0 + u0 · q + · · · + u0 · q n = u0 1 + q + q 2 + · · · + q n
1 − q n+1
= u0 · Tn = u0 · ·
1−q
This proves the theorem.
Example 3.2.19. We consider the following geometric sequence (un )

 u0 = 6

un+1 = 4 un , ∀ n ≥ 0.


To compute u0 + u1 + · + u21 we specify that the initial term of the sequence (un )
is u0 = 6 and the common ratio is q = 4. This provides
1 − q 21+1 1 − 422
S21 = u0 · =6· = 2(422 − 1).
1−q 1−4
Combining theorem 3.2.13 and lemma 3.2.17 we can prove the following general
theorem:
Theorem 3.2.20. For any geometric sequence (un ) with initial term up and
common ratio q 6= 1, we have
n
X 1 − q n−p+1
uk = up · · (3.2.6)
1−q
k=p
3.2. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 85

Proof. Since (un ) is a geometric sequence with initial term up and common ratio q
we have un = up · q n−p . This involves

1 − q n−p+1
up + up+1 + · · · + un = up (1 + q + · · · + q n−p ) = up · ·
1−q

Example 3.2.21. As an example, we consider the sequence


 u2 = 2

un+1 = 3 un , ∀ n ≥ 2.


In this example the initial term is u2 = 2 and the common ratio is q = 3. Hence
one obtains
1 − 311−2+1 1 − 310
u2 + u3 + · · · + u11 = u2 × =2× = (310 − 1).
1−3 −2
Generally speaking the sum of the first terms of a geometric sequence is given
by the formula

1 − q number of terms
Sum=(initial term)× ·
1−q

To end this section, we investigate limits of a geometric sequences.

3.2.3 Limits of Geometric Sequences

In this section we deal with convergence and divergence of geometric sequences. To
this end we start by reminding the following lemma

Lemma 3.2.22. Let q be a real number. Then,

1. when |q| < 1,
lim q n = 0
n→+∞

2. when |q| > 1,

lim q n = ±∞.
n→+∞

Consider a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common ratio q. In this
case we know that the expression of un is given by un = u0 · q n . Therefore

lim un = u0 · lim q n .
n→+∞ n→+∞

Theorem 3.2.23. If (un ) is a geometric sequence with common ratio q, Then,

(un ) converges if and only if
|q| < 1.
86 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

We can reformulate his theorem in this way: if (un ) is a geometric sequence with
common ration q, then,
1. when |q| < 1, we have
lim un = 0
n→+∞

2. when |q| > 1, we have

lim un = ±∞.
n→+∞

Example 3.2.24. We consider the two following geometric sequences


 v0 = 1

 u0 = 2 
and

un+1 = 8 un , ∀ n ≥ 0  vn+1 = 3 un , ∀ n ≥ 0,

7
The sequence (un ) is geometric with common ratio q = 8. Then, |q| = 8 > 1. Since
u0 > 0 one has
lim un = +∞.
n→+∞
3
The sequence (vn ) is geometric and we have q = 7 < 1. Then

lim vn = 0.
n→+∞

We can define sequences which have similar properties to both arithmetic and
geometric sequences. They are called arithmetico-geometric sequences.

3.3 Arithmetico-geometric sequences

In this section we study arithmetico-geometric sequences. First we emphasize the
link between arithmetico-geometric sequences and previous ones. After these pre-
cisions we deal with limits of such type of sequences.

Definition 3.3.1. We say that a sequence (un ) is arithmetico-geometric if there

exist a ∈ R\{0 ; 1} and b ∈ R∗ such that the initial term un0 is given and for any
n ≥ n0
un+1 = a un + b.

Example 3.3.2. The sequence (un ) defined by


 u0 = 1

un+1 = 4 un + 3, ∀ n ≥ 0,


is an arithmetico-geometric sequence.
Remark 3.3.3. We point out that in defintion 3.3.1,
• when b = 0 and a ∈ R\{0 ; 1} the sequence (un ) is geometric.

• when a = 1 and b 6= 0 the sequence (un ) is arithmetic.

3.3. ARITHMETICO-GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 87

Throughout this section we suppose that a 6= 1.

Definition 3.3.4. We say that x0 ∈ R is a fixed point of the real function
f : R −→ R. if x0 is solution to the equation

f (x0 ) = x0 .

Example 3.3.5. Consider the function f (x) = 2 x + 4. We have

f (−4) = 2 × (−4) + 4 = −4.
Therefore x0 = −4 is a fixed point for the function f.
Exercise 3.3.6. Determine the fixed points of the following functions:
1. f (x) = 3 x + 2, 2. f (x) = −2 x + 5, 3. f (x) = −x + 2.
Let x be some real number. We define f (x) = a x + b, with a 6= 1. The fixed
point of f verifies the identity f (x) = x. This yields
b
x= ·
1−a
We take the following arithmetico-geometric sequence

 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = a un + b, ∀n ≥ 0.


and for any natural number n ≥ 0 we define the sequence

b
vn = un − ·
1−a
Staightforward calculations show that
b b b − ab − b ab
vn+1 = un+1 − = a un + b − = a un + = a un −
1−a 1−a 1−a 1−a
 b 
= a un − = a vn .
1−a
This implies the following theorem.

Theorem 3.3.7. Let a and b be two nonzero real numbers such that a 6= 1. We
consider the sequence (un ) defined by

 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = a un + b, ∀ n ≥ 0.


For any natural number n ≥ 0 we define the sequence

b
vn = un − ·
1−a
b
Then, (vn ) is a geometric sequence with initial term v0 = u0 − and common
1−a
ratio a.
88 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Example 3.3.8. As an example we consider the sequence


 u0 = 2

un+1 = 2 un + 3, ∀ n ≥ 0.


We define the function f (x) = 2 x + 3. The fixed point of this function is given by
x = −3. Then, the sequence
vn := un + 3
is geometric with initial term v0 = u0 + 3 = 5 and common ratio q = 2.
Example 3.3.9. Let (un ) be the sequence given by

 u0 = −2

un+1 = −2un + 1, ∀ n ≥ 0.


We define the function f (x) = −2x + 1. Then x = 21 is a fixed point of f . Therefore

the sequence vn := un − 12 is geometric with initial term v0 = u0 − 21 = −2 − 21 = − 25
and common ratio q = −2.
Let (un ) be as in theorem 3.3.7. We consider the real sequence (vn ) defined by
b
vn = un − ,
1−a
for all n ≥ 0. In the theorem 3.3.7 we have demonstrated that the sequence (vn )
1
is geometric with initial term v0 = u0 − 1−a and common ratio a. Then, using
theorem 3.2.9 one obtains
 b  n
vn = u 0 − ·a ·
1−a
1
Substituting in the expression of (un ) we find that un = vn + 1−a . That is,
 b  n b
un = u0 − a + · (3.3.1)
1−a 1−a

Theorem 3.3.10. Let (un ) be the arithmetico-geometric sequence defined by


 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = a un + b, ∀ n ≥ 0,


for some real number a 6= 1. Then the explicit form of (un ) is defined by (3.3.1).

Example 3.3.11. Let (un ) be defined by


 u0 = 2

un+1 = 2 un + 3, ∀ n ≥ 0.


Therefore we have
 3  n 3
un = 2 − 2 + = 5 · 2n − 3
1−2 1−2
3.3. ARITHMETICO-GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES 89

Example 3.3.12. We consider the sequence (un )


 u0 = 1

un+1 = 3 un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0.


Hence we have  2  n
un = 1 − 3 − 1 = 2 · 3n − 1
1−3
Exercise 3.3.13. Determine the explicit form of the following sequences
 
 u0 = −7  u0 = 4
1. 2.
un+1 = −5 un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0, un+1 = 8 un − 6, ∀ n ≥ 0.
 

To end this section we study limits of arithmetico-geometric sequence.

3.3.1 Limits of Arithmetico-Geometric Sequences

This subsection is devoted to limits of arithmetico-geometric sequences. In other
words we want to know if wether an arithmetico-geometric sequence is convergent
or divergent. To determine these limits we rely on the theorem 3.2.23. Indeed,
a glance on the formula (3.3.1) allows to distingish that the expression of (un ) is
composed by a geometric sequence plus a constant term. Thus using the theorem
3.2.23 , one can find the limit of the arithmetico-geometric sequence (un ).
Let (un ) be as in the theorem 3.3.10. We remark that if (un ) is such that
b
u0 = 1−a , then, for every natural number n we have

b
un = ·
1−a

In this case the sequence (un ) is constant. Consequently

b
lim un = ·
n→∞ 1−a
b
Now, we suppose that u0 6= 1−a and for every n ≥ 0 we define the geometric
b

n


sequence u0 − 1−a · a . Hence, theorem 3.2.23 implies that

1. if |a| < 1
 
b  n
lim u0 − ·a =0
n→+∞ 1−a

2. if |a| > 1
 
b  n
lim u0 − ·a = ±∞.
n→+∞ 1−a

From this lemma, we deduce the following theorem

90 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Theorem 3.3.14. Let (un ) be an arithmetico-geometric sequence defined by


 u0 ∈ R

un+1 = a un + b, ∀ n ≥ 0.


for some real number a 6= 1. Then

1. if |a| < 1,
b
lim un = ,
n→+∞ 1−a
2. if |q| > 1,
lim un = ±∞.
n→+∞

Proof. Let (un ) be as theorem 3.3.14. Using (3.3.1) we obtain the following expres-
sion  b  n b
un = u0 − a + ·
1−a 1−a
Using the discussion above we obtain the teorem .

Example 3.3.15. For instance we consider the following sequences

 
 u0 = 1  v0 = 6
1. 2.
un+1 = 3 un + 1, ∀ n ≥ 0, vn+1 = 0.5 un + 2, ∀ n ≥ 0.
 

For (un ), we have a = 3. We observe |a| = 3 > 1. Therefore

lim un = ±∞.
n→+∞

b 1 1 3
Since u0 − =1− = 1 + = , we have
1−a 1−3 2 2
lim un = +∞.
n→+∞

The sequence (un ) is divergent.

b
For the sequence (vn ), we have a = 0.5 and = 4. Since |a| = 0.5,
1−a
b 2
lim vn = = = 4.
n→+∞ 1−a 1 − 0.5

3.4 Exercise Session

3.4. EXERCISE SESSION 91

Exercise 3.4.1. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by u0 = 1 and for any
natural number n ≥ 0
un+1 = 2 un + 12.
For any natural number n we define the sequence vn = un + 12.


1. Establish that vn is a geometric sequence.

2. Define the explicit expression of the term vn for any natural number n ≥ 0.
3. Deduce from this the expression of the term un for every n ≥ 0.
4. Investigate the limit of (un ).

Comments. Let (un ) be an arithmetico-geometric sequence.

• To study an arithmetico-geometric sequence un+1 = aun + b, we should find
the fixed point of the function f (x) = ax + b.
• To prove that vn is a geometric sequence, write the expression of vn+1 in-

stead of divided of vn+1 by vn .

Solution. We consider the sequences (un ) and (vn ) as above.
1. For any natural number n we have


vn+1 = un+1 + 12 = 2un + 12 + 12 = 2un + 24 = 2 un + 12 = 2 vn


Then, the sequence vn is geometric with initial term, v0 = u0 + 12 = 13 and
common ratio
q = 2.
2. Since vn is a geometric such that v0 = 13 and q = 2, we have

vn = 13 · 2n , ∀ n ≥ 0.

3. From 2. we deduce that for every n ≥ 0,

un = vn − 12 = 13 · 2n − 12.

4. Since q = 2 > 1, one has

lim 13 · 2n = +∞.
n→+∞

Hence we have
lim un = +∞.
n→+∞


The sequence un diverges.
Exercise 3.4.2. In Sahelian countries the lakes are facing drought problems.
The ” lac Rose” in Senegal is not an exception to this rule. Indeed, each year
the ” lac Rose ” loses 2% of its surface. We assume that the surface of this lake
3, 000, 000 m2 in 2021.

1. Determine the surface of this lake in 2022 and 2023.

2. We denote by un the surface of the lake in the year 2021 + n. Determine
the expression of the term un for any natural number n.
92 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

3. Specify the nature of the sequence un .

4. Define the explicit form of the term un for any natural number n.
5. Specify the year from which this lake can disappear if no backup policy is
taken.

Comments. Let u be any quantity and a a real number, such that, 0 ≤ a ≤ 100.
• If u increases

of a%, then, to find the new value of u we have to multiply u
a
by 1 + 100 ·
• If u decreases

of a%, then, to find the new value of u we have to multiply u
a
by 1 − 100 ·
• Here we consider that the year 2021 corresponds to the year 0 of the study.
Then, the surface in 2021 is denoted u0 .
• Hence in 2022, we have u1 = 1 − 100 2


u0 = 0.98 u0 ·
• In 2023, (the year 2 of the study), we have u2 = 0.98 u1
• If un is the surface of the lake in 2021 + n, the surface in 2021 + n + 1 is given
by un+1 . Then, we have
un+1 = 0.98 un .

• If (un ) is a geometric sequence, with initial term u0 and common ratio q, then
un = u0 · q n .

Solution. According to the exercise we specify that u0 = 3 · 106 m2 .

1. From the comments we deduce that u1 = 0.98 u0 = 0.98 · 3 · 106 = 294 · 104 m2 .
and u2 = 0.98 u1 = 2881 · 102 m2 .
2. If un is the surface of the lake in 2021 + n, then, in 2021 + n + 1, the surface of
the lake will be un+1 . In this case we obtain
un+1 = 0.98 un .
3. As we can see it (un ) is a goemetric sequence with initial term u0 = 3 · 106 and
common ratio q = 0.98.
n
4. Let n be a natural number. Then, we have un = u0 · (0.98) .
5. Since
lim un = 0,
n→+∞

we can imagine that for n greater enough the lake will disappear.
Now we assume that the lake disappear when its surface is less than 100 m2 .
Hence, one has
n n 100 1
3 · 106 (0.98) ≤ 100 ⇐⇒ (0.98) ≤ =
3 · 106 3 · 104
− ln(3) − 4 ln(10)
n ln (0.98) ≤ − ln 3 · 104 = − ln(3) − 4 ln(10) =⇒ n ≥


·
ln(0.98)
Consequently, we have n = 511. We conclude that, if any preservation policy is not
taken, the lake will disappear in 2532.
3.4. EXERCISE SESSION 93

Exercise 3.4.3. Aysel is very commited to ecological issues. To come to UFAZ,

she decided to rent a bike. It is mentioned in the contract that she should pay 150
manat in 2021 and each year there is an increase of 36 manat.
1. How much should she pay in 2022 and in 2023.

2. We denote by un the price to pay in 2021 + n. Determine the expression of

the sequence (un ).
3. Specify the nature of the sequence (un ) and determine the explicit form of
the term un for any n ∈ N.
4. It is supposed that Aysel should finish her studies in 2026, determine the
amount she paid for the bike during her studies.

Comments. To clarify this exercise

• We suppose that 2021 is the year 0 for the contract. Then, u0 = 150.
• In this case the amount to pay , is
– u1 in 2022
– u2 in 2023
– un in 2021 + n.
• On the other hand, we know that for 2022 she has payed 150 + 36. Generally
speaking in 2021 + n for any n ≥ 1, she will pay the equivalent of the rent of
2021 + n − 1 plus 36. Hence un = un−1 + 36.
• To find the amount to pay during her studies, we sum, what she payed during
the six years.
Solution. Let (un ) be as in the exercise. Then, we have u0 = 150.
1. In 2022 she should pay u1 = 150 + 36 = 186 and in 2023 she will pay

u2 = 186 + 36 = 222.

2. Let (un ) be the price to pay for the year 2021 + n. Then, in 2021 + n + 1 she
has to pay un+1 . In this case we obtain

un+1 = un + 36.

3. As we can observe it, the sequence (un ) is arithmetic with initial term u0 = 150
and common difference d = 36. Hence for any natural number n, we have,

un = u0 + n d = 150 + 36 n.

4. At the end of her studies, she should pay

(5 + 1)(u0 + u5 6 · (150 + 330)
s5 = u0 + u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + u5 = = = 1440.
2 2
94 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

Exercise 3.4.4. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by


 u0 = 2


 un+1 = 1 un ,

∀n≥0
4
1. Precise the nature of the sequence (un ).
2. Define the explicit form the term un , for all n ≥ 0.
3. Find the limit of (un ).

4. Determine the sum s10 = u0 + u1 + · · · + u10 .

Comments. • To establish that a sequence (un ) is geometric we consider an

arbitrary natural number n and we write the expression un+1 . Performing
elementary calculations we should obtain

un+1 = q un .

• If (un ) is a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common ration q, we

have
un = u0 · q n .

• From the previous point, we deduce that

– when |q| > 1, then

lim un = ±∞
n→+∞

– when |q| < 1, then

lim un = 0.
n→+∞

• If (un ) is a geometric sequence with initial term u0 and common ratio q 6= 1,

the sum sn of the terms u0 , u1 , · · · , un , is equal to

1 − q n+1
sn = u0 · ·
1−q

Solution. 1. The sequence (un ) is geometric wih initial term u0 = 2 and common
ratio q = 41 ·
2. Let n ∈ N one has  n
1
un = u0 · q n = 2 · ·
4
1
3. Since q = 4 < 1 we deduce that
 n
1
lim un = lim 2 · = 0·
n→+∞ n→+∞ 4

The sequence (un ) is convergent.

3.4. EXERCISE SESSION 95

4. Let n be a natural number which is greater than or equal to 1. Therefore,

n+1  n+1 !
1 − q n+1 1 − 41 8 1
sn = u0 + u1 + · · · + un = u0 · =2· = 1− ·
1−q 1 − 41 3 4

Taking n = 10, we obtain

 11 !
8 1
s10 = 1− ·
3 4

Exercise 3.4.5. Let (un ) be the arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 = 3 and
common difference 7.
1. Define the recursive and the explicit forms of the sequence (un ).

2. Investigate the variations of (un ).

3. Define the sum s11 = u0 + u1 + · · · + u11 .

Comments. Let (un ) be an arithmetic sequence with initial term u0 = a and

common difference d. Then,
• the recursive form of (un ) is defined by

 u0 = a,

un+1 = un + d, ∀ n≥0


• the explicit form of (un ) is

un = u0 + n d = a + n d.

• if d > 0, the sequence (un ) is increasing

• if d < 0, the sequence (un ) is decreasing.
• the sum of the n first terms of (un ) is given by the formula



n + 1 u0 + un
sn = u0 + u1 + · · · + un = ·
2

Solution. Now, we consider the arithmetic sequence (un ) with initial term u0 = 3
and common difference d = 7.
1. The recursive form of (un ) is given by the following formulas

 u0 = 3,

un+1 = un + 7, ∀ n ≥ 0.


2. The explicit form of (un ) is defined by

un = 3 + 7n, for all n ≥ 0.

96 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

3. Since the common difference d = 7 > 0 we obtain

un+1 − un = 7 > 0.

Hence the sequence (un ) is strictly increasing.

4. Here we have u0 = 3 and u11 = 3 + 7 × 11 = 80. Therefore,



11 + 1 · u0 + u11 12 · 83
s11 = u0 + u1 + · · · + u11 = = = 498.
2 2

3.5 Problems
Problem 3.5.1. In Senegal the climate change is of a major concern. That is
why, populations are taking some local initiatives. Young peoples of the association
”Ndiarignou Garab” (the usefulness of trees in wolof ) decide to take care of the
forest which is near to their village. This forest is composed out of 50000 big trees
in 2010. Their strategy consist of cutting 5% of the old trees and replant 3000 young
trees each year.
We denote by un the number of thousands of big trees which are in the forest in
the ongoing year 2010 + n. We agree that in 2010, we have u0 = 50.
1. Compute u1 , u2 and define the expression of un for any natural number n.
2. For every natural number n we define the sequence (vn ), in this way

vn = un − 60.

a. Establish that (vn ) is a geometric sequence (Hint: specify its common ration
and its initial term).
b. Determine the explicit expression of vn for any natural number n.
3. Deduce from 2. the explicit expression of un for any n ∈ N
4. Study the convergence of (un ).
5. Can the number of the trees of the forest exceed 60000 ?


Problem 3.5.2. We consider the sequence Pn defined by

 P0 = 4


 Pn+1 = − 2 Pn + 5,

∀ n ≥ 0.
3
1. Compute P1 and P2 .


2. We define the sequence Qn by Qn = Pn − 3 for every n ∈ N.
3.5. PROBLEMS 97


a. Prove that Qn is a geometric sequence
b. Determine the explicit form of Qn for every n ∈ N.
3. Deduce from 2.b. the expression of Pn for any natural number n.


4. Determine the limit of Pn .
Problem 3.5.3. Let (vn ) be the sequence given by v0 = 3 and for every
1
vn+1 = vn .
2
1. Determine the explicit form of (vn ).
2. Study the convergence of the sequence (vn ).
Problem 3.5.4. Let (an ) and (bn ) be two sequences, such that, a0 = 0, b0 = 12
and for every n ≥ 0, 
2 an + bn
 an+1 =


3


 a + 3 bn
 bn+1 = n

 ·
4
1. For every natural number n we define the sequence (un ) by

un = bn − an .

a. Prove that (un ) is a geometric sequence.

b. Define the explicit form of un for any n ∈ N.
c. Determine the limit of (un ).
2. a. Establish that (an ) is an increasing sequence.
b. Study the variations of the sequence (bn ).
c. What can you say about the limits of (an ) and (bn ).
3. Now, we consider the sequence (vn ) which is given by

vn = 3an + 4bn .

Prove that (vn ) is a constant sequence

4. Specify the limits of the Sequences (an ) and (bn ).
Problem 3.5.5. We consider the sequence (un ) given by u0 = 2 and for every
natural number n,
1 23
un+1 = un + ·
3 27
23
1. Establish that if (un ) is convergent its limit should be ` = 18 , (Hint: define

23
vn = u n −
18
and prove that (vn ) is geometric.)
98 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

23
2. Show that for any n ∈ N we have un ≥ 18 ·

3. Study the variations of (un ) and prove that it is convergent.

4. Determine its limit.

5. For every natural number n ≥ 1, prove that

n+1  
X 1 1 1
= 1− n ·
10k 10 10
k=2

2
Problem 3.5.6. Let (un ) be the sequence which satisfies u1 = 5 and for every
n ≥ 1,
1 2
un+1 = un + ·
5 5
1. Prove that (un ) is bounded above by 12 ·

2. Establish that (un ) is an increasing sequence.

3. Justify that (un ) converges and specify its limit.

Problem 3.5.7. Let (un ) be the sequence defined by


 u0 = 5


 
2 6
 un = 1 + un−1 + , ∀n ≥ 1·


5 n

We consider the arithmetic sequence (vn ) with initial term v0 = 16 and common
difference 8.

1. Justify that
n−1
X
sn = vk = 4n2 + 12n.
k=0

2. Establish that un = 4n2 + 12n + 5 (hint: Define dn = un+1 − un .)

Problem 3.5.8. For every n ≥ 1, we define the sequence

1h 1 2 n−1
i
un = 1 + en + en + · · · + e n .
n
1. Show that,
1 2 n−1 1−e
1 + en + en + · · · + e n = 1 ·
1 − en
2. Deduce from 1 that

1
un = e − 1 ·  ·
1
n e −1 n

3. Prove that the sequence (un ) converges to e − 1.

3.5. PROBLEMS 99

Problem 3.5.9. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by u0 = 1 and for all n ≥ 0,
1
un+1 = un + 4.
3
For any n ≥ 0 we set vn = un − 6.
1. Prove that (vn ) is a geometric sequence.
2. For any natural number n define the explicit form of vn .
3. Deduce from 2 that  n
1
un = −5 + 6.
3

4. Determine the limit of (un ).

1
Problem 3.5.10. Let (un ) be the sequence defined by u0 = −1, u1 = 2 and for
every natural number n,
1
un+2 = un+1 − un .
4
1. For any natural number n we define the sequence (vn ) as follows:
1
vn = un+1 + un .
2
a. Find v0
b. Prove that (vn ) is a geometric sequence and define the explicit form of vn
for any natural number n.
un
2. We consider the sequence (wn ) defined by wn = vn ·

a. Prove that wn+1 = wn + 2 and define the explicit form of the term wn for
all natural number n.
3. Prove that
2n − 1
un = ·
2n
Pn
4. For any natural number n, we set sn = k=0 uk . Prove that
2n + 3
sn = 2 · ·
2n

Problem 3.5.11. We consider the sequence (un ) defined by


u =5
 0


 un+1 = 4un − 1 ,

∀ n ≥ 0.
un + 2
1. Establish that for every n ≥ 0, un − 1 > 0.
2. For every natural number n, we define the sequence (vn ) by
1
vn = ·
un − 1
100 CHAPTER 3. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

(a) Show that (vn ) is an arithmetic sequence.

(b) Define the explicit form of the term vn for all n ∈ N.
(c) Deduce from c the limit of (un ).
Problem 3.5.12. Study the following sequences
 
 u0 = 3  v0 = 2
1. 2.
un+1 = 1.5un − 3, ∀n ≥ 0, vn+1 = 3vn − 2, ∀n ≥ 0,
 
 
 w0 = 1  x0 = 2
3. 4.
wn+1 = −wn + 2, ∀n ≥ 0, xn+1 = −2xn + 4, ∀n ≥ 0.
 

Problem 3.5.13. Study the following sequences


 u0 = 2

1. 2. ∀n ≥ 0, un = 3n+1 ,
 un+1 = 1 un , ∀n ≥ 0,

 3
 t0 = 3 
2
n
3. 4. ∀n ≥ 0, un = − ·
3
tn+1 = 2 tn , ∀n ≥ 0,


Problem 3.5.14. Let (un ) be the sequence defined by


 u0 = 60

un+1 = 0.98 un + 2, ∀n ≥ 0.


For any natural number n we define the sequence

vn = un − 100.
1. Prove that the sequence (vn ) is geometric. Specify its initial term and its
common ratio.
2. Define the expression of vn for every natural number n.
3. Deduce from 2 the expression of un and study the convergence of (un ).
4. Does it exist a natural number n, such that, un ≥ 100 ?
Problem 3.5.15. Let (un ) be the sequence whose six first terms are given by the
following list 2, 8, , 14, 20, 26, 32, · · · · We denote the first term of (un ) by u0 .
1. Find u0 and u1 .
2. Specify the nature of the sequence (un ) and define its recursive form.
3. Define the expression of the term un for every natural number n.
4. Determine the value of
s25 = u0 + u1 + · · · + u25 .
 CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Contents
4.1 Generalities on Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2 Elementary Operations on Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.1 Sum of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.2.2 Multiplication by a Real Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3 Basis in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4 Scalar Product in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.1 Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4.2 Scalar Product of Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5 Transformations in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.6 Determinant of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 Matrices . . . . . . . . . 115
4.7 Introduction to Complex Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.8 Lines in The Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.9 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

This chapter deals with geometry in the plane. We started with the plane
because, we thought that, it is more familiar to students. Another pedagogical
reason is that in the plane the represention of transformations are simplest and
most of the time we can draw them. The study of the geometry of the plane will
be done through vectors. To define a vector we need to know its direction. Here,
we mean by direction a set of parallel lines. For instance we have the horizontal
direction, the vertical direction or the oblique direction.
We start by giving the general definition of a vector. As we did it for complex
numbers, we will define elementary operations on the set of vectors. We define sums
of vectors and multiplication of a vector by a real number. In addition of these two
operations, we will introduce the concept of collinearity.

101
102 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Another practical way to study a set is to define transformtions on this set

and study their actions. Thus we will consider some transformations on the set of
vectors. One of the transformations we consider here is the dot product. Given to
vector ~u and ~v , what is ~u · ~v . Using this dot product we investigate orthogonality of
vectors.
In chapter 1 we establish that every complex number can be associated to a
unique point in the plane. Using this representation we will study the complex
plane.
To make the presentation clear we adopt the following notations
• The line which passes through the points A and B is denote by (AB).
• The segment line which has end points A and B is noted [AB].

4.1 Generalities on Vectors

The objective of this section is to give general defintions of vectors. It is important
to define rigorously what we mean by vector. This section will clarify the confusion
that students make between direction and sense. Indeed usually students under-
stood commonly by direction what we call the sense. Therefore, it is necessary to
specify that these two notions are different.
In this course we characterize the direction of a line (d) by this angle, between
the line (d) and a horizontal line. From now on we adopt the following definition.

Definition 4.1.1. The direction of a line (D) is the measure of the angle θ that
it makes with any horizontal line.

Remark 4.1.2. Let (D) be a line in the plane. We denote by θ the angle between
this line and a horizontal line. Then,
• When the angle θ is zero or π, we say that the line is horizontal
• when θ is equal to π/2 or −π/2, the line is called a vertical line.
Now, we are in a position to define rigorously what we mean by a vector.

Definition 4.1.3. A vector u denoted by ~u is defined by its

• direction,
• orientation (or sense),
• norm (length or magnitude).

The orientation is the sense of displacement. The norm is the magnitude or the
length of the vector.
Notation: A vector ~u can be represented geometrically by an arrow in the plane
as follows

→
−
u
4.1. GENERALITIES ON VECTORS 103

The original point of the arrow is call the origin of the vector. The point at the tip
of the arrow is the end point of the vector. For instance, the vector with origin A
−−→
and end point B is denoted AB. It is represented as below
B

A −−→
AB
−−→ −−→
Notation: The norm of the vector AB is denoted AB .
From definition 4.1.3 we deduce that:
Lemma 4.1.4. Two vectors ~u and ~v are equal if they have the same direction,
the same sense and the same norm. In this case we write ~u = ~v
→
−
v

→
−
u

Definition 4.1.5. The vector ~u, such that, the origin and the end point coincide
→
−
is called the null or the zero vector. We denote it 0 .
We point out that, the zero vector does not have any specific direction and its
norm is 0. If ~u is any vector in the plane , the null vector satisfies
→
− →
− →
− −
u + 0 = 0 +→ u =→ −u.
Now take two vectors ~u and ~v in the plane such that ~u + ~v = ~0. This identity is
equivalent to ~v = −~u.
As we can see it, the vectors ~u and −~u have same direction and same norm but
opposite senses.
Lemma 4.1.6. For any vector ~u in the plane there exists a vector ~v in the plane
such that
~u + ~v = ~0.
The vector ~v is called the opposite vector of ~u. It is denoted −~u.
This lemma implies the following definition:
Definition 4.1.7. Two vectors →
−u and →
−v are said to be opposite if they have the
same direction, the same norm and opposite sense (orientation). In this case we
write ~v = −~u
→
−
v

→
−
u
104 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Definition 4.1.8. Any vector ~u which has norm 1, is called a unit vector.

In the next section we will show how to perform addition of vectors. We define
also the vector obtain by multiplying a ~u by a real number k.

4.2 Elementary Operations on Vectors

This section is composed of two subsections. In the first one we define the sum of
vectors. In the second subsection we define the multiplication of a vector by a real
number.

4.2.1 Sum of Vectors

In this subsection we define the sum of vectors. We also show how to represent by
a drawing this vector.

Definition 4.2.1. The sum of two vectors ~u and ~v denoted ~u +~v is the vector with
origin the origin point of →
−
u and end point the end point of → −
v . It is represented
in this way

→
−
v
→
−
u

→
−
u +→
−
v

We gather some properties of the sum of vectors in the following theorem.

Theorem 4.2.2. Let ~u, ~v , w

~ be three vectors in the plane. Then,
1. →
−
u +→
−
v =→
−
v +→
−
u
2. (~u + ~v ) + w
~ = ~u + (~v + w).
~

The property 1 means that addition of vectors is commutative. The second

property means that addition of vectors is associative.

4.2.2 Multiplication by a Real Number

Definition 4.2.3. Let → −

v be a vector in the plane and λ a real number. We define
→
−
the vector λ · v as the vector with norm |λ|k ~v k which has the same direction as
~v and

• same sene when λ is positive

• opposite sense when λ is negative.
4.3. BASIS IN THE PLANE 105

Example 4.2.4. Let ~u be a vector in the plane. We define the vectors

~v1 = 1.5 ~u and ~v2 = − 0.5 ~u.

→
−
v1

→
− + →
−
v2 u

From this definition, we deduce that 0 · ~u is the vector with norm 0. This means
that 0 · ~u = ~0. The vector 1 · ~u = ~u is a vector wich has the same norm, the same
direction and same sense as ~u. This involves 1 · ~u = ~u. In the same way we have
k (`~u) = k · ` · ~u

Definition 4.2.5. Two vectors →

−
u and →
−
v are collinear if there exists a real
number k such that
→
−v =k→
−
u.

Example 4.2.6. The following vectors are collinear:

→
−
v

→
−
u

The multiplication of a vector by a real number has the following properties.

Theorem 4.2.7. Let ~u and ~v be two vectors, k and ` two real numbers. Then,
1. k (~u + ~v ) = (k ~u + k ~v )

2. (k + `) ~u = k ~u + ` ~u.

At this level one may ask how to check whether two vectors are collinear. The
first thing on which we will think is to use a ruler in order to verify if the vectors are
parallel. In the next section we will show that there is an easiest way to establish
that two vectors are collinear. The goal of the next section is to allows us to do
geometry without using compass and rulers. To be able to do this, we will associate
to any point and vector in the plane an ordered couple of real numbers. In this case
we say that we define coordinates. We will think in terms of coordinates instead of
vectors. To define coordinates we need to specify a frame.

4.3 Basis in the Plane

The concept of basis is one of the most important in this course. Because it allows
us to do analysis in the plane. Using a basis we can give coordinates to each vector
and each point. We remind that any two non-collinear vectors ~u and ~v define a
plane. In this case any vector of the plane can be written as a combination of these
two vectors. The vectors ~u and ~v are called the direction vectors of the plane. This
leads to the following definition:
106 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Definition 4.3.1. Any couple of non-collinear vectors ~e1 and ~e2 define a basis
of the plane.

Theorem 4.3.2. Let (~e1 , ~e2 ) be a basis of the plane. We consider the vector →
−
v
in the plane. Then, there exist two real numbers x and y, such that,
→
−
v = x ~e1 + y ~e2 . (4.3.1)

The real numbers x and y are called the coordinates of the vector ~v in the basis
(~e1 , ~e2 ) and we write  
x
~v (x , y) or ~u .
y
To perform calculations on vectors it is better to use coordinates.
Lemma 4.3.3. Let ~u (x , y) and ~v (x0 , y 0 ) be two vectors in the plane and k a
real number.Then,
1. the coordinates of the vector ~u ± ~v are (x ± x0 , y ± y 0 )
2. the coordinates of the vector k · ~u are (k x, k y).

Example 4.3.4. We consider the vectors →

−
u (2 , 1) and →
−
v (0 , 3). Then , we have
~u + ~v (2 , 4), ~u − ~v (2 , −2), and 3 ~u (6 , 3).
Exercise 4.3.5. Let ~u (3 , 0) and ~v (−1 , 5) be two vectors in the plane. Find the
coordinates of the following vectors: ~u + ~v , ~u − ~v , −~v and −3 ~u.
Sometimes, to simplify calculations we use some particular basis. We specify
the definition of some of them below


Definition 4.3.6. A basis ~e1 , ~e2 of the plane is said to be orthogonal if the
vectors
~e1 ⊥ ~e2 .

By the symbol ⊥ we mean that the two vectors are perpendicular.

Example 4.3.7. The basis defined by the vectors ~e1 (2, 0) and ~e2 (0, 3) is orthogonal.
Definition 4.3.8. A basis (~e1 , ~e2 ) is orthonormal if and only

~e1 ⊥ ~e2 and k~e1 k = k~e2 k = 1.

Example 4.3.9. An example of orthonormal basis is given by the following vectors

~e1 (1, 0) and ~e2 (0, 1).

Definition 4.3.10. The orthonornal basis defined by the vectors

~i (1 , 0) and ~j (0 , 1)

is called the canonical or the standard basis of the plane.

4.3. BASIS IN THE PLANE 107

From now on, we suppose that the point O is the origin of a frame and has
coordinates (0 , 0). Now we equip the plane with the orthonormal basis (~i , ~j). Let
−→
A be a point in the plane. We define the vector OA. Hence we can find two real
numbers xA and yA such that ,
−→
OA = xA~i + yA ~j.
−→
Thus, the real numers xA and yA are the coordinates of the vector OA. In this case,
we define the real numbers xA and yA as the coordinates of the point A. After this
update, we consider another point B in the plane with coordinates (xB , yB ), then,
−−→
we define the coordinates of the vector AB as follows

Definition 4.3.11. If A (xA , yA ) and B (xB , yB ) are two points in the plane,
−−→
the coordinates of the vector AB are defined by
 
−−→ xB − xA
AB (4.3.2)
yB − yA

Example 4.3.12. We consider the points A (3 , 1) and B (3 , 5). Then, we have

−−→
AB (3 − 3 , 5 − 1) = (0 , 4).

Exercise 4.3.13. Let A (1 , 0), B (1 , 2), C (5 , 6) and D (5 , 6) be four points in

−−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −−→
the plane. Find the coordinates of the following vectors AB, AC, AD, BC, BD,
−−→ −−→
CD and CB.
Our first application of coordinates will be to define the norm of a vector.

Definition 4.3.14. If A (xA , yA ) and B (xB , yB ) are two points in the plane,
−−→
the norm of the vector AB is
−−→ p
AB = (xB − xA )2 + (yB − yA )2 . (4.3.3)

Example 4.3.15. We consider the points A (2 , 1) and B (3 , 0). Then, we have

−−→ p p √
kABk = (3 − 2)2 + (0 − 1)2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2.

Exercise 4.3.16. Let A (2 , 6), B (3 , 0), C (1 , 1) and D (0 , −2) be four points in

−−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −−→
the plane. Determine the norm of the following vectors AB, AC, AD, BC, BD
−−→
and CD.

Lemma 4.3.17. If →−u (x , y) and →

−
v (x0 , y 0 ) are two vectors in the plane, then,
→
− →
−
u = v if and only if
x = x0 and y = y 0 .

In other words two vectors are equal if they have the same coordinates.
Now we are in a position to use coordinates to characterize the collinearity of
vectors.
108 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Lemma 4.3.18. Let ~u (x , y) and ~v (x0 , y 0 ) be two vectors in the plane. Then,
the vectors ~u and ~v are collinear if and only if

x y 0 − x0 y = 0 (4.3.4)

Proof. Since ~u (x , y) and ~v (x0 , y 0 ) are collinear vectors, there exists some real
number k such that ~v = k~u. That is, (x0 , y 0 ) = k (x , y). This means that

x y0 = k x y and x0 y = k x y.

Therefore
x y 0 − x0 y = k x y − k x y = 0.
Conversely we assume x y 0 − x0 y = 0. Then, x 6= 0 and y 6= 0. Otherwise the
following cases can hold:
Case 1: x = 0 and y 6= 0. In this case one may have x0 = 0 or y 0 = 0.
• If we have x0 = 0 and y 0 6= 0 then the vectors ~u (0, y) and ~v (0, y 0 ) are
collinear.
• if x0 6= 0 and y 0 = 0 then y = 0. This involves ~u (0, 0) and ~v (x0 , 0) are
collinear.
Case 2: x 6= 0 and y = 0. Hence

• when x0 = 0 then y 0 = 0. The vectors ~u and ~v are collinear.

• when y 0 = 0 then ~u (x, 0) and ~v (x0 , 0) are collinear.
x0 y0
We see that we can take x 6= 0 and y 6= 0. Using (4.3.4) one has x = y . Taking
x0
k= x one obtains ~v = k~u.
Example 4.3.19. Let ~u (2 , 1) and ~v (6 , 3) be two vectors in the plane. Then one
has
x0 6 y0 3
= =3= = = 3.
x 2 y 1
Therefore ~v = 3 ~u. Consequently ~u and ~v are collinear.
Exercise 4.3.20. Say whether the vectors ~u and ~v are collinear

1. ~u (2 , 5) and ~v (7 , 2), 2. ~u (1 , 3) and ~v (0.5 , 1.5), 3. ~u (11 , 33) and ~v (1 , 3).

Using vectors we have the following characterization of a parallelogram.

Proposition 4.3.21. If A, B, C and D are four points in the plane, then, the
quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if
−−→ −−→
AB = DC.

Now we take the points A (xA , yA ),B (xB , yB ),C (xC , yC ) and D (xD , yD ). Using
the fact that two vectors are equal if they have the same coordinates. Then, we
obtain
4.4. SCALAR PRODUCT IN THE PLANE 109

Lemma 4.3.22. The quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if

xB − xA = xC − xD and yB − yA = yC − yD .

Example 4.3.23. We consider the points A (2 , 3), B (0 , 1), C (−5 , 0) and

D (−3 , 2) in the plane. Then, we have
   
−−→ −2 −−→ −2
AB and DC .
−2 −2

This implies the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.

Exercise 4.3.24. Let A (3 , 0), B (0 , −6), C (−9 , −12) and D (−6 , −6) be four
points in the plane. Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.

Another way to define a parallelogram is to use the midpoint of a segment line.

Lemma 4.3.25. If A (xA , yA ) and B (xB , yB ) are two points in the plane then,
the coordinates of the midpoint I of the segment line [AB] are given by
xA + xB yA + yB
xI = and yI = · (4.3.5)
2 2

Example 4.3.26. We consider the points A (0 , 1) and B (5 , 2). The coordinates

of the midpoint of the segment line [AB] are

0+5 5 1+2 3
xI = = and yI = = ·
2 2 2 2
Exercise 4.3.27. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the segment line [AB]

1. A (3 , 5) and B (6 , 1),

2. A (0 , 7) and B (2 , 3),

3. A (−3 , −1) and B (−2 , 1).

Proposition 4.3.28. The quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if

the segment lines [AC] and [BD] have the same midpoint.

One knows that a rectangle is a particular parallelogram which has four right
angles. This means that the consecutive sizes are arthogonal. There are several
methods to establish that two vectors are orthogonal. At our level the simplest way
consists of using the scalar product.

4.4 Scalar Product in the Plane

This section deals with the scalar product which is also called the dot product. It is
organised as follows: in the first subsection we define the angle between two vectors.
In the second subsection we study the scalar product and some of its properties.
110 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

4.4.1 Angle Between Two Vectors

In this subsection we explain briefly what we mean by an angle between two vectors.
Indeed take two nonzero vectors in the plane ~u and ~v . We assume they are
positioned so that their initial points coincide.

Definition 4.4.1. We define the oriented angle θ between ~u and ~v as follows:

~v

~u

And we denote (~u, ~v ) = θ.

Example 4.4.2. The angle between the vectors →

−
w 0 and →
−
w 1 is

θ0

→
−
w1
→
−
w0

Remark 4.4.3. We point out that here we define the angle θ as the smallest coun-
terclockwise angle. The angle (~v , ~u) is equal to −θ.
The oriented angles share the following properties

Theorem 4.4.4. If ~u, ~v and → −w are three vectors then,

1. ~u , ~v + ~v , →−
w = ~u , → −




w



2. ~u , ~v = − ~v , ~u




3. ~u , ~v + ~v , ~u = ~u , ~u = 0

Since we know the definition of an angle between two vectors, we are in a position
to define the scalar or the dot product of two vectors.

4.4.2 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

This subsection investigate the scalar product of two vectors in the plane. We start
by giving the general definition of the scalar product. In a second time we study
some properties of the dot product.

Definition 4.4.5. The scalar product or dot product of the vectors ~u and ~v is
the real number ~u · ~v defined as follows:

~u · ~v = k~uk · k~v k cos(θ). (4.4.1)

Where θ is the angle between the vectors ~u and ~v .

4.4. SCALAR PRODUCT IN THE PLANE 111

If we suppose the angle θ = (~u, ~v ) = 0, one has cos(θ) = 1. In this case the
following lemma holds:

Lemma 4.4.6. If the angle between the vectors →

−
u and →
−
v is 0 then,

~u · ~v = k~uk · k~v k.

When we take θ = (~u, ~v ) = π, we have cos(θ) = −1, hence we obtain

Lemma 4.4.7. If the angle between →

−
u and →
−
v is π then

~u · ~v = −k~uk · k~v k

π
If the angle (~u, ~v ) = 2, one has ~u · ~v = 0.

Lemma 4.4.8. Let ~u and ~v be two vectors in the plane. Then,

~u · ~v = 0 if and only if ~u ⊥ ~v . (4.4.2)

Proof. Let ~u and ~v be two orthogonal vectors in the plane. Therefore we have



cos (~u , ~v ) = cos ± π/2 = 0.

We conclude that

~u · ~v = k~uk · k~v k cos ± π/2 = 0.
Conversly we consider two nonzero vectors ~u and ~v , such that, ~u · ~v = 0. As we
supposed that ~u and
~v are two nonzero vectors, we have k~uk =
6 0 and k~v k =
6 0. This
yields cos (~u , ~v ) = 0. Hence the angle (~u , ~v ) = ±π/2. The vectors ~u and ~v are
orthogonal.

Using the definition of the dot product we have ~0 · ~u = 0 × k~uk cos(0) = 0.

Now we set θ := (~u , ~v ). Since the function cos is even, we have cos(−θ) = cos(θ).
One deduces ,

~u · ~v = k~uk k~v k cos(θ) = k~uk k~v k cos(−θ) = ~v · ~u.

This means that the scalar product is commutative. In the same way we can prove
the distributivity of the scalar product with respect to addition of vectors. In other
words we have
~u · (~v + w)
~ = ~u · ~v + ~u · w.
~
Let ~u be a vector in the plane, then the angle (~u , ~u) = 0. Hence, ~u · ~u = k~uk2 .
This involves

Lemma 4.4.9. For any vector ~u in the plane we have

√
k~uk = ~u · ~u·
112 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Proposition 4.4.10. If ~u and ~v are two vectors in the plane and k a real number
then,
~u · (k~v ) = (k ~u) · ~v = k (~u · ~v ).

In the following definition, we use coordinates to define the scalar product of

two vectors.

Definition 4.4.11. The scalar product of the vectors ~u (u1 , u2 ) and ~v (v1 , v2 ) is
defined by
→
−u ·→−
v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 . (4.4.3)

Example 4.4.12. We consider the vectors ~u = (2, −6) and ~v = (5, 2). Then,

~u · ~v = 2 · 5 + (−6) · 2 = 10 − 12 = −2.

Exercise 4.4.13. Find the scalar product →

−
u ·→
−
v

1. ~u (1 , 2) and ~v (−4 , 2),

2. ~u (−3 , 0) and ~v (−6 , 7),

3. ~u (0 , −5) and ~v (−1 , 0)

Exercise 4.4.14. Let →

−
u (−1 , 3) and →
−
v (6 , 2). Prove that the vectors →
−
u and →
−
v
are orthogonal.

Theorem 4.4.15. If ~u and ~v are two nonzero vectors such that θ = (~u, ~v ), then

~u · ~v
cos(θ) = · (4.4.4)
~u ~v

Example 4.4.16. Find the angle between the vectors ~u = (1 , −2) and ~v = (−3 , 6).
Using (4.4.4) we have

~u · ~v 1 · (−3) + (−2) · 6 −15

cos θ = =p p = = −1.
~u ~v 12 + (−2)2 · (−3)2 + 62 15
 
Thus, θ = arccos − 1 = π.

Exercise 4.4.17. Find the angle between the following vectors

1. ~u (−1 , 2) and ~v (0 , −3),

2. ~u (−2 , 1) and ~v (1 , 0),

3. ~u (−4 , 0) and ~v (1 , −3).

Now, we know how to characterize orthogonal vectors, we can state Pythagor’s

theorem.
4.4. SCALAR PRODUCT IN THE PLANE 113

Theorem 4.4.18. If ~u and ~v are two orthogonal vectors, then

2 2 2
~u + ~v = ~u + ~v . (4.4.5)

Proof. By definition we have

2

2 2
~u + ~v = ~u + ~v · ~u + ~v = ~u + ~v + 2~u · ~v .

As the vector ~u is orthogonal to ~v , one has ~u · ~v = 0. Hence (4.4.5) holds.

Using the scalar product, we can also prove the following theorem

Theorem 4.4.19. Let ~u and ~v be two vectors in the plane. Then, ~u and ~v are
orthogonal if and only if
~u + ~v = ~u − ~v . (4.4.6)

Proof. We assume that ~u ⊥ ~v . Then, we have ~u · ~v = 0. Therefore, we have

2

2 2 2 2
~u + ~v = ~u + ~v · ~u + ~v = ~u + ~v + 2~u · ~v = ~u + ~v
2

2 2 2 2
~u − ~v = ~u − ~v · ~u − ~v = ~u + ~v − 2~u · ~v = ~u + ~v .

This implies (4.4.6).

Coversely if (4.4.6) holds, we have
2

2 2 2 2
~u + ~v = ~u + ~v · ~u + ~v = ~u + ~v + 2~u · ~v = ~u + ~v
2

2 2 2 2
~u − ~v = ~u − ~v · ~u − ~v = ~u + ~v − 2~u · ~v = ~u + ~v .
2 2
Hence ~u + ~v − ~u − ~v ~ 0. This means that ~u is orthogonal to ~v .
= 4~u · v =

When ~u and ~v are two vectors which are not necessarily orthogonal, one can
establish this theorem.

Theorem 4.4.20. If ~u and ~v are two vectors, then we have

2 2 2 2
1. ~u + ~v + ~u − ~v = 2 ~u + 2 ~v
2 2
2. ~u + ~v − ~u − ~v = 4~u · ~v

Proof. The proof is quite simple. Indeed we have

2 2 2 2 2 2
~u + ~v = ~u + ~v + 2~u · ~v and ~u − ~v = ~u + ~v − 2~u · ~v .
2 2 2 2
This implies that ~u + ~v + ~u − ~v = 2 ~u + 2 ~v and
2 2
~u + ~v − ~u − ~v = 4~u · ~v

This completes the proof.

114 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

4.5 Transformations in the Plane

In this section we study some elementary transformations in the plane. We will
specially be concerned by translation, homothety and rotation.

Definition 4.5.1. Let →

−
u be a vector in the plane. We consider two points A
and A . We say that A0 is the image of A in the translation with vector →
0 −
u , if
−−→0
~u = AA . We denote
A0 = τ~u (A).

A A’

→
−
u

From this definition one can deduce the following theorem

Theorem 4.5.2. Let A, B, C and D be four points in the plane such that
C = τ−
−→ (D). Then, ABCD is a parallelogram.
AB

The second transformation we study is the homothety. We specified that a

homothety is sometimes called a dilatation. We recall that a homothety or dilation
is defined by its center and its ratio.

Definition 4.5.3. Let A, A0 and I be three points in the plane. We say that A0
is the image of A in the homothety with center I and ratio k 6= 0, if
−→0 −→
IA = k IA.

We denote A0 = hI , k (A).
−→0
A IA A’
I −→
IA

If we fix k = 1 in the definition 4.5.3, we see that the image A0 of A coincide

with A. In this case the homothety is the identity.
One can make the following precisions : when the real number k > 1, the
homothety is called a dilation or an expansion. When 0 < k < 1, we say that we
have a contraction.

Theorem 4.5.4. Let A , A0 and I be three points in the plane. We consider a

−→ −→
nonzero real number k, such that, A0 = hI , k (A). Then, the vectors IA and IA0
are collinear.
The last transformation, we introduce here is the rotation. Informally speaking,
a rotation means turning around a fixed object. Rigorously a rotation is defined by
its center and its angle.
4.6. DETERMINANT OF 2 × 2 AND 3 × 3 MATRICES 115

Definition 4.5.5. Let A, A0 and I be three points in the plane and θ ∈ R. We

say that A0 is the image of A in the rotation with center I and angle θ if
−→ −→
IA = IA0 and IA , IA0 = θ.

We denote
A0 = RI,θ (A).

When the center of the rotation I = O we denote Rθ instead of RO,θ .

Theorem 4.5.6. Let A, A0 and I be three points in the plane and θ a real number.
We assume
A0 = RI , θ (A).
Then, A and A0 belong to the circle with center I and radius R = IA.

Another way to check whether two vectors are collinear in the plane is to con-
struct a matrix with these two vectors and to compute the determinant of this
matrix. If the determinant of A is 0, then the two vectors are collinear (linearly
dependant). Otherwise they are not collinear (linearly independant). In the next
section we introduce determinant of matrices

4.6 Determinant of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 Matrices

We start this section by giving an elementary definition of 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 matrices.
After these definitions we introduce properly the concept of determinant. In short
we can say that the determinant is a function that assigns to any matrix a numerical
values.

Definition 4.6.1. A 2 × 2 matrix A is an array of two rows and two columns.

We denote  
a b
A= .
c d

By the expression n × p matrix, we mean an array of n rows and p columns.

Example 4.6.2. We define the following 2 × 2 matrices
         
1 2 −1 0 0 0 −3 0 1 0
A= , B= , C= , D= , E=
3 −1 9 5 0 0 4 2 0 1

The matrix C is called the null or zero matrix and the matrix E is the identity
matrix .
 
a b
Definition 4.6.3. The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix A = is defined by
c d

a b
det(A) = = ad − bc. (4.6.1)
c d
116 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

We point out that in this course we will only consider determinants of square
matrices.
 
3 −2
Example 4.6.4. We consider the matrix A = . Then,
4 1

3 −2
det(A) = = 3 · 1 − (−2) · 4 = 3 − (−8) = 11
4 1

Exercise 4.6.5. Compute the determinant of the following matrices

           
5 2 2 0 −1 −2 2 1 −1 0 9 2
, , , , , .
1 −1 10 5 −2 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 4

Definition 4.6.6. A 3 × 3 matrix A is an array of three rows and three columns

 
a1 a2 a3
A =  b1 b2 b3  .
c1 c2 c3

Example 4.6.7. As an example, we consider the following 3 × 3 matrices

   
1 0 3 −1 2 −3
A = 2 1 5 , B =  2 7 6
0 0 9 0 −2 10
 
a1 a2 a3
Definition 4.6.8. The determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix A =  b1 b2 b3  is
c1 c2 c3
defined by

a1 a2 a3
b b3 b1 b3 b b2
b1 b2 b3 = a1 2 − a2 + a3 1 (4.6.2)
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Example 4.6.9. We have

1 −2 0
2 −4 2 −4 2 2
2 2 −4 = 1 − (−2) +0
−4 −1 3 −1 3 −4
3 −4 −1
= 1 · (−18) + 2 · 10 + 0 · (−14) = 2.

Exercise 4.6.10. Find the determinant of the following matrices

         
0 2 −1 3 1 9 2 0 0 1 3 5 1 0 0
3 2 1  ,  4 1 2 , 0 −3 0 , −1 0 0 , 0 1 0 .
0 0 2 −1 2 1 0 0 6 0 1 3 0 0 1
4.7. INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX PLANE 117

Theorem 4.6.11. Let A be a matrix such that, two rows are collinear. Then,

det(A) = 0.

Theorem 4.6.12. Let A be a matrix such that two columns are collinear.Then,

det(A) = 0.

Definition 4.6.13. The area of the parallelogram ABCD is defined by

−−→ −−→
Area(ABCD) = AB · AD · sin(θ) . (4.6.3)
−−→ −−→
where θ = AB , AD

Theorem 4.6.14 (Area of a parallelogram). The area of the parallelogram

ABCD is
Area(ABCD) = x− −→ · y−
−→ − y−
−→ · x−
−→ . (4.6.4)
AB AD AB AD

Now we consider a vector ~u (u1 , u2 ) in the plane. We can associate to ~u the

unique complex number z~u = u1 + i u2 . This complex number is called the affix of
the vector ~u. In this case we say that we have defined a complex plane.

4.7 Introduction to Complex Plane

This section is devoted to the complex plane. We take a vector ~u and the complex
number z~u associated to ~u. If A (xA , yA ) is also a point in the plane, we can
associate to A the unique complex number zA = xA + i yA . This means that to any
vector or point in the plane we can associate a unique complex number, which is
called the affix of the vector or the point.
Definition 4.7.1. If A (zA ) and B (zB ) are two points in the complex plane, the
−−→
affix of the vector AB is
z−
−→ = zB − zA .
AB

Example 4.7.2. Let A (1 + i) and B (2 + 2 i) be two points in the complex plane.

Then,
z−→ = zB − zA = 2 + 2 i − (1 + i) = 1 + i.
−
AB

Exercise 4.7.3. Let A (3 − i), B (2 i), C (−2 + 3 i) and D (1 − 5 i) be four points in

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
the complex plane. Find the affix of the following vectors AB, AD, CD, DB, DA.
From now on, we denote by ~i (1, 0) the unit vector on the x-axis and ~j (0, 1)
the unit vector on the y-axis. We observe that the angle (~i, ~j ) = π/2. Take ~u (z~u )
a vector in the complex plane. The angle (~i , ~u) is the angle between the x-axis
and the vector ~u. By definition this angle is equal to the argument of the complex
number z~u . That is, one has (~i , ~u) = arg(z~u ).
118 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Proposition 4.7.4. Let ~u (z~u ) and ~v (z~v ) be two vectors in the complex plane.
Then,  
z~v
(~u, ~v ) = arg = arg(z~v ) − arg(z~u ).
z~u
√
Example 4.7.5. Let ~u ( 3 + i) and ~v (1 + i) be two vectors in the complex plane.
Then ,
√
~i , ~u = arg(z~u ) = arg 3 + i = π and ~i , ~v = arg 1 + i = − π ·





6 4
From this we deduce that
 

1+i π π 3π 2π π
~u , ~v = arg √ = − = − = ·
3+i 4 6 12 12 12
√ √
Exercise 4.7.6. We consider the vectors ~u (−2+2 i), ~v (1+i 3) and → −w (−1+i 3).
Determine the measure of the following angles (~u, ~v ), (~u , →
−
w ), (→
−
w , ~v ).
In section 4.5 we defined some transformations. Since we know that the complex
numbers and the plane are the same, we redefine these transformations in terms of
complex numbers. In other words we study these transformations by using their
affixes.
Lemma 4.7.7. Let ~u (z~u ) be a vector in the plane. We consider two points
M (zM ) and M 0 (zM 0 ), such that, M 0 = τ~u (M ). Then,

z~u = zM 0 − zM .

This lemma allows to express the affix of M 0 as a function of the affix of the
vector ~u and the point M. In other words we have
zM 0 = z~u + zM .

Lemma 4.7.8. Let A (zA ), B (zB ) , C (zC ) and D (zD ) be four points in the
complex plane. Then, ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if

zB − zA = zC − zD .

Proof. The quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram if and only if .z−

−→ = z−
AB
−→ . This
DC
is equivalent to zB − zA = zC − zD .

Lemma 4.7.9. If I (zI ), M (zM ) and M 0 (zM 0 are three points in the plane and
k ∈ R such that, M 0 = hI , k (M ), then,


zM 0 = 1 − k zI + k zM . (4.7.1)

Proof. We consider I, M and M 0 as in the lemma. Therefore

z−−→0 = k z−→.
−
IM
IM

This is equivalent to say that zM 0 − zI = k (zM − zI ). This leads to the identity

(4.7.1).
4.8. LINES IN THE PLANE 119

Lemma 4.7.10. Let M (z), M1 (z1 ), M2 (z2 ) and O (0) be four points points in
the complex plane. We consider two real numbers k and θ. Then,

1. when M2 = τ−−→ (M1 ), we have z = z2 − z1

OM

2. when M2 = hO,k (M1 ), z2 = k z1 .

3. when M2 = Rθ (M1 ), z2 = ei θ z1

Proof. We consider M , M1 and M2 as in the lemma. The identity M2 = τ− −→ (M1 )

OM
−−→ −−−−→
is equivalent to OM = M1 M2 . This means that zM − zO = zM2 − zM1 . Since
zM = z, zM1 = z1 , zM2 = z2 and zO = 0, we have z = z2 − z1 .
To prove 2 we just need to use the definition of a homothety. Indeed M2 =
−−−→ −−−→
hO,k (M1 ) means that OM2 = k OM1 . From this one deduces z2 − zO = k (z1 − zO ).
This implies z2 = k z1 .
For 3 we remind that M2 = Rθ (M1 ), means that OM2 = OM1 . There is η ∈ C,
such that, |η| = 1. and z2 = η z1 . Consequently one can find a real number θ such
that, η = ei θ . Therefore, we have z2 = ei θ z1 .

Most of the readers can be confused. Because we are doing geometry in the
plane without saying anything on lines. We preferred to start by explaining points
and vectors. To reassure readers we introduce the next section which is devoted to
lines.

4.8 Lines in The Plane

The main objective of this section is to define the equation of a line. To this end,
we introduce the notion of direction vectors. Using a direction vector one can define
the general equation of a line. To end this section we define a set of parametric
equations of a line.
We have already known that a line can be determine by two points. And gener-
ally speaking a line has equation y = ax + b, where a is the slope of the line and b
is obtained when x = 0. Now we consider the line (AB) which passes through the
points A (xA , yA ) and B (xB , yB ). We suppose that its equation is y = ax + b. We
can find a and b by replacing x and y by the coordinates of A and B. This involves
the following linear system 
 yA = a xA + b

yB = a xB + b,


where the unknowns are a and b. In this case , if xB 6= xA , one can establish that
yB − yA
a= ·
xB − xA
Getting a we deduce that
yB − yA
b = yA − xA .
xB − xA
Example 4.8.1. Define an equation of the line that passes through the points
A (3, 2) and B (1, 4).
120 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Since we know that the equation of a line is in the form y = ax + b we have

4−2 2
a= = = −1 and 2 = −1 × 3 + b.
1−3 −2
Therefore b = 5. We conclude that the equation of the line is y = −x + 5.
Exercise 4.8.2. Determine an equation of the line that passes through the points
A and B
1. A (1 , −1) and B (2 0),
2. C (0 , −2) and D (5 , 3),
3. E (0 , 5) and F (−1 , 0).

Definition 4.8.3. A direction vector of the line (D), is any vector ~u which is
parallel to (D).

Definition 4.8.4. The general cartesian equation of a line (D) is defined by

a x + b y + h = 0. (4.8.1)

Definition 4.8.5. A direction vector of (D) is defined by ~u (−b , a).

Example 4.8.6. We consider the line (D) with general equation

2 x + 3 y + 4 = 0.

The vector ~u (−3 , 2) is a direction vector of (D).

Exercise 4.8.7. Find a direction vector for each of the following lines
1. x + 2 y + 5 = 0,
2. 4 x − 2y + 6 = 0,
3. 3 x − 7 y = 0,
4. −y + 7 = 0.
Using direction vectors we can easily establish that two lines are parallel if they
have the same direction. Let ~u be a direction vector of the line (D) and ~v a direction
vector of the line (D0 ). Then, (D) and (D0 ) are parallel if and only if ~u and ~v are
collinear.

Proposition 4.8.8. Let (D): a x + b y + h = 0 and (D0 ) : a0 x + b0 y + h0 = 0 be

two lines in the plane. Then, (D) and (D0 ) are parallel if and only if

a b0 − a0 b = 0.

Example 4.8.9. We consider the lines (D) and (D0 ) with respective equations
2 x + 3 y + 1 = 0, 6 x + 9 y + 2 = 0.
4.8. LINES IN THE PLANE 121

• The vector ~u (−3 , 2) is a direction vector of (D)

• The vector ~v (−9 , 6) is a direction vector of (D0 ).

Therefore we have
6 × 3 − 2 × 9 = 0,

then (D) and (D0 ) are parallel.

Exercise 4.8.10. Say whether the following lines are parallel

1. (d) : 3x + y + 2 = 0 and (d0 ) : 6x + 2y + 1 = 0

2. (d1 ) : x + 3y = 0 and (d2 ) : 3x + 5y + 2 = 0

3. (d1 ) : −2x − y = 0 and (d2 ) : −10x − 5y + 3 = 0

Now we consider a line passing through a point A (xA , yA ) with direction vector
−−→
~u (a , b). Let M (x, y) be another point of this line. The vectors AM and ~u are
collinear. Therefore we have (x − xA ) b − a(y − yA ) = 0. This can be rewritten as a
determinant of the matrix
x − xA a
= 0.
y − yA b

Lemma 4.8.11. Let (D) be a line passing through A (xA , yA ) with direction
vector ~u (a , b). Then, for every point M (x , y) ∈ (D) we have

x − xA a
= 0. (4.8.2)
y − yA b

Let (D) be a line passing through A(xA , yA ) with direction vector ~u (a, b). We
−−→
consider the point M (x , y) in (D). We see that the vectors AM and ~u are collinear.
This means, there is a real number k such that, (x − xA , y − yA ) = k (a , b). This
is equivalent to the following system:

 x = xA + k a
, (4.8.3)
y = yA + k b, k ∈ R.


The system (4.8.3) is called parametric equations of the line (D).

Definition 4.8.12. A parametric equation of the line (D) which passes through
A (xA , yA ) with a direction vector ~u (a, b) is defined by

 x = xA + k a
k ∈ R.
y = yA + k b,

122 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Example 4.8.13. Let (D) be the line that passes through B (2, 3) with direction
vector ~u (2, 6). A set of parametric equations of (D) is

 x = 2 + 2k

y = 3 + 6 k, k∈R


Exercise 4.8.14. Define a set of parametric equations for each of the following
lines which passes through A with direction vector ~u

1. A (2 , 1) and ~u (3 , 5),

2. A (−3 , 5) and ~u (7 , 10),

3. A (−4 , −9) and ~u (8 , 0).

4.9 Exercise Session

Exercise 4.9.1. Let A(−7/2; 2), B(−2; 5) , C(5; 13/2) and D(3; 5/2) be four points
in the plane.
−−→ −−→
1. Determine the coordinates of the vectors AB and CD.

2. Establish that the quadrilateral ABCD is a trapezoid.

3. Let I be the point of the plane such that

−→ 3 −→
IA = ID.
4
Find the coordinates of the point I
−→ −→
4. Prove that the vectors BI and CI are collinear.

Solution. 1. Using the definition of coordinates of a vector, we obtain

  3    
−−→ xB − xA 2
−−→ xD − xC −2
AB = and CD = .
yB − yA 3 yD − yC −4

2. From 1 we deduce that

3
x−
−→ · y−
−→ − y−
−→ · x−
−→ = · (−4) + 3 · 2 = 0.
AB CD AB CD 2
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Therefore, the vectors AB and CD are collinear. Since, the vector AB and CD do
not have the same norm, we conclude that the quadrilateral
ABCD is a trapezoid.
3.Let us define I as the point with coordinates xI , yI . The identity

−→ 3 −→
IA = ID
4
4.9. EXERCISE SESSION 123

is equivalent to
− 27 − xI
   
3 3 − xI
= 5 .
2 − yI 4 2 − yI
This leads to the following system
 7 9 3
 − 2 − xI = − xI

4 4




 2−y 15 3
I = − yI
8 4
From this we deduce that xI = −23 and yI = − 21 · We conclude that I − 23 ; − 12 .

4. From 3. we deduce that

!
−→ 21
 
−→ −28
IB 9 and CI .
−6
2
This holds that
9
6 · 21 − 28 · = 0.
2
−→ −→
Hence the vectors IB and CI are collinear. Consequently the point I belongs to the
line (BC).
Exercise 4.9.2. Let ABC be a triangle. We consider the points H and G, such
that,
−−→ 3 −−→ 1 −→
AH = − AB + AC
4 2
−−→ 7 −−→ 3 −−→
BG = − AB + BC.
4 2
 −−→ −→
We consider the frame A ; AB , AC .
 −−→ −→
1. Determine the coordinates of A, B and C in the frame A ; AB , AC .

2. Determine the coordinates of H and G in this frame.

−→ −−→
3. Are the vectors AG and AH collinear?
 −−→ −→
Solution. 1. We consider the plane equiped with the frame A ; AB , AC . Since


A is the origin of this frame the coordinates of A in this frame are A 0 ; 0 . Ob-
−−→

serving that the vector AB has coordinates 1 ; 0 in this frame, we deduce that

−→

B 1 ; 0 . In the same way, pointing out
that the vector AC has coordinates 0 ; 1
in this frame, we conclude that C 0 ; 1 .
2. From the identity
−−→ 3 −−→ 1 −→
AH = − AB + AC,
4 2
3 1


we deduce that H − 4 ; 2 .
Now, we consider the relation
−−→ 7 −−→ 3 −−→
BG = − AB + BC.
4 2
124 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Using Chasles relation, we obtain

−−→ −→ 7 −−→ 3 −−→ 3 −→
BA + AG = − AB + BA + AC
4 2 2
This implies that
−→ 7 −−→ −−→ 3 −−→ 3 −→
AG = − AB + AB − AB + AC
4 2 2
9 −−→ 3 −→
= − AB + AC·
4 2
 
9 3
This means that in this frame G has coordinates − ; .
4 2
−→ −−→
4. As we can see it AG = 3 AH. Then, they are collinear.
Exercise 4.9.3. We consider four points A, B, C and D with affix

zA = 1 + i, zB = −1 + i, zC = −1 − i and zD = 1 − i.

Let R be the rotation of center C and angle −π/3. We denote E = R(B) and
F = R(D).
1. Define the expression of the rotation R.
√
2. a. Prove that zE = −1 + 3.
b. Determine zF .
zA − zE
c. Establish that
zA − zF
−→ −→
d. Deduce from c. that the vectors AE and AF are collinear.
Solution. 1. Let M (z) be a point in the plane. We consider its image M 0 (z 0 ) in
the rotation with center C(zC = −1 − i) and angle −π/3. Then, we have
 π
z 0 − zC = exp −i (z − zC ).
3
This leads to the following formula
 π
z 0 = −1 − i + exp −i (z + 1 + i). (4.9.1)
3
2.
a. From (4.9.1) we that
 π  π
zE = −1 − i + exp −i (−1 + i + 1 + i) = −1 − i + 2i exp −i
√ 3 3
= −1 + 3.

b. Since F is the image of D in the rotation with center C and angle −π/3, we have
 π  π
zF = −1 − i + exp −i (1 − i + 1 + i) = −1 − i + 2 exp −i
√ 3 3
= (−1 − 3)i.
4.9. EXERCISE SESSION 125

c. From the expressions of zE and zF , we deduce that

√ √
h √ ih √ i
zA − zE 1+i+1− 3 (2 − 3) + i (2 − 3) + i 1 − (2 + 3)i
= √ = √ = √
zA − zF 1 + i + (1 + 3)i 1 + (2 + 3)i 1+4+4 3+3
√ √
(1 − 3) + i − (4 − 3)i + (2 + 3) 4 1
= √ = √ = √ ∈ R.
8+4 3 8+4 3 2+ 3

d. From c we can see that there exists a real number k such that

zA − zE = k(zA − zF ).

This implies that

−→ −→
EA = k F A.
−→ −→
Therefore, the vectors AE and AF are collinear.
zA − zE
d’. Another way to prove d is to point out that, ∈ R is equivalent to say
zA − zF
that  
zA − zE
arg = 0 + kπ
zA − zF
for some integer k. Hence, the points A, E and F belong to the same line.
Exercise 4.9.4. Let M0 be the point of the plane which is associated to the complex
number z0 = 1. For every natural number n ≥ 1, we define the point Mn which is
associated to the complex number zn . To any point Mn in the plane we associated
the point Mn+1 with affix
√
2

zn+1 = − 1 + i zn . (4.9.2)
4
Establish that for any n ≥ 1
 n  
1 3nπ
zn = exp i . (4.9.3)
2 4
Solution. Using the definition (4.9.2) we obtain
√  √ 
2  2 
z1 = − 1 + i z0 = −1+i .
4 4
To prove (4.9.3) we proceed by induction.
Step1 For n = 1 we have
      √ √ ! √ 
1 3π 1 2 2 2 
z1 = exp i = − +i = −1+i .
2 4 2 2 2 4

The property is true for n = 1

Step 2 We assume that the property is true for some natural number k > 1. In
other words we have  k  
1 3kπ
zk = exp i .
2 4
126 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

Step 3 Our goal now is to prove that the property holds for k + 1. We want to
establish that  k+1  
1 3(k + 1)π
zk+1 = exp i .
2 4
Using (4.9.2) we have √
2

zk+1 = − 1 + i zk .
4
One deduces from Step 2 that
√    k  
2 1 3π 1 3kπ
zk+1 = (−1 + i)zk = exp i · exp i
4 2 4 2 4
 k+1  
1 3(k + 1)π
= exp i .
2 4

The property is true for k + 1.

Conclusion For all n ≥ 1

 n  
1 3nπ
zn = exp i .
2 4

• We point out that the property holds also for 0. Hence we can start our
induction with 0 instead of 1.

• Since, the distance OMn = |zn |, one deduces that

 n
1
OMn = .
2

• On the other hand we have

3nπ
arg(zn ) = ·
4

Exercise 4.9.5. Let A, B, S and Ω be four points in the plane that are respectively
associated to the complex numbers a = −2 + 4i, b = −4 + 2i, s = −5 + 5i and
ω = −2 + 2i. We define the points C and D, such that
−→ −→ −→ −→
SC = 3SA and SD = 3SB.

1. Prove that zC = 4 + 2i and zD = −2 − 4i.

2. Establish that the points A, B, C and D belong to the same circle.

−→ −→
Solution. 1. The vectorial identity SC = 3SA is equivalent to

zC − zS = 3(zA − zS ) ⇐⇒ zC = 3zA − 2zS .

This gives
zC = −6 + 12i + 10 − 10i = 4 + 2i.
4.10. PROBLEMS 127

−→ −→
In the same way we can establish that the identity SD = 3SB is equivalent to

zD − zS = 3(zB − zS ) ⇐⇒ zD = 3zB − 2zS .

One obtains
zD = 3zB − 2zS = −12 + 6i + 10 − 10i = −2 − 4i
2. A look on the affix of the points A, B, C and D allows us to emphasize that
√
OA = OB = OC = OD = 20.
√
Therefore, these points are on the circle with center O and radius R = 20.

4.10 Problems
Problem 4.10.1. Prove that for all points A, B, C and D in the plane we have
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
OA − OB + AC = BC.

Problem 4.10.2. Let ABCD be a parallelogram and M be a point in the plane.

Prove that
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ ~
M A − M B + M C − M D = 0.
Problem 4.10.3. We consider the segment line [AB] such that AB = 8cm. Find
−−→ −−→
the point M in the plane, such that, M A + 3 M B = ~0.
Problem 4.10.4. We consider the points A (1; −1), B (−1, −2) and C (−2, 2) in
the plane.
−→ −−→ −−→
1. Find the coordinates of the point G, such that, GA + 2 GB + GC = ~0
−−→ −−→ −−→
2. Find the coordinates of the point D satisfying BD = BA + BC.
Problem 4.10.5. We consider the real plane equiped with the frame O, ~i ; ~j . Let


−−→ ~ ~ −−→ −−→
AB = i + 2j, BC = −4~i −~j and CD = −5~i − 3~j be three vectors in the plane. Prove
that ABCD is a trapezoid.
→
−
Problem 4.10.6. Find the scalar product between the vectors → −a and b
→
−
a. →
−a = 4~i − ~j and b = −~i − 7~j
→
−
b. →
−


a 2 , 1 and b 1 , −3
→
−
c. →
−


a 3 , −2 and b 1 , 1
→
−
d. →
−


a 5 , 0 and b − 1 , −2
→
−
Problem 4.10.7. Determine the angle between the vectors →
−
a and b
128 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE

→
−
a. →
−


a 1 , 2 and b 2, 4
→
−
b. →
−


a 1 , 2 and b − 2, 1
Problem 4.10.8. Let (d) be the line with direction vector ~u (1 , 2) that passes
through A (1 , 5). Define a set ofparametric equations for the line (d).
Problem 4.10.9. Let ABCD be a parallelogram. We consider the points I and E
such that
−−→ −
→ −→ 1 −→
AB = 2 AI and IE = ID.
3
−→ −−→ −−→
1. Find α and β in R, such that, AC = α AB + β AD.
2. Prove that
−→ 2 −→ 1 −−→
AE = AI + AB.
3 3
−→ −−→ −−→
3. Deduce from this, there exist α1 and α2 in R, such that, AE = α1 AB+α2 AD.
4. Prove that A, E and C belong to the same line.
Problem 4.10.10. Let M be a point of the complex plane with affix z. Find the
set of all points M such that
z−3
1. = 1,
z−5
√
z−3 2
2. = ·
z−5 2
Problem 4.10.11. Let M be a point of the complex plane with affix z. Find the
set of all points M such that
1. |z| = 3,
2. |z − i| = 5,
3. |z − 2 i| = |z + 2 − 3 i|.
Problem 4.10.12. Let A (−2 − 2 i), B (2), C (2 + 4 i), D (−2 + 2 i), E (4 + 6 i) and
F (−2 i) be six points of the complex plane
1. Show that ABCD is a parallelogram.
2. Prove that the triangle CDE is isosceles.
Problem 4.10.13. Let A, B, C and D be four points in the plane such that

zA = −i, zB = 3, zC = 2 + 3 i and zD = −1 + 2i.

1. Give the algebraic form of the complex number

zC − zA
Z= ·
zD − zB

2. Determine an argument of Z.
4.10. PROBLEMS 129

3. Determine the area of the parallelogram ABCD.

Problem 4.10.14. Let A (8), B (8i), C 8 exp − i π/3 and D 8 i exp 2i π/3
be four points of the complex plane.

1. Give the algebraic form of zC and zD .

2. Show that A, B, C and D belong to a same circle. Give the radius of this
circle.
−→ −−→
3. Let z1 be the affix of the vector AC, z2 be the affix of the vector BD, z3 be
−−→ −−→
the affix of the vector AB and z4 be the affix of DC.
√
a. Prove that z2 = z1 3.
b. Calculate |z3 | and |z4 |.
c. Prove that ABCD is a trapezoid.

Problem 4.10.15. We consider three points A, B and C which have affix

√ √
zA = 2, zB = 1 + i 3 and zC = 1 − i 3.

1. Define the exponential form of zB and zC .

2. Specify the nature of the quadrilateral OBAC.

3. Determine the set of all points M with affix z such that

z = z−2 .

4. For any complex number z 6= zA we associate to M the pint M 0 with affix z 0

defined by
−4
z0 = ·
z−2
a. Find z the solution to the equation
−4
z= ·
z−2

b. Deduce from this the points B 0 and C 0 which are associated to B and C.
c. We define G as the center of gravity of the triangle OAB. Determine the
point G0 which is associated to G

Problem 4.10.16. The complex plane is equiped with the frame (O ; ~u ; ~v ) . We

consider the points A and B with affix zA = a and zB = b + i, where a and b are in
R. The point C with affix c is the image of B in the rotation of center A and angle
π
3·

1. Specify the relation between a and b.

2. Prove that the point C belongs to the line O ; ~u .

3. Determine the affix of C.

130 CHAPTER 4. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN THE PLANE
√
4. Now, we fix a = 3, b = 0 and c = −i and we consider the point D with affix
√ √
zD = 2 + 3 − 2i 3.

a. Precise the nature of the triangle ABC.

d−a
b. Compute and specify the nature of the triangle ACD.
c−a
c. Find the affix of the point E image of D in the rotation of center A and
angle π3 ·
−→
d. The point F is the image of D in the translation of vector AC. Determine
the affix of F.
e. What can you say for the triangle BEF.

Problem 4.10.17. Let A and B be
two points which are associated to the complex
numbers zA = i and zB = exp −i 5π 6 .

1. Let R be the rotation of center O and angle 2π

3 · We denote by C = R B .

(a) Determine the expression of R.

(b) Prove that zC = exp −i π6 .

(c) Define the algebraic forms of zB and zC .

√ −→ −−→
3
2. Let zD = 2 + 12 i. We define the pont E, such that, AE = 2 AD.
√
(a) Establish that zE = 3
(b) Determine the exponential form of the complex number
zD − zC
·
zE − zC

(c) Specify the nature of the triangle CDE.

 CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Contents
5.1 Basis in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2 Scalar Product in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Lines in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4 Vectorial Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.5 Study of Planes in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.6 Some Properties of the Mixed Product . . . . . . . . . 150
5.7 Exercise Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

In the previous chapter we studied vectors in the plane and we pointed out that
to any vector ~u in the plane, we can associate two real numbers x and y. The real
numbers x and y are called the coordinates of the vector ~u. The aim of this chapter
is to continue the study of vectors in 3-dimensional space. The idea is at first to
extend the notion of coordinates, scalar product, orthogonality, collinearity,· · · · We
will also define new operations : the vector or cross product and mixed product.
We remind that to locate a point or a vector in space we associate to this
vector or point three real numbers x, y and z. These real numbers represent their
coordinates. We denote ~u (x , y , z) for the vector ~u. When it comes to a point A
we write A (xA , yA , zA ).
These coordinates will allow us to simplify computations. They will give us the
possibilty to compute easily area and volume of domains.
We make the following update. Throughout this chapter all definitions which
do not use coordinates are the same in plane as well as in 3-dimensional space.
This chapter is organized in this way. In section 1 we explain how to get coordi-
nates by using a basis. In section 2 we define the scalar product in three dimension.
Using the scalar product we will characterize lines in space. This will be done in

131
132 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

section 3. The section 4 is devoted to the cross product. Using the cross product we
will study planes in section 5. To end this chapter we introduce the mixed product.
Mixted product whose application will allow to determine volumes of some figures.

5.1 Basis in Space

It is well known that the notion of coordinates is related to a basis. Then changing
a basis can change the coordinates of a vector ~u. The main objective of this section
is to explain how to define a basis in the 3-dimensional space. In a second time
we study possible relations between these bases. Before going further we introduce
some preliminary definitions.

Definition 5.1.1. Three vectors in space ~u, ~v and w

~ are coplanar if they belong
to the same plane.

Otherwise the vectors ~u, ~v and w

~ do not live in the same plane. In this case we
say that they are non-coplanar vectors.

Lemma 5.1.2. If three vectors ~u, ~v and w

~ are coplanar then, there exist two real
numbers α and β, such that,

w
~ = α ~u + β ~v . (5.1.1)

Proof. When w ~ is collinear to ~u, we take β = 0. We obtain w ~ = α ~u + 0 · ~v . When

w ~ = 0 · ~u + β ~v .
~ is collinear to ~v we fix α = 0. In this case one has w
When the three vectors are collinear, we have nothing to prove.

Now we assume that ~u and ~v are not collinear. The ordered couple ~u, ~v is
a basis of the plane defined by the vectors ~u and ~v , which contain the vector w. ~
Therefore there are two real numbers α and β in R, such that w ~ = α ~u + β ~v . This
compltes the proof of the lemma.

Definition 5.1.3. A basis of the space is a set of three non-coplanar vectors

~u , ~v , w
~ .

In other words any three vectors which are not in the same plane define a basis
of the space.


Definition 5.1.4. We say that the basis ~u, ~v , w
~ is orthogonal if

~u ⊥ ~v , ~u ⊥ w
~ and ~v ⊥ w.
~

Definition 5.1.5. The basis ~u, ~v , w
~ is orthonormal if it is orthogonal and the
vectors ~u, ~v and w
~ satisfy

k~uk = k~v k = kwk

~ = 1.
5.1. BASIS IN SPACE 133

Example 5.1.6. The family ~i 1, 0, 0 ; ~j 0, 1, 0 ; ~k 0, 0, 1 defines an or-



thonormal basis.
~ of the space. To any vector →
Now we fix a basis (~u, ~v , w) −
χ in the space we
associate three real numbers x, y and z such that
→
−
χ = x ~u + y ~v + z w.
~ (5.1.2)

Definition 5.1.7. The real numbers x, y and z in (5.1.2) are called the coordi-
nates of →
−
χ in the basis (~u, ~v , w).
~

One may think that only orthonormal bases allow to define coordinates. Here
we draw readers attention on the fact that we can define coordinates in any type of
basis. However the use of orthonormal bases make the calculations simplest.
To make the presentation clear we mostly consider orthonormal bases. The
reason of this is Lemma 5.2.8, in section 2. This lemma claims that we can always
transform any basis to an orthonormal basis. This process is called Gram-Schmidt
process.

Definition 5.1.8. Any vector ~u in space with norm k~uk = 1 is called a unit
vector.
Remark 5.1.9. We can define unit vectors in any direction, not only in the direc-
tion of the axis. A unit vector which has the same direction as the nonzero vector
~u can be defined by
~u
·
k~uk
Example 5.1.10. Le ~v (1 , 1 , 0) be a vector in space. Then, the vector
 
1 1
~e~v √ , √ , 0
2 2
is a unit vector which has same direction as ~v .
Example 5.1.11. We consider the vector ~u (1 , −1 , 2). We define vector
√ !
1 −1 2
~eu √ , √ , √ .
6 6 3

The vector ~eu is a unit vector which has same direction as ~u.
From now on, we fix the following notations. The unit vectors along the x-axis,
y-axis and z-axis are respectively denoted ~i (1, 0, 0), ~j (0, 1, 0), and ~k (0, 0, 1).
It follows immediately that each vector in space can be expressed uniquely in
terms of vectors ~i, ~j, and ~k.

Now we take a vector ~u x, y, z . The vector ~u can be written in this way

(x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0) + (0, y, 0) + (0, 0, z) = x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)

This leads to the following representation

~u = x~i + y ~j + z ~k.
134 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Example 5.1.12. The vector ~u = (3, −3, 9)is represented as follows

~u = 3~i − 3~j + 9~k.

Exercise 5.1.13. Write the following vectors as combinations of the vectors ~i, ~j
and ~k


1. ~a 0, 2, 1 ,

2. ~b 2, 6, 0 ,

3. ~u 4, 0, 5 ,
4. ~v (−2 , 1 , 0),
~ (−7 , −1 , 5).
5. w

We consider the frame O ; ~i , ~j , ~k . Throughout this book we fix the coordi-

nates of the point O as (0, 0, 0). Now we take another point A in the space. Since
−→
OA is a vector there are three real numbers xA , yA and zA , such that,
−→
OA = xA ~i + yA ~j + zA ~k.

The real numbers
xA , yA and zA are called the coordinates of point A and we denote
A xA , y A , z A .



Definition 5.1.14. If A xA , yA , zA and B xB , yB , zB are two points in the
−−→
space, the coordinates of the vector AB are
 
xB − xA
−−→ 
AB yB − yA 
zB − zA

Definition 5.1.15. If A xA , yA , zA and B xB , yB , zB are two points in the
−−→
space, the distance between A and B or the norm of the vector AB is
−−→ p
AB = (xB − xA )2 + (yB − yA )2 + (zB − zA )2 .

Example 5.1.16. Take the points A 1, 3, 2 and B 5 , 0, 4 . Then, we have
−−→ p √ √
AB = (5 − 1)2 + (0 − 3)2 + (4 − 2)2 = 16 + 9 + 4 = 29.




Exercise 5.1.17. We consider the points A 1, 2, 0 , B 3, 2, 3 , C 0, 0, 1 and

−−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
D 5, 6, 9 . Find the norm of the vectors AB, AC, AD, BC, BD and DC.
One may wonder if Pythagor’s Theorem remained valid. To convince readers
that Pythagore’s Theorem holds, we state the following theorem which only use
definition of a norms.
5.2. SCALAR PRODUCT IN SPACE 135

Theorem 5.1.18. Let A, B and C be three points in space such that the triangle
ABC is right with hypotenuse [BC]. Then,

−−→ 2 −−→ 2 −→ 2
BC = AB + AC .

We recall that the reciprocal of Pythagore’s Theorem is sometimes used to es-

tablish orthogonality. Another way to prove orthogonality is to use scalar product.

5.2 Scalar Product in Space

In this section we define the scalar product in the three dimensional space. Using
this scalar product we will study orthogonality and some classical identities.
Definition 5.2.1. The scalar product of the vectors ~u and ~v is defined by

h~u , ~v i = ~u · ~v = k~uk k~v k cos(θ),

where θ is the measure of the oriented angle ~u , ~v .


The scalar product is also
denoted sometimes by ~u, ~v . However in this course
we reserve the notation ~u, ~v for angles. We only use ~u · ~v to denote the scalar
product.
Lemma 5.2.2. For any vector ~u in space, we have

k~uk2 = ~u · ~u.

Lemma 5.2.3. Two nonzero vectors ~u and ~v are orthogonal if and only if

~u · ~v = 0.


Proof. Let ~u and ~v be two orthogonal vectors. Then the angle ~u , ~v = ±π/2. This
implies that cos(~u, ~v ) = 0. Therefore, we obtain ~u · ~v = 0.
Conversely we assume ~u and ~v are nonzero vectors such that, ~u · ~v = 0. By
definition
~u ·~v = k~uk k~v k cos(~u, ~v ) = 0. Since ~u and ~v are nonzero vectors, we obtain
cos ~u , ~v = 0. We conclude that ~u ⊥ ~v .

Lemma 5.2.4. If ~u and ~v are two nonzero orthogonal vectors, then,

k~u − ~v k2 = k~uk2 + k~v k2 and k~u + ~v k2 = k~uk2 + k~v k2 .

Proof. Let ~u and ~v be two vectors. Then, we have

k~u − ~v k2 = (~u − ~v ) · (~u − ~v ) = ~u · ~u − 2 ~u · ~v + ~v · ~v = k~uk2 − 2 ~u · ~v + k~v k2 .
Since ~u ⊥ ~v , we have ~u · ~v = 0. Therefore
k~u − ~v k2 = kuk2 + kvk2 .
The proof is the same for k~u + ~v k.
136 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

For vectors which are not orthogonal, on can prove the following general identity.
It is called the parallelogram identity.
Theorem 5.2.5. For any vectors ~u and ~v , we have

k~u + ~v k2 + k~u − ~v k2 = 2 k~uk2 + 2 k~v k2 . (5.2.1)

Proof. Let ~u and ~v be two vectors which are not necessarly orthogonal. Then, we
have
(∗) k~u − ~v k2 = k~uk2 − 2 ~u · ~v + k~v k2 and (∗∗) k~u + ~v k2 = k~uk2 + 2 ~u · ~v + k~v k2 .
Summing (∗) and (∗∗) we obtain (5.2.1).
As we know that any vector is defined by its coordinates, we should have a
definition of the dot product in terms of coordinates.



Definition 5.2.6. The scalar product of ~u u1 , u2 , u3 and ~v v1 , v2 , v3 is

~u · ~v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 .

Lemma 5.2.7. If ~u u1 , u2 , u3 is a vector in space, then,

k~uk2 = u21 + u22 + u23 .

In the previous section we have said that we will always consider orthonormal
bases. This choce is justified by the following lemma:

Lemma 5.2.8. Any basis (~u, ~v , w) ~ of the space can be transformed to an or-
thonormal basis (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ).
Proof. Let (~u, ~v , w)
~ be a basis of the space. We assume that there are three vectors
~e1 , ~e2 and ~e3 wich satisfy the following properties:
1. (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) is an orthonormal basis
2. the vectorial line defined by ~u is the same as the vectorial line defined by ~e1
3. the plane defined by (~u, ~v ) is the same as the plane defined by (~e1 , ~e2 )
4. The vectors (~u, ~v , w)
~ and (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) define the same space.
Now we have to construct the vectors ~e1 , ~e2 and ~e3 . We proceed as follows
Step 1: Construction of ~e1 . Using assumption 2 we can find λ ∈ R such that
~e1 = λ ~u.
This implies that k~e1 k = |λ| k~uk. Since k~e1 k = 1, we get
1
|λ| = ·
k~uk
In this case we define
~u
~e1 = ·
k~uk
5.3. LINES IN SPACE 137

Step 2: Construction of ~e2 . The hypothesis 3 allows to find two real numbers
α and β, such that, ~v = α ~e1 + β ~e2 . We set ~g2 := β ~e2 = ~v − α ~e1 . We have
0 = ~g2 · ~e1 = β~e2 · ~e1 = ~v · ~e1 − α~e1 · ~e1 .


This involves ~v · ~e1 − α = 0. Therefore α = ~v · ~e1 and ~g2 = ~v − ~v · ~e1 ~e1 . The
vector ~g2 is orthogonal to ~e1 , but it is not a unit vector. To get a unit vector
we set
~g2
~e2 = ·
k~g2 k
Step 3: Construction of ~e3 . To construct ~e3 , we use the assumption 4. There
are three real numbers a, b and c, such that,
w
~ = a ~e1 + b ~e2 + c ~e3 .
We define ~g3 := c ~e3 = w~ − a ~e1 − b ~e2 . Since (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) is an orthonormal basis
we have ~e3 · ~e1 = 0, ~e1 · ~e2 = 0 and ~e3 · ~e2 = 0. This yields a = w ~ · ~e1 and
b=w ~ · ~e2 . Hence


~g3 = w ~− w ~ · ~e1 ~e1 − w ~ · ~e2 ~e2 .
The vector ~g3 is orthogonal both to ~e1 and ~e2 . But ~g3 is not a unit vector.To
obtain a unit vector we consider
~g3
~e3 = ·
k~g3 k

Therefore the basis (~e1 , ~e2 , ~e3 ) is orthonormal.

5.3 Lines in Space

In the previous chapter we studied lines in the plane. We pointed out that a line
can be defined by a point A (xA , yA ) on which it passes through and a nonzero real
number a. The real number a is called the slop of the line.We specified that when
a = 0 the line is said to be horizontal.When a = ±∞ the line is called a vertical
line. In the case where a = ±∞, the line has equation x = b, for some real number
b.
In this section, we define lines in space. Making a parallel with the previous
chapter, we will define a line by using a point on which the line passes through and
a direction vector. A direction vector should always be taken as a nonzero vector.
For the sake of clarity we proceed by defining a direction vector at first . Secondly
we introduce vector and parametric equations of a line. We end this section by
defining cartesian or symetric equations.
Definition 5.3.1. A direction vector of the line (d) is any nonzero vector ~u that
is parallel to the line (d).

Example 5.3.2. Below we represent the line (d) and a direction vector ~u
→
−
u (d)
138 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Let A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point in space and (d) a line which passes through A with
direction the nonzero vector ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ). We consider another point M (x , y , z)
−−→
on this line. The vectors ~u and AM are collinear. This means that we can find a
−−→
real number t such that , AM = t ~u. From the expressions of the vectors
−−→
AM = (x − x0 )~i + (y − y0 ) ~j + (z − z0 ) ~k and ~u = u1 ~i + u2 ~j + u3 ~k,

we deduce that

(x − x0 )~i + (y − y0 ) ~j + (z − z0 ) ~k = t u1 ~i + t u2 ~j + t u3 ~k.
−−→ −−→ −→
The relation AM = t ~u leads to the identity OM = OA + t ~u, that is equivalent to
−−→ −→
OM = OA + t u1 ~i + t u2 ~j + t u3 ~k. (5.3.1)
−−→ −→
Now we set ~r(t) := OM = x~i + y ~j + z ~k and ~r0 = OA = x0 ~i + y0 ~j + z0 ~k. Replacing
in (5.3.1), we obtain
~r(t) = ~r0 + t~u. (5.3.2)
−→ −−→
Using coordinates of vectors ~u, OA and OM , one can establish

x~i + y ~j + z ~k = (x0 + t u1 )~i + (y0 + t u2 ) ~j + (z0 + t u3 ) ~k (5.3.3)

The identity (5.3.3) is called vectorial equation of the line (d) which passe through
A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with a direction vector ~u.

Definition 5.3.3. The vectorial equation of the line (d) that passes through the
point A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with direction vector ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is given by (5.3.3).

Example 5.3.4. The vectorial equation of the line (d) that passes through the point
A(−1, 2, 0) with direction vector ~v = 2~i − ~j + 3 ~k is:

~r(t) = (−1 + 2 t)~i + (2 − t) ~j + 3 t ~k.

Exercise 5.3.5. Define the vectorial equation of the line (d) passing through the
point A with direction vector ~u
1. A (2, 4, 5) and ~u (2, 4, 5),
2. A (1, 2, 0) and ~u (1, 0, 5),
3. A (5, 3, 2) and ~u (1, 4, 6).
−−→
Proposition 5.3.6. The vector AB is a direction vector of the line (AB)

Having a look on the identity (5.3.3), we can give the following interpretation
in terms of coordinates: x = x0 + t u1 , y = y0 + t u2 and z = z0 + t u3 . This leads
to this system 

 x = x0 + t u1 ,



y = y0 + t u2 , t∈R (5.3.4)




z = z0 + t u3 ,

5.3. LINES IN SPACE 139

Definition 5.3.7. A set of parametric equations for the line (D) that passes
through the point A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with direction vector ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is given by
(5.3.4)

Example 5.3.8. To define a set parametric equations for the line that passes
through A(1, 5, −3) and parallel to the vector ~v (2, −3, 3), we proceed in this way.
We use the definition of a set parametric equations, in order to obtain

 x = 1 + 2t




y = 5 − 3 t, t ∈ R




z = −3 + 3 t


Example 5.3.9. Find a set of parametric equations for the line (AB) that passes
through the points A(1, 5, −3) and B(4, −1, 6).
To define a set of parametric equations, we need to find a direction vector to the
−−→ −−→
given line (AB). The vector AB provides a good choice: AB = (3, −6, 9). So the
equations are 
 x = 1 + 3k,




y = 5 − 6k, k ∈ R




z = −3 + 9k


Another set of parametric equations can be defined for the line (AB), if we
consider the point B instead of A

 x = 4 + 3t




y = −1 − 6t, t ∈ R




z = 6 + 9t


−−→
Using any nonzero vector which is parallel to AB we can define other sets of
parametric equations. This allows to make the following remark:

Remark 5.3.10. In the space there are several possible parametrizations of a line.
In other words, a set of parametric equations for a given line are not unique.

Exercise 5.3.11. Define a set of parametric equations for the line that passes
through A and parallel to the vector ~u

1. A (1, 2, 0) and ~u (5, 0, 0),

2. A (3, 5, 0) and ~u (1, 0, 2),

3. A (1, 5, 4) and ~u (0, 1, 0).

Now we consider the line (d) with parametric equations

x = x0 + t u1 , y = y0 + t u2 and z = z0 + t u3 .
140 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Hence the line (d) passes through the point A (x0 , y0 , z0 ). We fix the vector
~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) as a direction vector of (d). Moreover we suppose that the real num-
bers u1 , u2 and u3 are non-zero real numbers. Then, one has
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
t= = = · (5.3.5)
u1 u2 u3

Identity (5.3.5) is called the cartesian or symmetric equations of the line (d).

Definition 5.3.12. A cartesian equations of the line (d) that passes through the
point A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with direction vector ~u is given by (5.3.5).

Example 5.3.13. Define a Cartesian equations for the line that passes through
A(3, −2, 2) and B(1, 3, −1)
One know that the vector
−−→
~u = AB = (1 − 3)~i + (3 − (−2))~j + (−1 − 2)~k = −2~i + 5~j − 3~k

is a direction vector of this line. Then, If we use the point A, we obtain these
symmetric equations
x−3 y+2 z−2
= = ·
−2 5 −3
Similarly, if we use the point B, we get another set of symetric equations
x−1 y−3 z+1
= = ·
−2 5 −3
Exercise 5.3.14. Define a cartesian equations of the line that passes through the
point A and parallel to ~u

1. A (0, 2, 0) and ~u (1, 2, 5),

2. A (4, 5, 10) and ~u (1, 6, 2),

3. A (1, 0, 4) and ~u (9, −1, 7).

Proposition 5.3.15. Two lines (d) and (d0 ) are parallel if they have the same
direction and two lines are orthogonal if their directions are orthogonal.

We take two real numbers a and b, one knows that a · b = a × b ∈ R. In section

2 of this chapter, we saw that if ~u and ~v are two vectors the product ~u · ~v is a real
number (scalar). Now one may ask what about the expression ~u × ~v . Is ~u × ~v a real
number or a vector ? The expression ~u × ~v is called the cross or vectorial product
of the vectors ~u and ~v . In the following section we introducethe vector product.

5.4 Vectorial Product

This section is devoted to the cross or vectorial product. It is denoted ~u × ~v . We
start by giving the definition of the cross product. In a second time we study
properties of the operator ×.
5.4. VECTORIAL PRODUCT 141

Definition 5.4.1. If ~u and ~v are two vectors in space we define the cross product
of ~u and ~v denoted ~u × ~v as the unique vector which satisfies
1. ~u × ~v is orthogonal both to the vectors ~u and ~v

2. ~u × ~v has norm
~u × ~v = k~uk k~v k sin(θ) . (5.4.1)

Notation: In the litterature we can find the following notation of the cross product
of ~u and ~v
~u ∧ ~v .

Remark 5.4.2. From the definition we remark that

• When the angle θ = π/2,then

k~u × ~v k = k~uk k~v k.

• When the angle θ is equal to 0 + kπ, for some k ∈ Z, we have

~u × ~v = 0.

Lemma 5.4.3. Let ~u and ~v be two nonzero vectors. Then,

~u × ~v = 0 if and only if the vector ~u and ~v are collinear.

As a consequence of this lemma, we have for any vector ~u

~u × ~u = ~u × (−~u) = 0.

Proof. Indeed, if the vectors ~u and ~v are collinear, the angle θ = 0 + kπ, for some
k in Z. Therefore sin(θ) = 0. This implies ~u × ~v = 0.
Conversly we assume ~u × ~v = 0. Since ~u and ~v are nonzero vectors, we deduce
that sin(θ) = 0. This means that the vector ~u and ~v are collinear.

Using coordinates of vectors , we obtain the following definition of the vectorial

product:

Definition 5.4.4. The cross product of the vectors ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and ~v (v1 , v2 , v3 )
is
~i ~j ~k
u3 = u2 v3 −u3 v2 ~i− u1 v3 −u3 v1 ~j + u1 v2 −u2 v1 ~k. (5.4.2)




~u ×~v = u1 u2
v1 v2 v3

Let ~u and ~v be two vectors such that (~u , ~v ) = θ. Then, (~v , ~u) = −θ. Therefore
, sin(~v , ~u) = − sin(~u , ~v ). This implies that

~u × ~v = −~v × ~u.
142 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Since the vector ~0 is collinear to any vector one has ~u × ~0 = ~0 × ~u = ~0.

We can easily establish the distributivity of the cross product with respect to
addition of vectors. Indeed we take three vectors ~u, ~v and w ~ in space. We have

~u × (~v + w)
~ = (~u × ~v ) + (~u × w)
~ and (~u + ~v ) × w
~ = (~u × w)
~ + (~v × w).
~

On the other hand if ~u, ~v and w

~ are three vectors and k a real number then, the
following identities hold

k(~u × ~v ) = (k~u) × ~v = ~u × (k~v )

Example 5.4.5. We consider the vectors ~u (1, 3 − 2) and ~v (2, 0, 1). Then, using
(5.4.2), we obtain

~u × ~v = 3~i − 5~j − 6~k and ~v × ~u = −~u × ~v = −3~i + 5~j + 6~k.

Exercise 5.4.6. Determine the vector ~u × ~v in each of the following case

1. ~u (1, 3, 0) and ~v (7, 0, 1),

2. ~u (1, 3, 4) and ~v (0, 0, 1),

3. ~u (3, 1, 4) and ~v (0, 1, 3).

One can establish without any difficulties the following lemma.

Lemma 5.4.7. For the vectors ~i (1 , 0 , 0), ~j (0 , 1, 0) and ~k (0 , 0 , 1) we have

~i × ~j = ~k, ~j × ~k = ~i,
~k × ~i = ~j, ~j × ~i = −~k,
~k × ~j = −~i, ~i × ~k = −~j. (5.4.3)

We will just prove the first property. We fix ~i (1 , 0 , 0) and ~j (0 , 1 , 0), then

~i × ~j = (0 − 0) ~i − (0 − 0) ~j + (1 − 0) ~k = ~k.

The vector ~u × ~v satisfies the following property

Theorem 5.4.8. The vector ~u × ~v is both orthogonal to the vectors ~u and ~v .

Proof. We take ~u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and ~v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ). Using the definition of the

cross product we obtain

~u × ~v = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ).

So we can see that

~u · (~u × ~v ) = u1 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) + u2 (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) + u3 (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) = 0.

In the same way we can establish that ~v · (~u × ~v ) = 0.

5.4. VECTORIAL PRODUCT 143

Example 5.4.9. We consider the vectors that ~u (0, −1, 1) and ~v (1, 0, −2). Then,
one has
~i ~j ~k
−1 1 ~ 0 1 ~ 0 −1 ~
~u × ~v = 0 −1 1 = i− j+ k = 2~i + ~j + ~k.
0 −2 1 −2 1 0
1 0 −2

Example 5.4.10. To define a vector that is orthogonal both to vectors ~u (2, −1, 3)
and ~v (1, 4, −2), we consider the vector ~u × ~v . Consequently, we obtain

~i ~j ~k
−1 3 ~ 2 3 ~ 2 −1 ~
~u × ~v = 2 −1 3 = i− j+ k = −10 ~i + 7 ~j + 9 ~k.
4 −2 1 −2 1 4
1 4 −2

Exercise 5.4.11. Determine a vector which is both orthogonal to ~u and ~v

1. ~u (1, 0, 2) and ~v (−1, 1, 1),
2. ~u (0, 0, 1) and ~v (2, 5, 3),
3. ~u (1, 2, 0) and ~u (−3, 6, 7).
Let ~u and ~v be two vectors. We denote by θ the angle between ~u and ~v . We
assume 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. Then we can prove the following lemma.

Lemma 5.4.12. The angle θ between the nonzero vectors ~u and ~v is

k~u × ~v k
sin(θ) = ·
k~uk k~v k

When the real number theta belongs to the interval [−π , 0[, we have to take

k~u × ~v k
sin(θ) = − ·
k~uk k~v k

A simple method to remember how to construct the cross product of ~u and ~v is

to use the right-hand rule. It is shown in the following figure

~u × ~v

~u

~v

Figure 5.1: Right-Hand Rule

When ~u and ~v are nonzero vectors which are not parallel the direction of the
vector ~u × ~v can be determine as follows: We use the fingers of the right hand so
that the index finger represent the vector ~u, the middle finger represent the vector
~v and the thumb point in the direction of the vector ~u × ~v .
144 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Theorem 5.4.13. Let ~u and ~v be nonzero vectors in the space. Then,

1. The area of the parallelogram that has adjacent sides ~u and ~v is

Area of Parallelogram = k~u × ~v k.

2. The area of the triangle that has adjacent sides ~u and ~v is

1
Area of triangle = k~u × ~v k.
2

If we denote by θ the angle between the vectors ~u and ~v and we use the formula
k~u × ~v k
sin(θ) = ·
k~ukk~v k
In this case we deduce that
k~u × ~v k = k~uk k~v k | sin(θ)|
Proof. 1. We consider the parallelogram that has ~u and ~v as adjacent sides. From
the previous chapter we knew that its area is defined by
Area of Parallelogram = k~uk k~v k | sin(θ) | = k~u × ~v k.
2. The proof of 2 is similar to 1.
As a second application, we use the cross product to compute the distance
between a fixed point to a line.
Let us consider a point A in space and a line (D). We agree that if the point A
belongs to the line (D), then the distance between A and (D) is equal to zero. Now
we assume that the line (D)

does not contain the point A and we aim to compute
the distance dist A , (D) .
To estimate this distance we draw the line (D0 ) perpendicular to (D) and passing
through the point A. We denote by B the intersection point of (D) and (D0 ). See
figure below

A
(D)

The distance between the point A and the line (D) is equal to the distance AB.
Now we take a point C in (D) which is different to B. The triangle ABC is a
−−→ −→

right triangle with hypothenus the segment line [AC]. We set θ := CB , CA . In
this case we have AB = AC · sin(θ). This means that
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
−−→ −→ AC BC sin(θ) AC × BC
AB = AC sin(θ) = −−→ = −−→ ·
BC BC
This proves the following lemma.
5.5. STUDY OF PLANES IN SPACE 145

Lemma 5.4.14. If (D) is the line that passes through the point B with direction
vector ~u, then, the distance between the point A to the line (D) is
−−→ →


AB × −
u
dist A , D = →
− · (5.4.4)
u

Example 5.4.15. To determine the distance between the point A(0, 1, −2) to the
line 

 x=1+t



(d) y = −3 − t t∈R




z = 2t


we firstly identify a direction vector of (d). A look on the parametric equations,

shows that the vector ~u (1, −1, 2) is a direction vector. The line (d) passes through
−−→
the point B(1, −3, 0). This implies AB (1, −4, 2). Hence,

~i ~j ~k
−−→ −4 2~ 1 2 ~ 1 −4 ~
AB × ~u = 1 −4 2 = i− j+ k = −6~i + 3~k.
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
1 −1 2

Therefore we obtain
−−→ √ r r


AB × ~u 36 + 9 45 15
dist A, D = =√ = = ·
~u 1+1+4 6 2

Exercise 5.4.16. Determine the distance between the point A and the line (D)

 x = −t




1. A (1, 0, −1) and y = 2 + t, t ∈ R,




z = 1 + 2t



 x = 1 + 3t



2. A (2, 1, −3) and y = 2 − t, t ∈ R.




z = −2 t


In the next section we study some particular subspaces. We introduce planes.

We do not pretend to do a full study of planes. But we will just list some important
elementary properties of them.

5.5 Study of Planes in Space

This section is an introduction to planes. Since the topic is vaste we will just
enumerate some properties of planes. Indeed we start by studying normal vectors.
146 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Applying normal vectors we will be able to define cartesian equations of a plane. We

will give another definition of planes by using direction vectors. To end this section
we establish the formula which gives the distance between a point to a plane.
We recall that a vector ~n is orthogonal to a plane if it is orthogonal to any vector
~u, which belongs to this plane.

Definition 5.5.1. Any vector ~n which is orthogonal to a plane P is called a

normal vector to this plane.
−−→
In this case, when A and B are two points in P, one has ~n · AB = 0.
One may think that it is complicate to construct normal vectors to a plane. We
reasurre readers that it is easy to get a normal vector.
Indeed if ~u and ~v are two vectors, we deduce from theorem 5.4.8 that

~u ⊥ (~u × ~v ) and ~v ⊥ (~u × ~v ).

This implies the following lemma

Lemma 5.5.2. Let ~u and ~v be two noncollinear vectors in the plane P. Then,
the vector ~u × ~v is normal to the plane P.

In this paragraph we establish that one can define the equation of a plane by,
considering a point which belongs to the plane and a normal vector to this plane.
Now we consider a plane
P which contains the point A (x0 , y0 , z0 ). We suppose
that the vector ~n a, b, c is normal to P. We take another point M (x, y, z) in P
−−→
which we assume different to A. Therefore, AM ⊥ ~n. This involves
−−→
~n · AM = 0. (5.5.1)

Identity (5.5.1) is called a vectorial equation of the plane P.

−−→
On the other hand we know that AM (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ). Using coordinates
in (5.5.1) one has a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0. Hence we obtain

ax + by + cz − (ax0 + by0 + cz0 ) = 0.

Setting d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 ) the following holds

a x + b y + c z + d = 0. (5.5.2)

Definition 5.5.3. The identity (5.5.2) is called a cartesian equation of P.

Example 5.5.4. To determine a cartesian of the plane P which contains the points
A(0, 0, 1), B(2, 0, 0), and C(0, 3, 0) we define a normal vector to P. As we we know
−−→ −→
that the vectors AB(2, 0, −1) and AC(0, 3, −1) are two non collinear vectors in P,
−−→ −→
the vector AB × AC (3, 2, 6) is normal to the plane P. Then, the cartesian equation
of P is
3x + 2y + 6z + d = 0.
Using the point A(0, 0, 1) we get

3x + 2y + 6z − 6 = 0.
5.5. STUDY OF PLANES IN SPACE 147

Exercise 5.5.5. In each of the following cases determine a cartesian equation to

1. the plane P which contains the points A (1, 3, 5), B (2, 3, 5) and C (5, 0, 1)
2. the plane P which contains the point A (1, 0, 0) and normal to ~n(1, −2, −1).
Let P be a plane with direction vectors ~u(u1 , u2 , u3 ) and ~v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) that con-
tains the point A(xA , yA , zA ) . We consider another arbitrary point M (x, y, z) in
−−→
P. The vector AM is a linear combination of the vectors ~u and ~v . Then, there are
−−→
k1 and k2 in R, such that AM = k1 ~u + k2~v . This is equivalent to the following
vectorial identity      
x − xA u1 v1
 y − yA  = k1 u2  + k2 v2 
z − zA u3 v3
which leads to this system


 x = xA + k1 u1 + k2 v2 ,



y = yA + k1 u2 + k2 v2 , (5.5.3)




z = zA + k1 u3 + k2 v3 .


Definition 5.5.6. The system (5.5.3) is called parametric equations of the plane
P.

Theorem 5.5.7. If P is the plane with direction vectors ~u and ~v that contains
A(xA , yA , zA ), then parametric equations of P are defined by (5.5.3).

Example 5.5.8. To determine parametric equations of the plane P that con-

tains A(1, 0, −1) with direction vectors ~u(1, −2, 0) and ~v (−1, 3, 1), we apply (5.5.3).
Hence one obtains 

 x = 1 + k1 − k2



y = −2k1 + 3k2




z = −1 + k2 .


for some real numbers k1 and k2 .

Exercise 5.5.9. Determine parametric equations of the plane P that contains A
and has direction vectors ~u and ~v
1. A(0, 0, −2), ~u(−2, 3, 5) and ~v (3, 4, 1),
2. A(0, −1, 0), ~u(0, 0, 1) and ~v (2, 0, 0).
Let (P) be a plane which is normal to the vector ~n (a, b, c). We consider A, a
point which belongs to (P). We take another point B which does not belong to (P).
Now we aim to calculate the distance between the point B and the plane (P). To
−−→
do so we assume that the vector AB make an angle θ with the plane (P). To find
the distance dist(B, (P)) between B and P, we draw the line (d) passes through
the point B and orthogonal to P. We denote by C the intersection point between
(d) and (P). Thus we can see that the distance between B and (P) is given by the
148 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

−−→ −−→
norm of the vector BC. This is nothing but the projection of the vector AB on the
vector ~n.
Since the triangle ABC is right and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π,one has
−−→ −−→
−−→ −−→ AB · ~n · sin(θ) AB × ~n
BC = AB sin(θ) = = · (5.5.4)
k~nk k~nk
Theorem 5.5.10. If P is the plane that is normal to ~n and contains A, then,
the distance between point B and P is defined by (5.5.4).
Example 5.5.11. To determine the distance between B(1, 0, 3) to the plane P :
3x + 2y + 6z − 6 = 0 , we have to identify a normal vector to P. From the cartesian
equation of P, we deduce that the vector ~n (3, 2, 6) is a normal vector. On the other
hand, A (0, 0, 1) ∈ P. Simple calculations show that
−−→ −−→
AB (1, 0, 2) and AB × ~n (−4, 0, 2).
Therefore, the distance between B to the plane P is
−−→ √ √
AB × ~n 16 + 4 20
d(B, P) = =√ = ·
k~nk 9 + 4 + 36 7
Exercise 5.5.12. Compute the distance between the point B and the plane P
1. B (0, 3, 2) and 3 x + 2y + 2 = 0,
2. B (1, −1, 1) and 5 x + y + 2 z = 0,
3. B (0, 5, 0) and z + 2 = 0.
Let P be a plane which is normal to the vector n (a, b, c). The plane P has
equation ax + by + cz + d = 0, with some real number d. We consider the point
B (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and we assume that B 6∈ P. In order to estimate the distance between
the point B to the plane P, we draw the line (d) orthogonal to P and passes through
the point B. We denote by C (xC , yC , zC ) the intersection point between (d) and
P.
−−→
The vectors ~n and CB are collinear. We suppose they have the same sense.
Therefore
−−→ −−→ −−→
CB · ~n = CB · ~n = CB ~n .
As we know that the distance between the plane P and the point B is equal to
−−→
CB , one deduces from the identity above that
−−→
CB · ~n
dist(B, P) = · (5.5.5)
k~nk
−−→
On the other hand we know that CB (x0 − xC , y0 − yC , z0 − zC ). Substituting
in (5.5.5), we obtain
−−→
CB · ~n = ax0 + by0 + cz0 − (axC + byC + czC ) (5.5.6)
Since C ∈ P, we have d = −(axC + byC + czC . Gathering (5.5.5) and (5.5.6) we
obtain
ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d
dist(B, P) = · (5.5.7)
k~nk
This leads to the following theorem
5.5. STUDY OF PLANES IN SPACE 149

Theorem 5.5.13. The distance between the point B and the plane P which has
cartesian equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by (5.5.7).

Example 5.5.14. To find the distance between the point B (−1, 1, 0) and the plane
P : x + z + 2 = 0 we proceed as follows: we define the normal vector ~n (1 , 0 , 1)
and we apply (5.5.7). Thus we obtain
√

−1+0+2 2
dist B , P = √ =
1+0+1 2

Exercise 5.5.15. Estimate the distance between the point B to the plane P

1. B (0, 0, 3) and x − 2y + 2z − 1 = 0,

2. B (2, 1, 0) and − x + 2y + 2 z + 1 = 0.

We know that in the plane two lines can coincide, intersect. They can also be
parallel. Here we add that two lines are co-planar if they live in the same plane.
Now we consider two lines which are not co-planar. We assume they are not
parallel and they does not intersect. In this case we say they are skew lines.

Definition 5.5.16. Two lines are called skew lines if they satify these three
properties

• they do not belong in the same plane

• they are not parallel
• they do not intersect.

Example 5.5.17. To specify the positions of the following lines

 
x = 4 + 2t,




x = 2 + s,

 


 

(L1 ) : y = −5 + 4t, and (L2 ) : y = −1 + 3s,

 


 


 

z = 1 + 3t z = 2s

We analyze their parametric equations. Hence, we define the vectors ~v1 (2, 4, 3)
and ~v2 (1, 3, 2) as respective direction vectors of (L1) and (L2).
We can observe that the vectors ~v1 and ~v2 are not collinear. Thus the lines (L1 )
and (L2 ) are not parallel.
Now we assume that (L1 ) and (L2 ) intersect. This means that there exist a point
having coordinates which satisfy the following system



 4 + 2t = 2 + s,




−5 + 4t = −1 + 3s,






1 + 3t = 2s
150 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Considering the two first equations we obtain s = −8 and t = −5. Substituting in

the third equation we find 1 + 3(−5) = 2(−8). Then, one gets −14 = −16, which is
absurde. Therefore the lines do not intersect. We conclude that the lines (L1 ) and
(L2 ) are skew lines.
In sections 2 and 4 we have defined the dot and the cross product. Now our
purpose is to gather these two operations in a same mathematical expression in this
way : we consider three vectors ~u, ~v and w ~ and we define

~ = ~u × ~v · →
 
−
~u, ~v , w w (5.5.8)

The identity (5.5.8) is called the mixed product of vectors ~u, ~v and w.
~ In the next
section we introduce and study the mixed product.

5.6 Some Properties of the Mixed Product

This section deals with the mixed product. Here we only define this operation and
show how to use it to determine volumes of parallelepipeds.

Definition 5.6.1. The mixed product of three vectors ~u, ~v and w ~ is defined by
 

~ = ~u × ~v · w
~u, ~v , w ~ = k~u × ~v k kwk
~ cos(~u × ~v , w).
~ (5.6.1)

Using determinant of matrices we reformulate definition (5.6.1) in this way:

Theorem 5.6.2. If ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ), ~v (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w

~ (w1 , w2 , w3 ) are three
vectors, Then their mixed product is given by

  u1 u2 u3
~ = v1
~u, ~v , w v2 v3 . (5.6.2)
w1 w2 w3

Remark 5.6.3. We point out that

1. the mixed product is not commutative in other words
       
~ 6= ~v , ~u, w
~u, ~v , w ~ 6= w,
~ ~v , ~u 6= w,
~ ~u, ~v .

2. the out put ( the result ) of a mixed product is a real number.

One may wonder, what is the use of mixed product ? To give an application of
the mixed product we consider three vectors ~u, ~v , and w~ which belong to the same
plane. Since the vectors ~u, ~v ,and w
~ are coplanar, there exist two real numbers α
and β, such that, w
~ = α ~u + β ~v . Therefore,




~ · ~u × ~v = α~u · ~u × ~v + β ~v · ~u × ~v .
w

Using the fact that the vector ~u × ~v is orthogonal both to ~u and ~v , we obtain
 

~u, ~v , w
~ =w~ · ~u × ~v = 0.
5.6. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE MIXED PRODUCT 151

Conversely, if
~u × ~v · →

− →
−


deduces that w ⊥ u × ~v . Since on the other
w = 0, one
hand ~u ⊥ ~u × ~v and ~v ⊥ ~u × ~v , we conclude that there exist two real numbers
α and β such that
→
−
w = α~v + β~v .
This means that the vector ~u, ~v and → −
w are coplanar. This proves the following
theorem
Theorem 5.6.4. The vector ~u, ~v and w
~ are coplanar if and only if

~ · (~u × ~v ) = 0.
w (5.6.3)

We remind that the mixed product can be used to compute volumes of some
geometrical objects.
Indeed let ABCDEFGH be a solide with basis the parallelogram ABCD. The
volume of the solide ABCDEFGH is given by the following formula
Volume(ABGDEF GH) = Area(ABCD) × height.
−−→ −−→
In this particular case we have area of ABCD is AB × AD and the height is
−→ −→ −−→
given by AE · | cos(θ)|, where theta is the angle between the vectors EA and EK.
Hence, the volume is given by
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→
Volume(ABGDEF GH) = AB × AD AE · | cos(θ)| = AB × AD · AE .
This leads to the following theorem
Theorem 5.6.5. The volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides →
−
u, →−
v,
→
−
and w is
Volume = → −
u ×→ −
v ·→ −
 
w (5.6.4)

Using coordinates of vectors we can establish the following theorem

Theorem 5.6.6. If ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ), ~v (v1 , v2 , v2 ) and w
~ (w1 , w2 , w3 ) are the adja-
cent sides of a parallelepiped, then
 
u1 u2 u3
Volume = det  v1 v2 v3  (5.6.5)
w1 w2 w3

Example 5.6.7. To find the volume of the parallelpiped with adjacent sides
~a (1, 0, 2), ~b (−1, 1, 0) and ~c (2, 0, 0). We construct the matrix
 
1 0 2
A = −1 1 0 .
2 0 0
−1 1
We have det(A) = 2 = 2 · (−2) = −4 Hence, using (5.6.5) we have
2 0
Volume = det(A) = 4.
152 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

5.7 Exercise Session

The main objective of this section is to give some exercises with their solutions.
Exercise 5.7.1. We consider two vectors ~u (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and ~v (v1 , v2 , v3 ). Prove
that if
~u − ~v = ~u + ~v .

then,
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = 0.



Solution. We consider the vectors ~u u1 , u2 , u3 and ~v v1 , v2 , v3 , then,
2
= u21 + v12 + u22 + v22 + u23 + v32 + 2 u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 ,


~u + ~v
2
= u21 + v12 + u22 + v22 + u23 + v32 − 2 u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 .


~u − ~v

Since ~u + ~v = ~u − ~v we obtain

2 2
~u + ~v = ~u − ~v .

The previous identity, involves

2 2

~u + ~v − ~u − ~v = 4 u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = 0

Consequently we have
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = 0.
Exercise 5.7.2. Let ~a, ~b and ~c be three vector, such that,

~a = 3, ~b = 1 and ~c = 4.

We assume that the vectors ~a, ~b and ~c satisfy the property

~a + ~b + ~c = ~0.

Prove that
~a · ~b + ~b · ~c + ~c · ~a = −13.
Solution. We consider the vectors ~a, ~b and ~c, such that ~a = 3, ~b = 1 , ~c = 4
and
~a + ~b + ~c = ~0.
Then, we have
2 2 2 2
~a + ~b + ~c + ~b + 2 ~a · ~b + ~b · ~c + ~c · ~a


= ~a + ~c
= 9 + 1 + 16 + 2 ~a · ~b + ~b · ~c + ~c · ~a = 0.

This implies that

2 ~a · ~b + ~b · ~c + ~c · ~a + 26 = 0 =⇒ ~a · ~b + ~b · ~c + ~c · ~a = −13


5.7. EXERCISE SESSION 153

Exercise 5.7.3. In each case determine the vectorial equation and a set of para-
metric equations for the line (d) that is parallel to ~u and contains the point A
1. A (−1, 0, 2) and ~u (1, 5, 4)
2. A (−3, −1, 2) and ~u (2, 5, −1)
3. A (1, −2, 6) and ~u (3, 5, −11)
Solution. 1. We consider the point A (−1 , 0 , 2) and the vector ~u = ~i+5 ~j −4 ~k.
In this case the vectorial equation of the line passing through the point A with
direction vector ~u is :
−→
~r(t) = OA + t~u = −~i + 2 ~k + t ~i + 5 ~j − 4 ~k

= − 1 + t ~i + 5 t ~j + 2 − 4 t ~k

for some real number t.

A set of parametric equations of this line is given by

 x = −1 + t,




y = 0 + 5t , t∈R




z = 2 − 4 t.


2. For the line (d) that passes through the point A (3 , −1 , 2) with direction
vector ~u = 2~i + 5 ~j − ~k, we have
−→
~r(t) = OA + t~u = 3~i − ~j + 2 ~k + t 2~i + 5 ~j − ~k

= 3 + 2 t ~i + − 1 + 5 t ~j + 2 − t ~k

for some t ∈ R.
A set of parametric equations of this line is defined by this system


 x = 3 + 2k



y = −1 + 5 k , k∈R




z = 2 − k.


3. Let (d) be the line that contains A (1 , −2 , 6) with a direction vector ~u =

3~i + 5 ~j − 11 ~k. Then,
−→
~r(t) = OA + t~u = ~i − 2 ~j + 6 ~k + t 3~i + 5 ~j − 11 ~k

= 1 + 3 t ~i + − 2 + 5 t ~j + 6 − 11 t ~k

where t ∈ R.
A parametric equation of the line passing through A with direction ~u is


 x = 1 + 3 `,



y = −2 + 5 ` , `∈R




z = 6 − 11 `.

154 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

Exercise 5.7.4. We consider the line (∆) with vectorial equation

~r(t) = 2~i + 3 ~j + ~k + t − 3~i + ~j + ~k .

Determine the coordinates of the point on the line that is the closest to the origine.
Solution. We consider the point O (0 , 0 , 0).We can observe that the point
A (2 , 3 , 1) is a point of the line;
−→
Then OA (2 , 3 , 1). The vector ~u (−3 , 1 , 1) is a direction vector of this line.
On the other hand we know that the distance between O and the line (∆) is
defined by the formula
−→
OA × ~u
d= ·
~u
Straightforward computations show that
~i ~j ~k
−→
OA × ~u = 2 3 1 = 2~i − 5 ~j + 11 ~k.
−3 1 1
Hence, we conclude that
√ √ r
4 + 25 + 121 150 6
d= √ = √ =5·
9+1+1 11 11
Exercise 5.7.5. Determine the cross (vectorial) product of the following vectors
1. ~a (4, 9, 1) and ~b (−3, −2, 5)

2. ~a (1, −5, −1) and ~b (2, −3, 3)

3. ~a (2, 3, 0) and ~b (0, 3, 2)

4. ~a (3, 0, 0) and ~b (0, 0, 2)

5. ~a (1, 1, 0) and ~b (1, −1, 0).

Solution. 1. We consider the vectors ~a (4 , 9 , 1) and ~b (−3 , −2 , 5),then
~i ~j ~k
9 1~ 4 1 ~ 4 9 ~
~a ×~b = 4 9 1 = i− j+ k = 47~i − 23 ~j + 19 ~k
−2 5 −3 5 −3 −2
−3 −2 5

2. Let ~a (1 , −5 , −1) and ~b (2 , −3 , 3) be two vectors. We have

~i ~j ~k
~
~a × b = 1 −5 −1 = −18~i − 5~j + 7 ~k
2 −3 3

3. For the vectors ~a (2 , 3 , 0) and ~b (0 , 3 , 2), we obtain

~i ~j ~k
~a × ~b = 2 3 0 = 6~i − 4~j + 6 ~k.
0 3 2
5.7. EXERCISE SESSION 155

4. We take the vectors ~a (3 , 0 , 0) and ~b (0 , 0 , 2). Therefore, we get

~i ~j ~k
~
~a × b = 3 0 0 = −6 ~j.
0 0 2

5. We consider the vectors ~a (1 , 1 , 0) and ~b (1 , −1 , 0). One gets,

~i ~j ~k
~a × ~b = 1 1 0 = −2 ~k.
1 −1 0

Exercise 5.7.6. Find a unit vector that is orthogonal both to

~u = −2~i + 4~j + 2~k and ~v = 3~i + 2~j − 3~k.

Solution. Let ~u (−2 , 4 , 2) and ~v (3 , 2 , −3) be two vectors. We know that the
vector ~u × ~v is orthogonal both to ~u and ~v . Hence,

~i ~j ~k
~u × ~v = −2 4 2 = −16 ~i + ~k

3 2 −3

is orthogonal to ~u and ~v . To obtain a unit vector that has the same direction as
~u × ~v we define

√ 
 
−16 ~i + ~k
~u × ~v 2 ~ ~
~e = = √ =− i+k .
~u × ~v 16 2 2

Exercise 5.7.7. Determine a cartesian equation to the plane P that is normal to

~n (−1; 2; 3) and contains the point M (1; 2; 0).

Solution. Since the vectors ~n (−1 , 2 , 3) is normal to the plane P, a cartesian

equation of this plane can be defined by

−x + 2y + 3z + d = 0

Since M (1 , 2 , 0) is in the plane P, then the coordinates of M are solution of the

equation above. Therefore

−1 + 4 + 0 + d = 0 ⇒ d = −3

Finally we obtain the equation

−x + 2 y + 3 z − 3 = 0.
156 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

5.8 Problems
Problem 5.8.1. Define the scalar product of the following vectors

1. →
−
u 3 , 2 , −5 and →−



v 10 , 1 , 2

2. →
−
u 2 , 1 , 5 and →
−



v 7 , −9 , −1

3. →
−
u 2 , −1 , 1 and →−



v 0 , −1 , 1

4. →
−
u 1 , 2 , 3 and →
−



v 0, 2, 1
→
− →
−
Problem 5.8.2. We consider the vectors → −a and b such that →
−
a = 3 and b =
5. Determine the value of the real number α such that

→− →
−  − →
−
a +α b ⊥ →

a −α b .

Problem 5.8.3. Let → −

u 2 , 3 , −1 and → −



v 1 , −2 , 3 be two vectors in space. We
consider a vector →
−
x which satisfies the following conditions

• →
−
x ⊥→
−
u

• →
−
x ·→
−
v = −6

Determine the coordinates of →

−
x.




Problem 5.8.4. Let A 1 , 2 , 3 , B − 3 , 2 , 4 and C 1 , −4 , 3 be the vertices
of the triangle ABC.

1. Show that this triangle is right.

2. Find its area.

Problem 5.8.5. Simplify the following expressions

     
1. ~i × ~j + ~k − ~j × ~i + ~k + ~k × ~i + ~j + ~k ,
     
2. ~a + ~b + ~c × ~c + ~a + ~b + ~c × ~b + ~b − ~c × ~a,
     
3. 2~a + ~b × (~c − ~a) + ~b + ~c × ~a + ~b .

Problem 5.8.6. Determine the area of the triangle ABC

1. A (1 , 1 , 1), B (2 , 3 , 4) and C (4 , 3 , 2),

2. A (1 , 2 , 3), B (3 , 2 , 1) and C (1 , −1 , 1).

Problem 5.8.7. Determine the area of the parallelogram which has adjacent sides
the vectors →
−
u and →
−
v

1. →
−
u = 2~i + 3~j + 5~k, and →
−
v = ~i + 2~j + ~k,

2. →
−
u = ~i + ~j, and →
−
v = −3~j + ~k.
5.8. PROBLEMS 157

Problem 5.8.8. Let ~u (3 , −1 , 2) and ~v (1 , 0 , 2) be two vectors. We define the

vector
→
−
w = α~i + 3~j + β~k.
→
−
Determine α and β such that w be collinear to ~u × ~v .
Problem 5.8.9. Say whether the following vectors are coplanar
1. ~u (1 , 1 , 1), ~v (−2 , 3 , −2) and w
~ (3 , −2 , 3),

2. ~a (2 , −1 , 3), ~b (1 , 2 , −3) and ~c (1 , 3 , −2),

3. ~u1 (1 , 5 , 2), ~u2 (−1 , 1 , −1) and ~u3 (1 , 1 , 1),
4. ~u (2 , −1 , 0), ~v (0 , 2 , −1) and w
~ (−1 , 0 , 2),
5. ~u (1 , 0 , 1), ~v (−1 , −1 , 0) and w
~ (0 , −1 , −1).
Problem 5.8.10. Say whether the following points are coplanar
1. A (1 , 0 , 1), B (2 , 1 , −2), C (1 , 2 , 0) and D (−1 , 1 , −1),
2. A (1 , 2 , −1), B (0 , 1 , 5), C (−1 , 2 , 1) and D (2 , 1 , 3).
Problem 5.8.11. Determine the volume of the pyramid that has triangular basis
with vertices
1. A (1 , 1 , 1), B (3 , 2 , 1), C (5 , 3 , 2) and D (3 , 4 , 5)
2. A (2 , 0 , 0), B (0 , 3 , 0), C (0 , 0 , 6) and D (2 , 3 , 8)
Problem 5.8.12. Determine a cartesian equation of the plane that passes through
the point A (1 , 1 , 2) and parallel to the plane

P : x − 3y + 2z + 1 = 0.

Problem 5.8.13. We define the plane
P : x − y + z + 1 = 0 which is tangent to

a sphere S with center A 1 , −1 , 3 .
1. Determine the radius of the sphere S .
2. Define parametric equations of the line ∆ that passes through the point A and
orthogonal to P.
3. Deduce from 1. and 2. the coordinates of the intersection point of the sphere
S and P.
Problem 5.8.14. Let ABCDEFGH be a cube of edge 1. We consider the orthonor-
 −−→ −−→ −→
mal frame A ; AB ; AD ; AE

1. Establish that the triangle BDE is equilateral.

2. Let I be the center of gravity of the triangle BDE
a. Determine the coordinates of the point I
b. Show that
→ 1 −→
−
AI = AG.
3
158 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE

c. What can you deduce from 2. for the points A, I and G?

3. Prove that I is the orthogonal projection of A in the plane BDE .



Problem 5.8.15.
In the space we consider three points A 2 , 1 , 3 , B −3 , −1 , 7
and C 3 , 2 , 4 .
−−→ −→

1. Prove that the vectors AB and AC are not collinear. We donote by ABC
the plane generated by these two vectors.


2. Let d be the line with parametric equations


 x = 2t − 7



y = −3t, t∈R




z =t+4


a. Establish that the line d is orthogonal to the plane ABC .


b. Find a cartesian equation to the plane ABC .



3. Let H be the intersection point of the line d and the plane ABC .
a. Prove that
−−→ −−→ −−→ →−
2HA + HB − 2HC = 0 .
b. Determine the set of all points M such that
 −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
−2M A − M B + M C · M B − M C = 0.

c. Determine the set of all points M such that,

−−→ −−→ −−→ √
−2 M A − M B + 2 M C = 29 .

Problem 5.8.16. Let P be a plane with cartesian equation

2x + y − 2z + 4 = 0.




We consider the points A 3 , 2 , 6 , B 1 , 2 , 4 and C 4 , −2 , 5
1. Prove that the points A, B and C define a plane.
2. Show that this plane is identic to P.
3. Establish that the triangle ABC is right.
4. Define parametric equations of the line ∆ that passes through the point O and
perpendicular to P.




Problem 5.8.17. Let A 3 , 0 , 6 and I 0 , 0 , 6 be two points and D the line
that passes through A and I. We consider the planes

P : 2x + z − 6 = 0 and Q : y − 2z + 12 = 0.
5.8. PROBLEMS 159

1. Prove that the planes P and Q are perpendicular.

2. Establish that the line D is the intersection of P and Q.

Problem 5.8.18. Let P : x + 2y − z +
1 = 0 and P − x + y + z = 0 be two

0

planes. We consider the point A 0 , 1 , 1 .

1. Prove that P and P 0 are perpendicular.

2. Let d be the line with parametric equations

 1
 x=t−
3






1 t ∈ R.
y=− ,
3







z=t

Establish that the intersection of P and P 0 is given by d

3. Determine the distance between the point A and the planes P and P 0 .

4. Deduce from this that the point A belongs to the line d.

160 CHAPTER 5. INTRODUCTION TO GEOMETRY IN SPACE
 CHAPTER 6
INTRODUCTION TO
COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Contents
6.1 Cartesian Coordinate Systems in the plane . . . . . . . 162
6.1.1 Change of the Origin of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1.2 Change of the Basis of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2 Polar Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.1 Conversion From Polar to Cartesian Coordinates . . . . 165
6.2.2 Conversion From Cartesian to Polar . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3.1 From Cylindrical to Cartesian coordinate System . . . . 170
6.3.2 From Cartesian to Cylindrical Coordinate System . . . 171
6.4 Spherical Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4.1 From Spherical To Cartesian Coordinates . . . . . . . . 172
6.4.2 From Cartesian To Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . . 174
6.4.3 From Spherical To Cylindrical Coordinates . . . . . . . 175
6.4.4 From Cylindrical To Spherical Coordinates . . . . . . . 175
6.5 Circles and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.5.1 Equations of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.5.2 Equation of Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

To determine coordinates of a geometric object in the plane or in space, we

need a coordinate system. In the two preceding chapters we only use the carte-
sian coordinate system. In some problem this latter is not adapted. We will see
that sometimes we need an adequate coordinate system in order to simplify the
calculations.
The main purpose of this chapter is to describe some of such coordinate systems.
Indeed considering the good coordinate system can help us to simplify the expression

161
162 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

of the coordinates. To explain that quickly, we consider a point A in the plane which
is turning around a fixed point B.To follow the trajectory of the movement of the
point A it is better to locate the point A by the angle θ, (θ is the angle between the
−−→ −−→
vector BA and the x-axis) and r = BA . In this case we represent the coordinates
of the point A by the ordered pair (r, θ). This representation is called the polar
coordinates of A.
In this chapter we will define some coordinate systems and study the relations
that can exist between them.
In the first part we study different coordinate systems in the plane. In part 2
we introduce coordinate systems in the space. In the last part we investigate circles
and the spheres.

6.1 Cartesian Coordinate Systems in the plane

We agree that readers are more familar with the cartesian coordinate systems. The
aim of this part is to introduce the polar coordinate system after few reminders on
cartesian systems. The cartesian coordinate system is somtimes called rectangular
coordinates. To define this system in the plane we consider a point fixed point O
and a basis (~e1 , ~e2 ). The ordered triple (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) is called a frame. The point O is
called the origin of the frame. We assume that the point O has coordinates (0, 0)
in this frame. If A is a point in the plane, there are two real numbers xA and yA ,
such that,
−→
OA = xA ~e1 + yA ~e2 .


Definition 6.1.1. The ordered triple O, ~e1 , ~e2 , where O is a fixed and (~e1 , ~e2 )
a basis of the plane is called a cartesian coordinate system of the plane.

We emphasize that to determine the coordinates of points in the plane we should

define a frame. To do that , we take a fixed point as an origin. ( In most cases we
will consider the point O as an origin). We draw a horizontal line and a vertical
line passing through O and which are perpendicular. These two lines are called
the coordinate axes of the frame They are labeled: x-axis (horizontal) and y-axis
(vertical).

y − axis

O x − axis

Now we take a point A in the plane. To determine the coordinates of the pont
A we draw a vertical line that pass through A. We denote by xA the intersection
of this vertical line and the x-axis. We draw again a horizontal line which passes
through the point A and we denote yA its intersection with the y-axis. The ordered
couple (xA , yA ) is called the coordinates of the point A in the cartesian system
(O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). We specify that the expression A (xA , yA ) is equivalent to
 
xA
(xA , yA ) = = xA~e1 + yA~e2 .
yA
6.1. CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEMS IN THE PLANE 163

y − axis
yA +A (xA , yA )

~e2

O ~e1 xA x − axis

Throughout this chapter frame and coordinate system have the same meaning. Let
P be a point in the plane with coordinates (xP , yP ) in the frame (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). We
remark that if we change either the origin of the frame or the basis of the frame,
the coordinates of P should change. In the next subsection we investigate how the
change of origin can affect the coordinates of the points and then vectors.

6.1.1 Change of the Origin of a System

We consider the cartesian coordinate system (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and a point A with coor-
dinates (xA , yA ) in the system (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). We decide to define the frame (A, ~e1 , ~e2 )
which has origin A and the same basis as the previous frame. Since A is the origin
of the system (A, ~e1 , ~e2 ), then A has coordinates (0, 0) in this system.
Let M be a point in the plane which has coordinates (x, y) in the frame (O, ~e1 , ~e2 )
We suppose that the coordinates of M in the frame (A, ~e1 , ~e2 ) are (X, Y ). We aim
now to fine the expressions of X and Y. To do that we use Chasles relation for
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
the vector OA. Indeed one has OM = OA + AM . We specify that in the system
−−→
(O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) the vector OM has coordinates (x, y) and the coordinates of the vector
−→
OA are (xA , yA ). If we restrict our selves in the system (A, ~e1 , ~e2 ) we see that the
−−→ −→
vector AM has coordinates (X, Y ) and the vector OA has coordinates −xA , −yA ).

~e2
yA A+
~e1

~e2

O ~e1 xA

Therefore one deduces that

x ~e1 + y ~e2 = (xA ~e1 + yA ~e2 ) + X ~e1 + Y ~e2 ).

This is equivalent to write x = xA + X and y = yA + Y . The preceding identities

lead to this linear system 
 X = x − xA
(6.1.1)
Y = y − yA .


This proves the following result

164 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Theorem 6.1.2. Let (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and (A, ~e1 , ~e2 ) be two cartesian systems in the
plane, such that, A (xA , yA ) in (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). We assume that M has coordinates
(x, y) in (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). Then, the coordinates of M in (A, ~e1 , ~e2 ) are given by (6.1.1).

Instead of changing the origin, we can decide to keep the same origin for the
two systems and change the bases in this way : let M be a point in the plane, we
want to find the coordinates of M in the system (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) as well as in the system
O, f~1 , f~2 , where f~1 , f~2 is another basis in the plane. In the next subsection we

will study the effects of these changes on the coordinates of M.

6.1.2 Change of the Basis of a System

Take two coordinate systems with the same origin O (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and O, f~1 , f~2 . Here

the ordered pairs (~e1 , ~e2 ) and f~1 , f~2 stand for bases in the plane. There are four

real numbers a, b, c and d, such that, α = ad − bc 6= 0 and f~1 = a ~e1 + b ~e2 and
f~2 = c ~e1 + d ~e2 . If M is a point in the plane with coordinates(x, y) in the system
(O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and (X, Y ) in the system (O, f~1 , f~2 ), then we obtain
−−→
OM = x ~e1 + y ~e2 = X f~1 + Y f~2 .
Our main purpose is to determine the expressions of X and Y . So replacing f~1
−−→
and f~2 by their expressions,on has OM = X (a ~e1 + b ~e2 ) + Y (c ~e1 + d ~e2 ). This leads
to the identity x~e1 + y~e2 = (a X + c Y ) ~e1 + (b X + d Y ) ~e2 . This provides

 x = aX + cY
(6.1.2)
y = b X + d Y.


Multiplying by d the first equation of the system (6.1.2) and by c the second equa-
tion, one gets dx − cy = αX, where we recall that α = ad − bc.
Now, we multiply the first equation of the system (6.1.2) by b and the second
equation by a. This involves, −bx + ay = αY. Therefore, we obtain
 X = α−1 d x − c y


(6.1.3)
Y = α−1 − b x + a y .


Theorem 6.1.3. Let (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and O, f~1 , f~2 be two coordinate systems, such

that, f~1 = a~e1 + b~e2 and f~2 = c~e1 + d~e2 with four real numbers a, b, c and d
which satisfy α = ad − bc 6= 0. We assume that M has coordinates (x, y) in the
system (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ). Then, the coordinates of M in the system O, f~1 , f~2 are given

by (6.1.3).

Another way to simplify calculations in geometry is to change the coordinate

system in which we represent the object. Let (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) be a cartesian system. We
consider the point A in the plane. Instead of considering the cartisian coordinates
of A, we decide to locate A by the ordered couple (r, θ). The positive real number
−→
r = OA is the distance between O the origin and the point A. The real number
−→
θ represent the angle that makes the vector OA with the x-axis. In other words
−→

θ = ~e1 , OA
6.2. POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM 165

A
×

θ
O

The coordinate system (r, θ) is called a polar coordinate system.

6.2 Polar Coordinate System

In this section we define polar coordinate systems and study their eventual relations
with the cartesian coordinate system.

Definition 6.2.1. A polar coordinate system is an ordered couple of real numbers

(r, θ), such that, r > 0.

According to this definition it becomes clear that a polar coordinate system

consist of giving onself a fixed point O, called the pole (or origin), a horizontal line
passing through the pole (called polar axis) and an angle θ. See figure below.

θ
O polar-axis

6.2.1 Conversion From Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

For the sake of simplicity, throughout this chapter, we fix O as the pole of all polar
coordinate system which will be considered. Let us consider the following cartesian
−→

coordinate system (O, ~e1 , ~e2 ) and a point A (xA , yA ). We denote θ = ~e1 , OA and
−→
r = OA . As represented below

yA A
×

~e2 θ
O ~e1 xA
166 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The polar coordinates of A are defined by A (r, θ). Now we draw the vertical
line that passes through the the point A. The intersection of that line with the
x-axis is the point (xA , 0). On the other hand (0, yA ) is the intersection point of the
horizontal line which passes through A and the y-axis. We observe that the triangle
which has vertices the point (xA , yA ), (xA , 0) and (0 , 0) is right with hypothenus
the segment line [OA]. This involves xA = r cos(θ) and yA = r sin(θ). Hence, this
holds the following lemma:

Lemma 6.2.2. The cartesian coordinates of the point A which has polar coordi-
nates (r, θ) are 
 x = r cos(θ)
(6.2.1)
y = r sin(θ).


Example 6.2.3. Todefinecartesian coordinates of the point A whose polar coor-

dinates are (r, θ) = 4, −π
3 , we point out that, here r = 4 and θ = − π3 · Using
(6.2.1), we obtain
√
 −π  1  −π  − 3 √
x = 4 cos =4· =2 and y = 4 sin =4· = −2 3·
3 2 3 2
√
Thus we write A (2, −2 3).

Exercise 6.2.4. Find the catesian coordinates of the following points

 −π 
1. A 2, ,
4
 π
2. B 3, ,
2
 3π
3. C 5, ,
4
 −π 
4. D 1, ,
6
 −2π 
5. E 4, .
3
Now take two different polar coordinate (r, θ) and (r, θ + 2π). The cartesian
coordinates associated to these couples are

(r cos(θ), r sin(θ)) and (r cos(θ + 2π), r sin(θ + 2π)).

The functions cos and sin are 2π-periodic functions. Consequently, (r, θ) and (r, θ +
2π) represent the same point.

Lemma 6.2.5. For every integer k the couples (r, θ) and (r, θ + 2kπ) represent
the same point in the plane.

Remark 6.2.6. The most important fact that emphasize the lemma above, is the
non-uniqueness of polar coordinates for any given point.
6.2. POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM 167

From now on we mean by the expression A (r, θ), the point A which has polar
coordinates (r, θ).
√  √ 
Example 6.2.7. The following polar coordinates 3, −π/3 , 3, 5π/3 , and
√ 
3, 11π/3 represent the same point.

Lemma 6.2.8. The point A (r, θ) and A0 (r, −θ) are symetric with respect to the
x-axis

A
×

θ
O
−θ

r
A0
×

Proof. Take the point A (r, θ). The associated cartesian coordinates of this point
are (r cos(θ), r sin(θ)). On the other hand we know that the cartesian coordinates
of the point A0 (r, −θ) are (r cos(θ), −r sin(θ)). As we can observe it

xA0 = xA and yA0 = −yA .

This proves the lemma.

Lemma 6.2.9. The points A (r, θ) and A0 (r, π − θ) are symetric with respect to
the y-axis.

Proof. Let A (r, θ) and A0 (r, π − θ) be two points in the plane. Then, the points A
and A0 have respectively cartesian coordinates

(xA = r cos(θ), yA = r sin(θ)) and (xA0 = −r cos(θ), yA0 = r sin(θ)).

This illustrates that xA0 = −xA and yA0 = yA . Hence the points A and A0 are
symetric with respect to the y-axis.

Lemma 6.2.10. We consider the points A and A0 with respective polar coordi-
nates (r, θ) and (r, π + θ). Then A and A0 are symetric with respect to the origin
O.

Proof. Take A (r, θ) and A0 (r, π +θ). Therefore we have xA0 = −xA and yA0 = −yA .
Because cos(π + θ) = − cos(θ) and sin(π + θ) = − sin(θ). This proves that A and
A0 are symetric with respect to the origin O.

When, two angles θ and θ0 satisfy the identity θ + θ0 = π/2, then, one has

cos(θ0 ) = sin(θ) ant sin(θ0 ) = cos(θ).

168 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Particularly if θ0 = π/2−θ, we obtain cos(π/2−θ) = sin(θ) and sin(π/2−θ) = cos(θ).

At this stage one may ask what kind of geometrical relation could exist between
the points
(cos(π/2 − θ), sin(π/2 − θ)) and (cos(θ), sin(θ)).
To answer this question we introduce the definition of the first bisector.

Definition 6.2.11. We call first bisector the line that has cartesian equation

y = x.

It is well known that Two points A (x, y) and A0 (x0 , y 0 ) are symetric with respect
to the first bisector if and only if

x0 = y and y 0 = x.

This leads to this theorem.

Theorem 6.2.12. If θ ∈ [0, π/2], then, the points A (r, θ) and A0 (r, π/2 − θ) are
symetric with respect to the first bisector.

Proof. We consider the points A (r, θ) and A0 (r, π/2 − θ). The cartesian coordinates
associated respectively to A and A0 are

A(r cos(θ), r sin(θ)) and A0 (r sin(θ), r cos(θ)).

This completes the proof.

6.2.2 Conversion From Cartesian to Polar

By abuse of notations, in this section we will identify an angle with its measure. We
remind that if we define an angle φ in R, then, this angle φ has a representative θ in
the interval ] − π, π[. The measure θ is called the principal measure of the angle φ.
For the sake of clarity and in order to make the methodology easy to understand,
we may only consider angles in ] − π, π[.
Now take a point A with cartesian coordinates (xA , yA ). We aim to determine
−→ p
the polar coordinates of A. As r = OA , we obtain r = x2A + yA 2 . On the other

hand, we have cos(θ) = xA /r and sin(θ) = yA /r. To find the value of θ one can use
as he pleased one of the following functions arctan, arccos or arcsin .

Lemma 6.2.13. For any point A (xA , yA ) in the plane, the polar coordinates of
A are  p
 r = x2 + y 2 ,

θ,


where θ is the angle such that

x
y
cos θ = p and sin θ = p
x + y2
2 x + y2
2
6.3. CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 169
√
Example 6.2.14. To find the polar coordinates of A (−1, − 3), we proceed as
follows:We compute r2 = 1 + 3 = 4. Therefore r = 2. On the other hand we have
√
−1 − 3
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = ·
2 2
−2 π
Then θ = 3 , (4π/3). Hence, the polar coordinates of A are given by
 −2π 
(r, θ) = 2, ·
3
Exercise 6.2.15. Determine the polar coordinates of the following points
√
1. A (1, − 3),
2. B (−1, −1),
√
3. C (−1, 3),
√
4. D ( 3, −1),
√ √
5. E ( 2, 2).
From the previous chapters, we knew that in the three dimensional espace three
real numbers are necessary to locate a point. Hence a cartesian coordinate system
in the space is defined by (O,~i, ~j, ~k), where ~i is a unit vector of the x-axis, ~j is a
unit vector of the y-axis and ~k is a unit vector of the z-axis. In the cartesian system
a point P can be represented by an ordred triple (x, y, z).

Our goal now is to to show how to represent a point in a cylindrical coordinate

system and spherical coordinate system.

6.3 Cylindrical Coordinate System

As we reminded it in the preceeding discussion three coordinates are required to
represent a point in space. We define a cylindrical coordinate system in this way
Definition

6.3.1. A cylindrical coordinate system is defined by the ordered triple
ρ, θ, h , where

• ρ, θ is a polar coordinate systm of the plane xOy

• h is a real number.
170 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS


Notation:
The point A which has cylindrical coordinates ρ , θ , h is denoted
A ρ, θ, h .
√
Example 6.3.2. For instance we consider the point A 2, π3 , −1 and B 3, π4 , 2).

6.3.1 From Cylindrical to Cartesian coordinate System

Let M be a point and consider the following cartesian coordinate system O,~i, ~j, ~k .


−−→
We define the vector OM . Since (O, ρ, θ) is a polar system of the plane xOy, we
have x = ρ cos(θ) and y = ρ sin(θ). As we fix z = h, we deduce the following
−−→
representation of the vector the vector OM :
−−→
OM = ρ cos(θ)~i + ρ sin(θ) ~j + h ~k. (6.3.1)
On the other hand, we know that in cartesian coordinate system O,~i1 , ~j, ~k , we

have
−−→
OM = x~i + y~j + z~k (6.3.2)
Identifying (6.3.1) and (6.3.2) we deduce the relations between cartesian coordinates
of M and the cylindrical coordinates
Lemma 6.3.3. Let A (ρ, θ, h) be a point. Then, the cartesian coordinates of A
are 

 x = ρ cos(θ)



y = ρ sin(θ) (6.3.3)




z = h.


To show an application of this lemma we consider the following example.

√ π 
Example 6.3.4. To find the cartesian coordinates of A 5, , 4 , we apply the
3
lemma to obtain  √  π  1

 x = 5 cos =



 3 2
√


√ π 3
y = 5 sin =
3 2







z = 4.


Exercise 6.3.5. Define the cartesian coordinates of the following points

 π 
1. A 1, , −3 ,
2
2. B (1, 0, 4),
 −π 
3. C 3, ,1 ,
4
4. D (2, −π, 5) ,
5. E 4, π2 , −1 .

Given a point A with cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), One may wonder, if we can
determine the cylindrical coordinates of the point A.
6.4. SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 171

6.3.2 From Cartesian to Cylindrical Coordinate System

Let M (x, y, z) be a point in space. We want now to determine its cylindrical
coordinates. This means that we have to find (ρ, θ, h), such that, the system (ρ, θ)
be a polar system for the plane xOy. To this end we proceed as follows:

Step 1: we define h := z.

Step 2: since (r, θ) is a polar system of the plane xOy, we have

p
x2 + y 2


 ρ =


x




 cos(θ) =

 ρ
(6.3.4)
 y
sin(θ) =


ρ








h = z.

Lemma 6.3.6. The cylindrical coordinates of M (x , y , z) are defined by (6.3.4).

√
Example 6.3.7. To Determine the cylindrical coordinates
√ of the point A ( 3, 1, 2),
we start by√ fixing h = 2 and we compute ρ = 3 + 1 = 2. Then, it follows that
cos(θ)
 =  23 and sin(θ) = 21 · From this we deduce that θ = π6 · Hence we have
A 2, π6 , 2 .

Exercise 6.3.8. Determine the cylindrical coordinates of the following points.

1. A (−1, 1, 3),
√
2. B (1, − 3, 6),

3. C (0, −1, 5),

4. D (−1, −1, 4),

√
5. E ( 3, 1, 1).

In the three dimensional space we can define another coordinate system called
the spherical coordinate system.

6.4 Spherical Coordinate System

This section is devoted to the spherical coordinate system. First we define spherical
coordinates. Secondly we study the relation between spherical coordinate systems
and previous coordinate systems we have studied.
We consider the frame (O, ~ux , ~uy , ~uz ), where ~ux , ~uy and ~uz are respectively the
unit vectors of the axes x − axis, y − axis and z − axis. We denote by xOy the
horizontal plane, defined by the vectors ~ux and ~uy . Let M (x, y, z) be a point. We
denote by P its orthogonal projection in the horizontal plane xOy.
172 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

We define
−−→
• r = OM the distance between the points O and M
 −−→ −−→
• θ = ~uz , OM , as the angle between ~uz and the vectors OM . This angle is
always supposed to belong to the interval [0, π].
 −−→ −−→
• ϕ = ~ux , OP , is the angle between the vectors ~ux and OP . The angle ϕ is
in [0, 2π].

To catch the real meaning of the name spherical coordinates, we figure out that the
point M is moving on the sphere of center O and radious r. This is illustrated

in
the figure above. The point M can be located by the ordered triple r , θ , ϕ .


Definition 6.4.1. The spherical coordinates of the point M are r, θ, ϕ .

Example 6.4.2. As examples we consider the points

 −π π  π π

A 1, , and B 3, , .
3 6 4 2

6.4.1 From Spherical To Cartesian Coordinates

Take a point M with spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ). We aim now to determine its
cartesian coordinates. To this end we use again the figure above and we denote
by H the orthogonal projection of M on the z-axis. Using the angle θ one has
z = OH = r cos(θ) and HM = r sin(θ).
The quadrilateral OP M H is a rectangle. This implies that

OP = OH = r sin(θ). (6.4.1)
6.4. SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 173

See figure above. Since P is the orthogonal prejection of M in the plane xOy, then,
M and P share these properties x = xp = xM and y = yP = yM .
On the other hand we know that

 x = OP cos(ϕ)

y = OP sin(ϕ).


Substituting OP by its expression we obtain



 x = r sin(θ) cos(ϕ)



y = r sin(θ) sin(ϕ) (6.4.2)




z = r cos(θ).


Lemma 6.4.3. The cartesian coordinates of A (r, θ, ϕ) are given by (6.4.2).

Example 6.4.4. To find the cartesian coordinates of the point A 3, π6 , π4 we Aap-

ply the lemma above. One deduces that the cartesian coordinates of A are defined
by      √ √


 x = 3 sin π
6 · cos π
4 = 3 · 21 · 22 = 3 4 2



√ √

    
y = 3 sin π6 · sin π4 = 3 12 · 22 = 3 4 2



√ √

  

z = 3 cos π6 = 3 23 = 3 2 3 ·


√ π 5π

Example 6.4.5. To determine the cartesian coordinates of the point B 2, 3 , 6 ·
we write
 √  
π
  √ √  √ 
5π 3 − 3
√
−3 2


 x = 2 sin 3 · cos 6 = 2 · 2 · 2 = 4



√ √ √ √

    
y = 2 sin π3 · sin 5π 6 = 2 23 · 21 = 46



√   √ √



 z = 2 cos π = 2 1 = 2 ·

3 2 2

Exercise 6.4.6. Define the cartesian coordinates of the following points

 
1. A 1, 0, π3 ,
 
2. B 2, π3 , π6 ,
 
3. C 5, π4 , 12
π
,
 
4. D 4, π5 , π6 ,

5. E (1, 0, 0).
One may ask if the converse operation is possible. In other words is it possible
to define the spherical coordinate of a point or a vector from the cartesian one.
174 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

6.4.2 From Cartesian To Spherical Coordinates

Take the point M (x, y, z). We aim to define the sperical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) of M
−−→
from the cartesian coordinates of M. As we know that r = OM is the distance
p
between O and M one has r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 . A glance on the previous figure
allows to observe that
z x y
cos(θ) = , cos(ϕ) = and sin(ϕ) =
r ρ ρ
p
where ρ = x2 + y 2 . This involves
z 
θ = arccos · (6.4.3)
r
To find ϕ we can use the functions arccos or arcsin .

Theorem 6.4.7. The spherical coordinates of A (x, y, z) are defined by

 p

 r = x2 + y 2 + z 2



  

 z
 θ = arccos r






 ϕ such that,




y
 cos(ϕ) = √ 2x sin(ϕ) = √ ·

 and
x +y 2 x2 +y 2

√
Example 6.4.8. We consider the point A (1, −1, 2). Then, we have
√
√ 2

r= 1+1+2=2 and θ = arccos = π/4.
2
Because the angle θ belongs to [0, π].
On the other hand, we have
√ √
√ 2 − 2
ρ= 2, cos(ϕ) = and sin(ϕ) = ·
2 2
Hence, we obtain ϕ = − π4 ·
We conclude that the spherical coordinates of A are 2, π4 , −π


4 ·

Exercise 6.4.9. Define the spherical coordinates of the following points

√ √
1. A (− 2, 2, −1),
√
2. B (−1, 1, 2),
√ √
3. C (1, 3, 3),
√
4. D (− 3, 1, −1).
6.4. SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM 175

6.4.3 From Spherical To Cylindrical Coordinates

Our purpose now is to show the way to convert spherical coordinates to cylindrical
one. This means that we have to define ρ, the angle of a polar system for the
horizontal plane and h. Indeed let A (r, θ, ϕ) be a point. Since z = r cos(θ), we have
h = z = r cos(θ). The angle of the cylindrical system is given by ϕ. It remains now
to determine ρ. To this end, we remind that r2 = ρ2 + z 2 = ρ2 + r2 cos2 (θ). This
involves
ρ2 = r2 − r2 cos2 (θ) = r2 1 − cos2 (θ) = r2 sin2 (θ).

Therefore ρ = r| sin(θ)| = r sin(θ), because θ ∈ [0, π]. This leads to the following
theorem

Theorem 6.4.10. The cylindrical coordinates of the point A (r, θ, ϕ) are defined
by

r sin(θ), ϕ, r cos(θ) (6.4.4)

Example 6.4.11. To determine the cylindrical coordinates of A 3, π3 , π6 , we pro-

ceed as follows: we define

π √ √
3 3 3 π 1 3
ρ = r sin =3· = and h = r cos =3· = ·
3 2 2 3 2 2
√
3 3 π 3


Consequently the cylindrical coordinates of A are 2 , 6, 2 ·

Exercise 6.4.12. Determine the cylindrical coordinates of the following points

1. A (1, π/6, π/5),

√
2. B ( 2, π/4, π/12),
√
3. C ( 5, π, π/3),

4. D (1, −π/4, π/4).

6.4.4 From Cylindrical To Spherical Coordinates

Here we define the method to transform cylindrical coordinates to spherical ones.
In other words, if A is given with cylindrical coordinates (ρ, ϕ, h), how to define its
spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ0 ) ? To answer this question we just need to set
 
2 2 2 0 h
r =ρ +h , ϕ = ϕ and θ = arccos ·
r


Theorem 6.4.13. The spherical coordinates of A ρ, ϕ, h are given by
!
p  h 
ρ2 + h2 , arccos p ,ϕ (6.4.5)
ρ2 + h2
176 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS
√ √
Example 6.4.14. To determine the spherical coordinates of A ( 2, π/6, 2), we
define
p √  √2 
2 2
r = ρ + h = 2 + 2 = 2, θ = arccos = π/4 and ϕ0 = ϕ = π/6.
2
Therefore, we have A (2, π/4, π/6).
Exercise 6.4.15. Determine the spherical coordinates of the following points
1. A (1, π/2, 1),
√
2. B ( 3, π/6, 1),
√ √
3. C ( 2, π/5, − 2),
4. D (1, π, −1).

6.5 Circles and Spheres

This section is devoted to circles and spheres. In reality we define equations of
circles and spheres in the different coordinate systems studied before.

6.5.1 Equations of Circles

Let A , B and C be three points in the plane, such that, AB = AC, then the points
B and C belong to the circle with center A and radius R = AB. If M (x, y) is
another
p point of this circle which is different to B and C, we have AM = R. That
is, (x − xA )2 + (y − yA )2 = R. This yields
(x − xA )2 + (y − yA )2 = x2 − 2 x xA + x2A + y 2 − 2 y yA + yA
2
= R2 .
2
Setting c = x2A + yA , we have x2 − 2 x xA + y 2 − 2 y yA + c = R2 . We have proved
the following theorem.
Theorem 6.5.1. The equation of the circle with center A (xA , yA ) and radius
R ≥ 0 is
x2 + y 2 − 2 (x xA + y yA ) + c = R2 , (6.5.1)
2
where c = x2A + yA .

We emphasize that when R = 0, the circle is reduce to the point A.

Example 6.5.2. The circle with center O (0, 0) and radius R = 2 has equation
x2 + y 2 = 4.
Exercise 6.5.3. Find the equation of circles with center A and radius R
1. A (1, 2) and R = 5,
2. A (0, 4) and R = 3,
3. A (1, 6) and R = 2.
Using polar coordinates system we can characterize a circle in this way.Consider
the point I (x0 , y0 ) and a positive real number R.
6.5. CIRCLES AND SPHERES 177

Theorem 6.5.4. The polar parametric equations of the the circle C (I; R) with
center Let I (x0 , y0 ) and radius R > 0 are

 x − x0 = R cos(θ)

y − y0 = R sin(θ),


for some real number θ ∈ R.

Proof. Consider the point M (x, y) in the plane and the frame (I,~i, ~j). We define θ
−−→
as the angle between ~i and IM and IM = R. Then,we get
−−→
IM = R cos(θ)~i + R sin(θ) ~j.
−−→
Since IM (x − x0 , y − y0 ), we deduce from the uniqueness of coordinates that

 x − x0 = R cos(θ)

y − y0 = R sin(θ),


This proves the theorem.

Example 6.5.5. For instance take B (1, 2) and R = 2. Then, the polar parametric
equations of the circle C (B; 2) are

 x − 1 = 2 cos(θ)

y − 2 = 2 sin(θ),


where θ ∈ R.

Exercise 6.5.6. Let A (1, 0), B (2, 3) and C (3, 1) be three points in the plane. Find
the polar parametric equations of the following circles

1. C (A; 3),

2. C (B; 6),

3. C (C; 10).

6.5.2 Equation of Spheres

As we did it for circles, we will try to find the equation of a sphere in the different
coordinate systems studied. Let A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and M (x, y, z) be two points and
R > 0. Denote by S(A; R), the sphere with center A and radius R. We suppose
that M belongs to S(A; R), then AM = R. Since AM and R are positive real
numbers we have AM 2 = R2 .This provides (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 + (z − z0 )2 = R2 .
Hence
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − (2 x x0 + y y0 + z z0 ) + d = R2 ,
where d = x20 + y02 + z02 .
178 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

Theorem 6.5.7. The cartesian equation of the sphere S (A; R) with center
A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) radius R is

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 (x · x0 + y · y0 + z · z0 ) + d = R,

where d = x20 + y02 + z02 .

Example 6.5.8. The cartesian equation of the sphere S (O, 6) is

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 36.

Exercise 6.5.9. We consider the points A (1, 2, 0), B (3, 2, 0), C (0, 1, 5), D (3, 4, 1)
and E (−1, 0, 3). Give the cartesian equations of the spheres

1. S (A; 2),

2. S (B; 5),

3. S (C; 4),

4. S (D; 6),

5. S (E; 3).

Now we consider the points A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and M (x, y, z). We define the vector
−−→
AM . Furthermore we assume, the point M belongs to S(A; R). Using cylindrical
coordinates system we can find R > 0, an angle θ and h ∈ R, such that R2 > h2
and  √
2 2
 x − x0 = R − h cos(θ)


√


y − y0 = R2 − h2 sin(θ) (6.5.2)




z − z0 = h.


The system (6.5.2) is called the parametric equations of the sphere in cylindrical
coordinate system.

Theorem 6.5.10. The parametric equations of the sphere S(A; R) with center
A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and radius R > 0 in a cylindrical coordinate system are given by
(6.5.2).

Using spherical coordinates we can state the following theorem

Theorem 6.5.11. The parametric equations of the sphere S(A; R) with center
A (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and radius R in spherical coordinates are


 x − x0 = R sin(θ) cos(ϕ)



y − y0 = R sin(θ) sin(ϕ)




z − z0 = R cos(θ),


for some real numbers θ and ϕ

6.6. PROBLEMS 179

Proof. We consider the frame (A,~i, ~j, ~k). Let (R, θ, φ) be the spherical coordinates
of M in this frame. Then we have


 x − x0 = R sin(θ) cos(ϕ)



y − y0 = R sin(θ) sin(ϕ)




z − z0 = R cos(θ).


This proves the theorem.

6.6 Problems
Problem 6.6.1. For each of the following points define its polar coordinates


1. 1 ; −1
√ √

2. 2; 2
√

3. 3 ; −1
√

4. 1 , 3


5. − 1 , −1


6. − 3 , 0


7. 0 , −5 .

Problem 6.6.2. Define the cartesian coordinates of the following points

 
1. 2 ; π3
√ 
3π
2. 2; 2
 
3π
3. 3; 4
 
4. 1 ; − π3
 
7π
5. 10 ; 6
 
6. 1 ; − 3π
4
 
7. 2 ; − π6 .

Problem 6.6.3. Determine the cylindrical coordinates of the following points

180 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS
√ √ √ 
1. 2; 2; 4 3
√ 
2. 3 ; 1 ; −1
 
3. 1; 1; 0
 √ √ 
4. − 2; 2 ; −5
 √ 
5. − 3; 1; 1
 √ 
6. − 3 ; −1 ; 2
 √ 
7. 1; 3 ; −2 .

Problem 6.6.4. Convert from cylindrical to cartesian coordinates

 
1. 2 ; π3 ; 1
 
2. 1;π; 2
 
π
3. 3; 4 ;0
 
4. 2 ; − π2 ; 1
√ 
5. 2 ; − π6 ; 2
√ 
π
6. 3; 6 ; −1
 
7. 1 ; 6π ; −2 .

Problem 6.6.5. Find the spherical coordinates of these points

 √ 
1. 1 ; 3 ; 1
√ √ 
2. 3;1; − 3
 
3. − 1 ; 0; 1
 
4. 1; 1; 1
 √ √ 
5. 1; 3; − 2
√ √ √ 
6. 2; 2; − 3
 √ 
7. 2 3 ; 6 ; −1 .
6.6. PROBLEMS 181

Problem 6.6.6. Define the cartesian coordinates of the following point

 
1. 3 ; π3 ; π4
 
2. 1 ; − π4 ; π
3
 
π
3. 3; 4 ;0
 
4. 2 ; − π4 ; π
4
√ 
5. 7 ; − π6 ; − π3
√ 
π
6. 35 ; 6 ; − π6
 
π π
7. 4; 3 ; 6 .

Problem 6.6.7. Write the cartesian equation of the circle with center the point A
and radius R :
1. A (2 ; 3) and R = 3
√
2. A (−1 ; 3) and R = 2
√
3. A (0 ; 1) and R = 5
√
4. A (0 ; 0) and R = 7
5. A (−1 ; 0) and R = 5
Problem 6.6.8. Find the center and the radius of the following circles
1. x2 − 6x + y 2 − 8y = 27
2. x2 + y 2 + 2y = 7
3. x2 + y 2 + 2x = 2
4. x2 + y 2 − 2y = 3
5. x2 + y 2 + 3x = 3.
Problem 6.6.9. Define the cartesian equation of the sphere with center the point
A and radius R :
1. A (2 ; −1 ; 3) and R = 4
√
2. A (−1 ; 3 ; 0) and R = 3
√
3. A (0 ; 1 ; −2) and R = 17
√
4. A (0 ; 0 ; 1) and R = 6
5. A (−1 ; 0 ; 0) and R = 3
6. A (1 ; 1 ; 1) and R = 7
182 CHAPTER 6. INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE SYSTEMS

7. A (2 ; −1 ; 3) and R = 5
Problem 6.6.10. Determine the center and the radius of the following spheres
1. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2z = 5

2. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4y = 5
3. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x − 2y + 2z = 13
4. x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 3
5. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 23 z = 1.
 APPENDIX A
SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL
FUNCTIONS

The main objective of this chapter is to remind some properties of second order
polynomial functions. We will define the canonical form of a second order polyno-
mial function. Variations and signs of such function will be studied.

Definition A.0.1. Let f : R −→ R be a real function. The function f is said to be

second order polynomial function if there are a ∈ R∗ , b and c in R such that

f (x) = a x2 + b x + c.

Example A.0.2. The functions f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2, g(x) = 3x2 + 5x + 7 and

h(x) = 9x2 + 4x + 1 are second order polynomial functions.

In the following section we establish that every second order polynomial can be
written in the form
f (x) = AX 2 + B.

A.1 Canonical Form

Let f be a second order polynomial function: f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and
c are real numbers, such that, a 6= 0. We can rewrite f as follows

b  b b2 b2 c
f (x) = ax2 + 2 x + c = a x2 + 2 x + 2 − 2 +
2 2a 4a 4a a

2 b b2  b2   b 2 b2 − 4ac
=a x +2 x+ 2 − +c=a x− − −
2a 4a 4a 2a 4a
b ∆
Setting α = − , ∆ = b2 − 4ac and β = − , we obtain f (x) = a(x − α)2 + β.
2a 4a

183
184 APPENDIX A. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition A.1.1. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that a 6= 0. The canonical form
of f is defined by
f (x) = a(x − α)2 + β
where we set
b b2 − 4ac
α := − and β=− ·
2a 4a
We can remark that, β = f (α).
Example A.1.2. We consider f (x) = 3x2 + 5x + 2. We have
5 25 − 4 × 3 × 2 −1
α=− and β = − = ·
6 4×3 12
 2
5 1
Therefore f (x) = 3 x + − ·
6 12
Example A.1.3. Let f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1. In this case we have
−2 4−4×1×1
α=− =1 and β=− = 0·
2 4×1
Then f (x) = (x − 1)2 + 0 = (x − 1)2 .
Exercise A.1.4. Define the canonical form of the following functions
1. f (x) = x2 + 5x + 1
2. g(x) = x2 + 3
3. i(x) = 4x2 + 9x
4. j(x) = x2 − 6x + 9.
Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that, a 6= 0. There exist two real numbers α
and β, , such that, f (x) = a(x − α)2 + β.This, means that the identity f (x) = 0 is
equivalent to a(x − α)2 + β = 0. That is,

β
(x − α)2 = − ·
a
Considering the definitions of α and β, one obtains

b2 − 4ac
(x − α)2 = ·
4a2
The denominator of the right hand side part 4a2 > 0. Then, according to the sign
of b2 − 4ac, three cases hold:
Case 1: b2 − 4ac > 0. Then, we have two real roots:
√ √
∆ ∆
x1 = α − or x2 = α + ·
2a 2a

Case 2: b2 − 4ac = 0. Therefore, we have only one real root: x0 = α.

A.2. SOLVING 2ND ORDER EQUATIONS 185

Case 3:b2 − 4ac < 0. In this case, there no real solutions.

Theorem A.1.5. The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a 6= 0 has real solution if
and only if
β
≤ 0.
a
As we can see it, to find a solution to the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 we need
to define its canonical form. To this end we must do several calculations. To avoid
these type of computations we establish an easy method which will allow us to find
easily solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.

A.2 Solving 2nd Order Equations

For three real number a, b and c such that a 6= 0, we consider the following equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (A.2.1)

To solve (A.2.1) we define the discriminant ∆:

∆ = b2 − 4ac.

According to the sign of ∆ we have three cases:

Case 1. ∆ > 0. If ∆ > 0 we have two real solutions
√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
x1 = or x2 = ·
2a 2a

Case 2. ∆ = 0. In this case we have only one real solution

−b
x= ·
2a

Case 3∆ < 0. When ∆ < 0, there is no real solutions.

As an application find the solution of the following equations x2 + 4x + 3 = 0,
x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 and x2 + x + 1 = 0.
Solution:
1. We consider the equation x2 + 4x + 3 = 0. Then, we have

∆ = 16 − 12 = 4 > 0.

Thus we have two real solutions

√ √
−4 − 4 −6 −4 + 4 −2
x1 = = = −3 or x2 = = = −1.
2×1 2 2×1 2
2. For the equation x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 we obtain ∆ = 4 − 4 × 1 × 1 = 0. We have
only one real solution x = 1.
3. Concerning the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0, we get ∆ = b2 − 4ac = −3. Hence,
there is no real solutions.
Exercise A.2.1. Determine the solutions of the following equations
186 APPENDIX A. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

1. x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
2. 2x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
3. x2 − 4x + 4 = 0
4. x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
5. x4 + 6x2 + 8 = 0.
Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be
√
such that a 6= 0√and ∆ = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0. Then there
exist real solutions x1 = 2a and x2 = −b+
−b− ∆
2a
∆
· We set

b c
S = x1 + x2 = − and P = x1 · x2 = (A.2.2)
a a
Theorem A.2.2. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that a 6= 0 and ∆ = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
We consider S and P defined by (A.2.2). Then,
 
f (x) = a x2 − Sx + P .

From this, we deduce that, finding the solutions of the equation ax2 +bx+c = 0,
is equivalent to consider the following system
b

 x1 + x2 = − a



 x1 · x2 = c ·


a
Lemma A.2.3. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that a 6= 0 and ∆ = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0.
Then, if x1 and x2 denote the real roots of f we have

f (x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ).

In the next section we show how to study the sign of a second order polynomial
function.

A.3 Sign Table of a Function

In the first part of this section we study sign of affine function. In the second part
we investigate sign of second order polynomial functions.
Definition A.3.1. A real function f is affine, if there are two reals numbers a and
b such that, a 6= 0 and
f (x) = ax + b. (A.3.1)
Example: The functions f (x) = 3x + 2, g(x) = 5x − 1 are affine.
• When b = 0 in (A.3.1), we say that the function f is linear.
• when a = 0, f is a constant function.
Example A.3.2. The function f1 (x) = 6x, g1 (x) = −2x, and h1 (x) = x are linear.
The functions f2 (x) = 2, g2 (x) = −5 and h2 (x) = 1 are constant.
A.3. SIGN TABLE OF A FUNCTION 187

Let f be an affine function. Using the definition above we can see that f (x) = 0
implies x = − ab · According to the sign of the real number a we deduce this sign
table
x −∞ −b/a +∞
ax + b −sign of a 0 sign of a

Example A.3.3. We consider the function f (x) = 2 x + 1. Then, f (x) = 0, is

1
equivalent to x = − · We obtain this sign table
2

x −∞ −1/2 +∞
2x + 1 − 0 +

The sign table of the function g(x) = −3x + 7 is

x −∞ 7/3 +∞
−3x + 7 + 0 −

Exercise A.3.4. Define the sign table of the following functions

1. f (x) = −x + 2

2. g(x) = 7x

3. h(x) = 6x + 13

4. j(x) = −5x.

In the following paragraph we study the sign of a second order polynomial

function. To this end we define the discriminant:

∆ = b2 − 4 · a · b. (A.3.2)

According to the sign of ∆, we distinguish three cases:

Case 1: ∆ > 0. When ∆ > 0, we obtain two real roots x1 and x2 . Here we assume
x1 < x2 . Then we have this sign table

x −∞ x1 x2 +∞
2
x + 6x + 5 sign(a) 0 −sign(a) 0 sign(a)

where sign(a) is the sign of the real number a.

Example A.3.5. Let f (x) = x2 + 6x + 5. Then, ∆ = 36 − 20 = 16. We obtain two

reals roots, x1 = −5 and x2 = −1· Then, we have

x −∞ −5 −1 +∞
2
x + 6x + 5 + 0 − 0 +
188 APPENDIX A. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

b
Case 2: ∆ = 0. When ∆ = 0, we have only one real root x0 = − 2a · In this case
the sign table of f is given by

x −∞ −b/2a +∞
ax2 + bx + c sign(a) 0 sign(a)

Example A.3.6. Let f (x) = −x2 + 2x − 1. One has ∆ = 0. Therefore x0 = 1 and

the sign table of f is

x −∞ 1 +∞
−x2 + 2x − 1 − 0 −

Case 3: ∆ < 0. In this case there are no real roots and the sign table is the fol-
lowing one
x −∞ +∞
ax2 + bx + c sign(a)

Example A.3.7. As an application, let f (x) = x2 +2x+6. One finds ∆ = 4−24 =

−20. We do not have real roots. Then,

x −∞ +∞
2
x + 2x + 6 +

Exercise A.3.8. Define the sign of the following functions

1. f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2
2. g(x) = x2 + 5x + 2
3. h(x) = x2 + 4x + 4
4. i(x) = x2 + 7x + 2
5. j(x) = −x2 + x + 5
6. k(x) = −x2 + 5x + 5.
To end this chapter we study variations of second order polynomial functions.

A.4 Variations of 2nd Order Polynomial Function

As we mentioned it above, this section is devoted to variations of polynomial func-
tions of degree 2.
Theorem A.4.1. Let f (x) = ax2 +bx+c be such that, a > 0. Then, f is decreasing
b
in ] − ∞ ; α] and increasing in [α ; +∞[, where α = − . Hence we have
2a
x −∞ α +∞
+∞ +∞
f & %
β
A.4. VARIATIONS OF 2ND ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION 189

Using the table above we can prove the following lemma.

Theorem A.4.2. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that a > 0. Then f has a
minimum at α which is equal to
f (α) = β.
Example A.4.3. We consider the function f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1. We know that the
b
domain of this function is Df = R. We have α = − 2a = −13 and β = − 4a∆
=
2 1
·
3 1 Since a
 = 3, the function f is decreasing in −∞ ; − 3 and increasing in
− 3 ; +∞ . Then f has a minimum at x0 = α which is equal to β.
−1
x −∞ 3 +∞
+∞ +∞
f (x) & %
2
3

Theorem A.4.4. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that, a < 0. Then f is increasing
b
in ]−∞ ; α] and decreasing in [α ; +∞[, where α = − 2a · Thus we have the following
variational table
x −∞ α +∞
β
f (x) % &
−∞ −∞
Since f is increasing in ] − ∞ ; α] and decreasing in [α ; +∞[, one deduce that,
f has a maximum at α which is equal to f (α) = β. we deduce this lemma.
Theorem A.4.5. Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be such that a < 0. Then f has a
maximum at α. The value of this maximum is f (α) = β.
Example A.4.6. Let f (x) = −2x2 + x + 1. The domain of f is Df = R. We have
b
α = − 2a = 14 and β = − 4a∆
= 98 · Then,
 2
1 9
f (x) = −2 x − + ·
4 8
The function f is increasing in −∞ ; 4 and f is decreasing in 14 ; +∞ . Therefore
1
   

f has a maximum at α = 14 which is 98 ·

1
x −∞ +∞
49
8
f (x) % &
−∞ −∞
Exercise A.4.7. Study the variations of the following functions and say whether
they have a maximum or a minimum.
1. f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1
2. g(x) = −x2 + 5x + 1
3. h(x) = x2 − 3x + 7
4. i(x) = −3x2 + 4x + 2
5. j(x) = x2 + 2x.
190 APPENDIX A. SECOND ORDER POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
 APPENDIX B
EXAMS

Here we give the three exams given in the academic year 2021-2022 and there
corrections.

Midterm
Exercise 1. Find the solutions of the following equations
(1). 2z 2 − 2z + 5 = 0, (2). z 2 + 2z − 5 = 0, (3). z 2 + z − 1 = 0,
(4). 3z 2 − 5z + 3 = 0, (5). z 4 + 5z 2 + 4 = 0, (6). z 4 − 3z 2 − 4 = 0.
√ √ √

Exercise 2. Let z = 1 + i 3 and z 0 = 1 − 3 + 1 + 3 i be two complex numbers.
1. Find the modulus and the argument of z.
2. Determine the polar form of z.
3. Deduce from question 2 the polar form of z 4 .
−z
4. Now we define the complex number z1 = 0 · Give the algebraic form of
z −z
z1 .
√
1+i 3
Exercise 3. We consider the complex number z = 1−i ·

1. Determine the algebraic and the polar form of z.

7π 7π



2. Deduce from the first question the exact values of cos 12 and sin 12 ·
2
Exercise 4. Let z be a complex number which satisfies the equation z +6z+25 = 0.
1. Find the solutions to the equation z 2 + 6z + 25 = 0.

2
2. We consider the complex numbers a = 1 + 2 i and

2
b = 1 − 2 i . Determine the algebraic forms of a and b.
3. Deduce from question 2 the solutions to the equation
z 4 + 6z 2 + 25 = 0.

191
192 APPENDIX B. EXAMS

Solution of the Midterm

Exercise 1. (1). We consider the equation 2z 2 − 2z + 5 = 0. In this case we have

∆ = 4 − 4 × 2 × 5 = −36 < 0.

This implies that we have two complex solutions

2 − 6i 1 − 3i 2 + 6i 1 + 3i
z1 = = or z2 = = ·
4 2 4 2
(2). For the equation z 2 + 2z − 5 = 0, we have ∆ = 4 + 20 = 24 > 0. Therefore, we
have two real solutions
√ √
−2 − 2 6 √ −1 + 2 6 √
z1 = = −1 − 6 or z2 = = −1 + 6.
2 2
(3). Now, we take the equation z 2 + z − 1 = 0. Hence ∆ = 1 + 4 = 5 > 0. One gets
two real solutions √ √
−1 − 5 −1 + 5
z1 = or z2 = ·
2 2
(4). Let us consider the equation 3z 2 − 5z + 3 = 0. The discriminant is given by
∆ = 25 − 36 = −11 < 0. This equation has two complex solutions
√ √
−5 − i 11 5 + i 11
z1 = or z2 = ·
6 6
(5). To find solutions to the equation z 4 + 5z 2 + 4 = 0. We define Z = z 2 . Then,
we can rewrite the equation in this way:

Z 2 + 5Z + 4 = 0.

For this latter we have ∆ = 25 − 16 = 9 > 0. Hence

−5 − 3 −5 + 3
Z1 = = −4 or Z2 = = −1.
2 2
Using the identity Z = z 2 , we deduce that

z1 = −2i, z2 = 2i, z3 = −i or z4 = i.

(6). We consider the equation z 4 − 3z 2 − 4 = 0. To deal with this equation, we

define t = z 2 . This leads to the following equation

t2 − 3t − 4 = 0.

This implies that ∆ = 9 + 16 = 25. Consequently the solutions of the equation

t2 − 3t − 4 = 0 are
3−5 3+5
t1 = = −1 or t2 = = 4·
2 2
This ivolves that the solutions of the equation z 4 − 3z 2 − 4 = 0 are given by

z1 = −i, z2 = i, z3 = −2 and z4 = 2.
 193
√
Exercise 2. We consider
√ the complex
√ number z = 1 + i 3.
1. We have |z| = 12 + 3 = 4 = 2. Since
√
1 3
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = ,
2 2
we deduce that θ = π3 ·
2. In this case the polar form of z is defined by
 π  π 
z = 2 cos + i sin .
3 3
3. Using De Moivre’s Formula, we obtain
π  π 4     
4 4
 4π 4π
z = 2 cos + i sin = 16 cos + i sin .
3 3 3 3
4. We define the complex number
√ √
−1 − i 3 −1 − i 3
z1 = √ √
√ = √
1− 3+i 1+ 3 −1−i 3 − 3+i
√
√
√ √
−1−i 3 − 3−i 3 + i + 3i − 3
= = =i
4 4
The complex number z1 is purely imaginary number.
√
1+i 3
√
Exercise 3. We define the complex number z = 1−i · Here we fix z1 = 1 + i 3
and z2 = 1 − i.
1. Then, we have

π
z1 = 2 and arg z1 =
3
√
π
z2 = 2 and arg z2 = − ·
4
From this we deduce that
√
z1 2 √
z = = = 2.
z2 2

On the other hand we have

 

z1

π π 7π
arg z = arg = arg z1 − arg z2 = + = ·
z2 3 4 12
This means that the polar form of z is
√
    
7π 7π
z = 2 cos + i sin . (B.0.1)
12 12
Using the definition of z, we see that
√ √ √ √
1+i 3 (1 + i 3)(1 + i) 1+i+i 3− 3
z= = =
1−i 2 2
√
√

1− 3 +i 1+ 3
=
2
194 APPENDIX B. EXAMS

From this, we deduce that the algebraic form of z is given by

√ √
1− 3 1+ 3
z= +i · (B.0.2)
2 2
2. Combining (B.0.1) and (B.0.2) we obtain
√ √
√
    
7π 7π 1− 3 1+ 3
2 cos + i sin = +i ·
12 12 2 2

Hence, we have the following identities

  √ √
7π 2− 6
cos =
12 4
  √ √
7π 2+ 6
sin = ·
12 4

Exercise 4. The aim of this exercise is to determine the solutions of the equation

z 4 + 6z 2 + 25 = 0.

1. We consider the equation t2 +6t+25 = 0. Then, we have ∆ = 36−100 = −64.

This means that, we have two complex solutions
−6 − 8i −6 + 8i
t1 = = −3 − 4i or t2 = = −3 + 4i.
2 2
2. Using the definition of a and b, we have

2
a = 1 + 2i = 1 + 4i − 4 = −3 + 4i = t2

2
b = 1 − 2i = 1 − 4i − 4 = −3 − 4i = t1

3. If we set t = z 2 we can rewrite the equation z 4 + 6z 2 + 25 = 0 in this way:

t2 + 6t + 25 = 0.

Therefore, the solutions are given by a and b. From this we deduce

z = ± 1 − 2i or z = ± 1 + 2i .

This leads to the following list of solutions

n o
S = 1 − 2i ; 1 + 2i ; −1 − 2i ; −1 + 2i .
 195

Substitution Exam
Exercise 1. Find the solutions of the following equations

(1). z 2 + 2z + 4 = 0, (2). z 2 + 2z + 3 = 0, (3). z 2 − z − 1 = 0,

(4). 3z 2 − 5z + 3 = 0, (5). z 4 + 6z 2 + 5 = 0, (6). z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 = 0.
√
Exercise 2. Let z = 5 + 5i 3 and z 0 = 5 + 5i be two complex numbers.
1. Find the modulus and the arguments of z and z 0

2. Determine the polar forms of z and z 0

z
3. Deduce from question 2 the polar form of z0 ·
z
4. Find the algebraic for of z0 ·

5. Determine the exact values

π π
cos and sin ·
12 12

Exercise 3. Let z be a complex number. We consider the equation

z 4 + 4 z 2 + 16 = 0. (B.0.3)

1. Find the solutions of the equation Z 2 + 4 Z + 16 = 0.

π
2. We denote by ω the complex number which has modulus 2 and argument 3.
Determine the algebraic form of ω 2 .
3. Determine the solutions of the equation
√
z 2 = −2 + 2 i 3.

4. Prove that if z is a solution of (B.0.3), then, z is also a solution of (B.0.3).

5. Determine the solutions of (B.0.3).
196 APPENDIX B. EXAMS

Solution of the Substitution Exam

Here we propose a solution to the retake exam
Exercise 1.
(1). We define the equation z 2 + 2z + 4 = 0. Then, ∆ = 4 − 16 = −12 < 0. We
have two solutions which are two complex numbers that are conjugate each other.
√ √
−2 − 2i 3 √ −2 + 2i 3 √
z1 = = −1 − i 3 or z2 = = −1 + i 3.
2 2
(2). We consider the equation z 2 + 2z + 3 = 0. For this equation, we have
∆ = 4 − 12 = −8 < 0. Consquently, we have
√ √
−2 − 2i 2 √ −2 + 2i 2 √
z1 = = −1 − i 2 or z2 = = −1 + i 2·
2 2
(3). For the equation z 2 − z − 1 = 0, we obtain ∆ = 1 + 4 = 5. Hence, we have
two real solutions √ √
1− 5 1+ 5
z1 = or z2 = ·
2 2
(5). We take the equation z 4 + 6z 2 + 5 = 0. We make the following substitution
t = z 2 . This ivolves
t2 + 6t + 5 = 0.
For this last equation, we have, ∆ = 36 − 20 = 16. We obtain
−6 − 4 −6 + 4
t1 = = −5 or t2 = = −1.
2 2
From, this we deduce that
√
z = ±i 5 or z = ±i.
n √ √ o
We conclude that S = − i 5 ; i 5 ; −i ; i ·
(6).Let z be a solution to the equation z 4 − 4z 2 + 3 = 0. To define the solutions
to this equation we set t := z 2 . This equation becomes

t2 − 4t + 3 = 0.

This implies that ∆ = 16 − 12 = 4. This gives two real solutions

4−2 4+2
t1 = = 1 or t2 = = 3.
2 2
√
This implies that z = ±1 or z = ± 3.
√
Exercise 2. Let z = 5 + 5i√ 3 and z 0 = 5 +√5i be two complex numbers.
1. Then, we have |z| = 25 + 25 × 3 = 25 + 75 = 10. If we define θ := arg(z),
we obtain √
1 3 π
cos(θ) = and sin(θ) = =⇒ θ = ·
2 2 3
√ √ √
On the other hand, we have |z 0 | = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2. Setting θ0 := arg(z 0 ),
we define √ √
0 2 0 2 π
cos(θ ) = and sin(θ ) = =⇒ θ0 = ·
2 2 4
 197

2. This implies that

h π  π i √ h π  π i
z = 10 cos + i sin and z 0 = 5 2 cos + i sin .
3 3 4 4
3. Using the properties of modulus and arguments we obtain
z |z| 10 √
= = √ = 2,
z0 |z 0 | 5 2
z π π π
arg 0 = arg(z) − arg(z 0 ) = − = ·
z 3 4 12
This means that √ h
z π  π i
= 2 cos + i sin
z0 12 12
4. We have
√ √
√ √
z 1+i 3 1 + i 3 (1 − i) 1−i+i 3+ 3
= = =
z0 1+i 2 2
√ √
1+ 3 3−1
= +i ·
2 2
5. Combining 3. and 4. we obtain
√  π  1 + √3 √  π  √3 − 1
2 cos = and 2 sin = ·
12 2 12 2
This leads to the identities
 π  √2 + √6
cos =
12 4
 π  √6 − √2
sin = ·
12 4

Exercise 3. We remind that the main objective of this exercise is to find the
solutions to this equation
z 4 + 4z 2 + 16 = 0.
To this end we make the following substitution Z = z 2 .
1. Now, we consider the equation Z 2 +4Z+16 = 0. We define ∆ = 16−64 = −48.
Therefore, we have
√ √
−4 − 4i 3 √ −4 + 4i 3 √
Z1 = = −2 − 2i 3 or Z2 = = −2 + 2i 3.
2 2
π
2.Since ω ∈ C such that |ω| = 2 and arg(ω) = 3,we can write
√ !
h π  π i 1 3 √
ω = 2 cos + i sin =2 +i = 1 + i 3.
3 3 2 2

Using De Moivre’s formula, we deduce that

√ !
√
    
2 2π 2π 1 3
ω = 4 cos + i sin =4 − +i = −2 + 2i 3.
3 3 2 2
198 APPENDIX B. EXAMS
√
3. Let us consider now the equation z 2 = −2 + 2i 3 for some complex number
z. We can see that ω is a solution to this equation. On the other hand we know
that
z 2 = ω 2 ⇐⇒ z = ±ω.
√

This allows to conclude that the complex number ± 1 + i 3 are solution of this
equation.
4. Let z be a solution to (B.0.3). Then, we have

x4 + 4z 2 + 16 = 0 ⇐⇒ z 4 + 4z 2 + 16 = 0.

Hence, the complex number z is a solution to (B.0.3).

5. Putting together 3. and 4. we conclude that the solution of (B.0.3) are given
by
z = ±ω or z = ±ω.
That is, n √ √ √ √ o
S = 1 + i 3 ; −1 − i 3 ; 1 − i 3 ; −1 + i 3 .
 199

Final Exam


Exercise
1. In the
three dimensional

space we consider the points A 3; 0; 0 ,
B 0; 6; 0 , C 0; 0; 4 and D − 5; 0; 1 .
 
4

1. Prove that the vector ~n 2 is normal to the plane ABC .
3


2. Determine a cartesian equation to the plane ABC .


3. Determine a set of parametric equations for the
line ∆ that passes through
the point D and orthogonal to the plane ABC


4. Find the distance between the plane ABC and the point D.


Exercise 2.
In the three

dimensional
space we consider the points A 5; −5; 2 ,
B − 1; 1; 0 , C 0; 1; 2 and D 6; 6; −1 .
1. Determine the area of the triangle BCD
 
−2

2. Prove that the vector ~n  3  is normal to the plane BCD .
1


3. Determine a cartesian equation to the plane BCD .


4. Define a set of parametric equations to the line AB .
5. Find the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD.
Exercise 3. For any natural number n ≥ 1. we consider the sequence
1 3 5 2n − 1
vn = · · · ··· · ·
2 4 6 2n
1. Using the method of mathematical induction prove that for every n ≥ 1, we
have
1
0 ≤ vn ≤ √ ·
2n + 1
2. Compute limn→+∞ vn .
Exercise 4. We consider the sequence of complex numbers (zn ) defined by z0 = 1
and for any n ≥ 0,
√ !
3 3
zn+1 = + i zn .
4 4


We define the real sequence rn by rn = zn for every n ≥ 0.
√
3 3
1. Determine the modulus of the complex number 4 + 4 i·
√
3
2. Prove that the sequence (rn ) is geometric with common ratio and specify
2
r0
3. Determine the expression of the term rn for any n ≥ 0 and the
lim rn .
n→∞
200 APPENDIX B. EXAMS

Solution of final Exam

Exercise 1. Let A (3 ; 0 ; 0), B (0 ; 6 ; 0) and C (0 ; 0 ; 4) be three points in space.
−−→ −→ −−→ −→
1. We have AB (−3 ; 6 ; 0) and AC (−3 ; 0 ;
4). The vectors AB and AC are
not collinear.
Then, they define the plane ABC . In other words any vector of the
plane ABC is a combination of this two vector. From this, we deduce that any
−−→ −→

vector which is both othogonal to AB and AC is orthogonal to the plane ABC .
−−→ −→
On the other hand, we know that the vector AB × AC is both orthogonal to
−−→ −→

AB and AC. Therefore, it is orthogonal to the plane ABC . Thus the vector
~i ~j ~k
→
− −−→ −→ 6 0~ −3 0 ~ −3 6
n = AB × AC = −3 6 0 = i− j+ = 24~i + 12~j + 18~k
0 4 −3 4 −3 0
−3 0 4


is normal to the plane ABC .

2.Since the vector ~n (24 ; 12 ; 18) is a normal vector of ABC , a cartesian
equation of this plane is given by
24x + 12y + 18z + d = 0.
To find the real number d, we use the fact that the point A belongs to this plane.
This means that the coordinates of A satisfy the equation above. Hence, one has
24 × 3 + 0 + 0 + d = 0. This implies that d = −72. We obtain the following cartesian
equation
24x + 12y + 18z − 72 = 0.
We remind there exist several cartesian equations of a plane.
3. Let (∆) be the

line that passes through the point D (−5 ; 0 ; 1) and orthogonal
to the plane ABC . We can start by observing that, in this case any direction vector
of ∆ is collinear to ~n. Consequently, the vector ~n is a direction vector of (∆). One
concludes that a set of parametric equation of (∆) can be defined by:


 x = 24t − 5,



y = 12t, t ∈ R.




z = 18t + 1


4.Let P be a plane with equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 and M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) a

point in space. We recall that the distance between the plane P and point M is
given by the following formula
ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d
dist P , M =


√ · (B.0.4)
a2 + b2 + c2


Applying (B.0.4) with the plane ABC and the point D, we obtain

24 · (−5) + 12 · 0 + 18 · 1 − 72 √
dist ABC , D = √ = 29·
2 2
24 + 12 + 18 2




Exercise 2. We consider four points A 5 ; −5 ; 2 , B − 1 ; 1 ; 0 , C 0 ; 1 ; 2

−−→ −−→
and D 6 ; 6 ; −1 . Then, we have BC (1 ; 0 ; 2) and BD (7 ; 5 ; −1).
 201

−−→ −−→
1. Using the coordinates of the vectors BC and BD we obtain
~i ~j ~k
−−→ −−→
BC × BD = 1 0 2 = −10~i + 15~j + 5~k.
7 5 −1
From this, we get that the area of the triangle BCD is:
√
1 −−→ −−→ 1p 2 2 2
5 14
ABCD = BC × BD = (−10) + 15 + 5 = ·
2 2 2
−−→ −−→

2. Since BC and BD are not collinear they define the plane BCD . Any vector
of this plane should
be a combination of these two vectors. To show that ~n is nornal
to the plane BCD we have to establish that
−−→ −−→
~n ⊥ BC and ~n ⊥ BD.

To this end we consider their scalar or dot product. We have

−−→
~n · BC = −2 · 1 + 3 · 0 + 2 · 1 = 0
−−→
~n · BD = −2 · 7 + 3 · 5 + 1 · (−1) = 0.


Hence, the vector ~n is normal to the plane BCD .
3.This means that a cartesian equation of this plane is geven defined by

−2x + 3y + z + d = 0.

To determine d, we consider the coordinates of the point B. Then,

−2 · (−1) + 3 · 1 + 1 · 0 + d = 0 =⇒ d = −5.

Finally, we obtain the following equation

−2x + 3y + z − 5 = 0.
−−→

4.The vector AB (−6 ; 6 ; −2) is a direction vector of the line AB . Using the
point A (5 ; −5 ; 2), we can see that


 x = 5 − 6t,



y = −5 + 6t, t ∈ R.




z = 2 − 2t



is a set of parametric equations of AB .
5.The volume of the tatrahedron ABCD is determined by the formula
1 −−→ −−→ −−→
VABCD = AB · BC × BD .
6
As we know that
−6 6 −2
−−→ −−→ −−→
AB · BC × BD = 1 0 2 = 60 + 90 − 10 = 140.
7 5 −1
202 APPENDIX B. EXAMS

This involves
1 70
VABCD = · |140| = ·
6 3

Exercise 3. For any integer n ≥ 1, we define the sequence

1 3 5 2n − 1
vn = · · · ··· · ·
2 4 6 2n

To prove that for any n ≥ 1 , 0 ≤ vn ≤ √ 1 we proceed by induction.

2n+1

1
Step 1. for n = 1, we have v1 = 2 > 0. Since
√ 1 1
3 ≤ 2 =⇒ v1 = <√ ·
2 3

The property is true for n = 1.

Step 2. We suppose that the property is true for some natural number k ≥ 1. That
is,
1 3 2k − 1 1
0 ≤ vk = · · · · · · ≤√ ·
2 4 2k 2k + 1

Now, we have to prove that the property is true for k + 1. In other words, we have
to show that
1 3 2k − 1 2k + 1 1
0 ≤ vk+1 = · · ··· · · ≤√ ·
2 4 2k 2k + 2 2k + 3

We know that,
√
1 3 2k − 1 2k + 1 1 2k + 1 2k + 1
vk+1 = · · ··· · · ≤√ · = ·
2 4 2k 2k + 2 2k + 1 2k + 2 2k +2
√
2k+1 √ 1
Now we have to compare the positive real numbers 2k+2 and 2k+3
· We
have
√ √
1 2k + 1 2k + 1
√ =p =√
2k + 3 (2k + 3)(2k + 1) 2
4k + 8k + 3
√ √
2k + 1 2k + 1
and =√ ·
2k + 2 2
4k + 8k + 4

This shows that √

2k + 1 1
vk+1 ≤ <√ ·
2k + 2 2k + 3
We can see that
1
0 ≤ vk+1 ≤ √ ·
2k + 3

Conclusion: We conclude that for all n ≥ 1, 0 ≤ vn ≤ √ 1 ·

2n+1
 203

2. From 1. we see that 0 ≤ vn ≤ √ 1 , then,

2n+1

1
lim 0 = lim √ = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ 2n + 1

Using Sandwich theorem, we have

lim vn = 0.
n→+∞

Exercise 4. We consider the sequence of complex numbers (zn ) defined by z0 = 1

and for all n ≥ 0
√ !
3 3
zn+1 = + i zn .
4 4

For every n ≥ 0 we define rn = zn .

1. We have
√ r √
3 3 9 3 3
+ = + = ·
4 4 16 16 2

2.From the definition of the sequence zn n≥0
, we can see that

√ ! √
3 3 3 3
rn+1 = zn+1 = + i zn = + i · zn
4 4 4 4
√
3
rn ·
2


We interprate this identity by saying that the sequence rn n≥0
is geometric with
√
3
common ration q = 2 and initial term r0 = |z0 | = 1.
√
3


3. Since rn n≥0 is geometric with common ration q = 2 and initial term
r0 = |z0 | = 1, we can write

√ !n √ !n
3 3
rn = r0 · q n = 1 · = , ∀n ≥ 0.
2 2

√
3
As we know that 0 < 2 < 1, then,

√ !n
3
lim rn = lim = 0.
n→+∞ n→+∞ 2
204 APPENDIX B. EXAMS
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] J.M. Arnaudiès , H. Fraysse Cours de mathématiques-2 Analyse,

Dunod, première edition 1989

[2] G. Debeaumarché: Manuel de Mathématique, Vol 1 and 2, Ellipses.

[3] Jean Dieudonné: Calcul infinitésimal Hermann Nouveau tirage (21
oct 1997).
[4] Serge Lang: Introduction to Linear Algebra Springer-Verlag, Second
Edition, 1986.
[5] Vladimir A. Zorich: Mathetical Analysis Springer-Verlag Berlin Hei-
delberg 2004 Printed in Germany
[6] Xavier Merlin: Methodix analyse Ellipses

205