Lecture Notes 2021

④
GLOBALIZATION, IMMIGRATION, URBANIZATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Hello and welcome to Topic 4

In this topic we shall dwell on selected themes that are relevant to our understanding of the
practical aspects of the relationship between globalization and society. The topic helps us
gain a deeper appreciation of the way the processes of globalization, particularly aspects of
globalization, Media, Culture and Identity (Topic 2) and globalization and the economy
(Topic 3), practically impact society at a local level.

While numerous facets of this relationship can be observed, three themes have been
selected:- urbanization, migration and the environment. Our discussion will thus be
structured in two core sections:

1. Globalization, Urbanization and Immigration - In this sub-section, we shall focus on

the influence of globalization and immigration in the shaping of our cities and
urbanized societies. Key to this discussion is the significance of urban centres and
global immigrants in the emergence of globalization and the shaping of globalized
cities- including the patterns of urban stratification, integration and culture.
2. Globalization and the environment- In this discussion, we shall introduce the
problem of the globalization of environmental problems and their impact on society.
A key informant in our understanding of this topic is Ulrich Beck and his theory of the
Risk Society.

Welcome to the lecture

I. GLOBALIZATION, IMMIGRATION AND URBANIZATION

Towards an understanding of this thematic area, we shall explore four (4) areas:-
a. Cities and the globalization of the World.
b. Significance of international migration
c. Urban stratification, social inequalities and social exclusion
d. Globalization and urban culture

CITIES AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE WORLD

 Throughout human history, cities have been the centres of economic and political
power.
 Cities have, consequently, played a significant role in the evolution and development of
societies and their cultures. Their influence is concentrated in the urban regions, but
rapidly spreads to the rural regions- and beyond, to the rest of the world.

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 Cities have thus, always been the centres/nodes of globalization.

 As Simon Bekker and Gӧran Therborn (2012:127) point out, ‘cities are
traditionally engines of social modernisation and economic growth, and at
the same time the theatre in which globalization stages its scenarios’.
 In this sense, urbanisation, economic growth and ‘civilization’ are mutually reinforcing
(United Nations-Habitat, 2004).
 The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) (2005: 10; UN-Habitat
(2004: 10) makes three important observations about cities in relation to globalization:-
a. Cities have always been made by mobility… by flows - of people, money, goods
and signs [SYMBOLS] of globalization. (Refer to Zygmunt Bauman - Liquid
Modernity (Topic 1) and Arjun Appandurai- The 5 landscapes (Topic 2).
a. Cities combine …paradoxical [inconsistent/contradictory] extremes of:-
 wealth and poverty
 familiarity and strangeness
 home and abroad.
b. Cities are where new things are created and from which they spread across the
world.
 These observations reflect on the dynamic, vibrant and exciting nature of cities as well
as their complexity too. They also reflect on the global rather than merely the local
vivacity of their character.
 As Kofi Anan, (late/Former) United Nations Secretary General, points out in the Cities in
a globalizing world: Global Report on Human Settlements (2001), although
globalization certainly affects rural areas, the impact of global economic [and socio-
cultural] change is largely centred on cities.
 Anan observes that globalization is:-
a. Changing the structure of employment
 This includes the type of jobs people do, when and where they do them
and even who does what.
b. Altering the demographic [aspects of the population] make-up of cities
 Who is living in cities and what are their characteristics e.g. age, gender,
education, income etc.
c. Introducing a strong international context to local concerns
 New ways of doing things are introduced into the local context from
different cultures globally. This is what makes urban areas so vibrant.

 At the same time, Anan points out that cities and their surrounding regions are also
shaping and promoting globalization by providing:-
a. The infrastructure and labour upon which globalization depends.
 Infrastructure includes diverse things like roads/rail/sea and air ports,
electricity/water/sewerage systems, postal/internet connectivity, financial
and banking facilities, health facilities etc.

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b. The ideas and innovations that have always emerged from the intensity of
urban life.

 Moreover, the patterns of everyday life that we observe in the contemporary *metropolis
(cities) are the consequence of the complicated and continuing interaction of
economic, political and cultural forces that have not always been studied in urban
sociology (Gottdiener, Hutchinson and Ryan 2015:13). These forces are local as well as
global. We note for instance, that:-
 Prior to the 1970s, discussions about cities assumed that the most critical
influence of urban growth and development was the behaviour of local
businessmen.
 It is evident, however, that economic activities, (among others) in the cities are
controlled by decisions often made at a global level.
 In essence, there is a metropolitanization [see *metropolis above] of the world
economy (Anna Tibaijuka, Executive Director, UN-Habitat, 2001), of its politics and
culture- These global processes are being domiciled in the cities.
 Notably, some cities are more integrated into the world economy [culture and
politics] than others (Gottdiener, Hutchinson and Ryan 2015).
 Cities are, therefore, critical to understanding how the process of
globalization emerges, spreads and impacts society.
 For several decades, therefore, scholars of globalization and urbanization, as well as
development agencies, have been interested in understanding the linkages between
the process of globalization, and the evolution and character of cities.
 The processes of immigration, the character of cities, including its settlement
patterns, cultures, social integration as well as its social problems, among others, are
thus important topics.

Let us explore these issues in more detail

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

 International migration is a central phenomenon in the shaping of the character of

cities.
 As we have noted, cities, particularly large ones, are typically the wealthiest global
regions. They thus tend to have higher incomes, and better infrastructure.
 As centres of economic, political and cultural power, cities attract global economic
investment. They are, consequently, characterised by a jostling for public and
private space as people bid to provide goods, services and infrastructure for the
urban populations.

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 Inevitably, they tend to be the focus of rural to urban, as well as global immigration,
resulting in the constantly increasing diversity in urban populations.
 The scale of labour migration has especially increased due to the ease and reduction
of international travel (cost and time) as well as labour shortages in countries that
are experiencing rapid economic growth.
 In 2004, for instance, UN- Habitat estimated that 2-11 million foreigners had
immigrated into South Africa, mostly from Mozambique, Lesotho (and
Swaziland).
 As many as 175 million people, excluding undocumented migrants, had
migrated into urban areas globally.
 These include very diverse groups, such as underpaid manual and service
workers, highly paid skilled professionals, students, reuniting family
members, asylum seekers and refugees as well as undocumented workers.
 The most common destination for immigrants is the developed world but
others include (Transition Economies of) Eastern Europe, Asia and the pacific,
the Middle East and North Africa as well.
 Global migration has accelerated lately, due to economic challenges as well
as opportunities, political instability as well as war in many parts of the
developing world.
 Sometimes the migration is on a small scale and hardly visible but sometimes, there
is a mass movement of people- often landing in cities. Even in slow periods,
however, global migration is a constant phenomenon.
 Of note is that international migration has been a constant feature of human
history. Practically all societies globally are, to varying degrees, a product of
this global mix.
 Some recent examples of global mass migration include:-
 The European migration crisis in the Mediterranean region of Northern Africa
and Southern Europe, which started in 2015 from the middle East, Africa and
Asia and is largely continuing.
 The 2018- to-date Northward migration from S. American countries into the
USA.
 The on-going scramble for out-migration by Afghanis seeking to escape
Taliban rule in Afghanistan after the withdrawal of American troops and the
collapse of Ashraf Ghani’s government in August, 2021.
NB: There was a deceleration of international migration in
2020/2021 as a result of COVID 19 and the shutdown of global
aero/human travel/closure of national borders but the flow
continues.

 As a result of this migration into urban areas, cities are growing at a rapid rate globally.
 The urban population in 2014 accounted for 54% of the total global population, up from
34% in 1960 (World Bank, 2018).

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 The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN-DESA, 2018) is
concerned that by 2030, six out of every 10 people (60%) will be urban dwellers. By
2050, it may be two out of three people.
 Although sub-Saharan Africa is urbanizing at a very rapid rate, it remains the least
urbanized of all global regions.
 For instance, in 1960, Johannesburg was the only city in sub-Saharan Africa with
a population of over a million people.
 By the 1980s, the list included Abidjan, Accra, Addis Ababa, Dakar, Dar es
Salaam, Durban, East Rand, Harare, Ibadan, Khartoum, Luanda and Nairobi, and
the list is growing. [Can you trace these cities on your global
map?]
 The population of cities like Nairobi and Johannesburg (excluding the greater
metropolitan areas of the cities) has risen to more than three million.
 Of note is that migrants typically make valuable contribution to the local economy and
significant remittances to their countries of origin. Hence, they contribute to economic
development both in the countries they live in and those they come from.
 In 2003, for example, the Indian Diaspora [Indians living abroad] sent home [to
India] more US$ 15 Billion (UN-Habitat, 2004) in funds known as remittances.
 In 2017, the World Bank projected that formal remittance (NB: there are
informal/ unregistered ones too) to sub-Saharan Africa would increase by 10
percent from about $34 billion in 2016 to $38 billion in 2017. This is valuable
financing for Africa’s development.
 Again, note that these figures have been drastically impacted
downwards by the global COVID 19 pandemic as businesses shut down
and economic uncertainties influence peoples’ spending patterns.
 As we shall see in upcoming discussions, immigrants not only contribute to the
economy, they are also instrumental in the cultural diversity of cities too. [Refer to
Cultural theory- Topic 2].
[The subject of global immigration and urban culture will be discussed at the
end of this section].

 Globally, therefore, cities emerge and change as a result of continuous processes of

emigration and immigration
 The two words are often used interchangeably but emigrate stresses
leaving, while immigrate stresses entering a country.

Review questions

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1. What patterns of emigration, both local and international, do

you observe in Eswatini?-
a. Who emigrates? Where do they go? What draws them to
the places they go? What pushes them from where they
come from?
b. Who immigrates into Eswatini. Where do they come from
and why do they come to Eswatini?
2. How have these patterns changed in the advent of the COVID 19
pandemic?
3. What have been the implications of COVID 19 on the remittances
into Eswatini and how has this affected Eswatini?
4. As a global citizen, would you emigrate? Where to and Why? If
not, why not?

URBAN STRATIFICATION, SOCIAL INEQUALITIES AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

 Depending on where urbanization is occurring, cities experience many variations in

their growth and development.
 With regard to the process of urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa, the UN-Habitat (2004)
worries that urbanization is occurring largely without industrial and economic growth,
leading to numerous social problems.
 Among some of the concerns are concerns over urban stratification, social inequality
and social exclusion.

Let us examine these concerns in more detail

Urban Stratification
 Cities are characterised by differences that are reflected in the type of class structure
that emerges.
 Urban differentiation/stratification (division into levels or classes) is typically based
the following:-
i. Income & occupation- How much you earn and what job you do determines
where you live.
ii. Age- Older people may live in different neighbourhoods from the young (No i.
may be a determinant).

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iii. Neighbourhood-Whether you live in a high, middle or low-income

neighbourhood (No 1 and 2 may apply),
iv. Access to infrastructure- No iii will apply
v. Access to social services - (No iii will apply).
vi. Access to overall life chances. No iii will apply

 Urban and suburban [those on the periphery/ outskirts of the urban] settlement spaces
are also stratified on the basis of class, race, and gender. They are further stratified on
the basis of ethnicity,…and family status (Gottdiener et al., 2015).
 These aspects of urban differentiation form the basis of an important urban problem-
that of social exclusion and social inequality.

Social Exclusion & Social Inequality

 Social exclusion occurs on the basis of who you are and where you are (Jo Beall, 2002).
 As Beall argues, even when people are included, there is always the question of:
i. What they are included in?
ii. On whose terms they are included? and
iii. In whose interest they are included?

 These socio-spatial arrangement, (arrangement of people/society in

geographical/regional spaces), therefore, determine the intensity and type of
interaction between individuals and groups within cities.
 Race and class are especially important determinants of this interaction.

 Settlement patterns for ethnic groups and the socio-spatial relations that are created
thereof, consequently play a significant role in the lives of minority groups (e.g. new or
international immigrants) in cities.
 While some groups are able to ascend the social ladder, others remain in these isolated
spaces. They are excluded from the opportunities available to the larger society in the
context of a globalized world system.
 Urban differences are, therefore, reflected in the inequalities within cities.
 An even greater concern is the increasing ‘urbanization of poverty’ (UN-Habitat, 2001) -
urban poverty is increasing despite increasing urban wealth.
 Kofi Anan (UN Secretary of state, 2001) for example, vividly paints a picture of this
inequality, arguing that cities present the starkest indication that the benefits of
globalization are not being spread evenly [Refer global inequalities- Topic 3]. He
decries the fact of:-
Homeless people living in cardboard boxes, next to skyscrapers occupied by
corporations whose budgets exceed those of many countries; growing gaps between
the salaries offered by labour markets and the housing costs determined by urban
land markets; enormous levels of consumption alongside great pyramids of waste

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that threaten the environment and human health; and hitherto unseen patterns of
segregation, with pockets of wealth at the centre and vast enclaves of poverty on the
periphery ( Kofi Anan, UN Secretary of state, 2001).

 Patrick Bond (2000) also writes on Cities of Gold, and Townships of Coal,
referencing the spatial inequalities in South Africa.
 Cities in Eswatini are showing increasing levels of inequality as well.
[Can you point to specific examples of this
inequality in Eswatini’s urban centres?]

 This inequality is typically not as much a problem of lack of resources, as much as it is

one of lack of equity and unequal distribution of urban resources and wealth.
 As Manuel Castells has argued:
Urban problems have arisen not by chance or through mismanagement but
because the interests of one or other social class fraction have been served by
the emergence of such problems…it is not in the interest of dominant groups to
replace it (Castells, 1977: 14-15, cited in Gilbert and Gugler, 1981: 2).

 The increased mushrooming and growth of informal settlements and slums within
Globalized Economies in particular, is a vivid and alarming symbol of this inequality as
illustrated in the contracting pictures below. Globally, many cities represent these stark
contrasts.

Source: ohchr.org. Source: www.gqindia.com Source: Habitatforhumanity.org.uk

Informal Settlements v/v Slums

Informal settlements are residential areas where:

i. Inhabitants have no security of tenure [occupancy] - There is no certainty they can
live there permanently.
ii. The neighborhoods usually lack, or are cut off from basic services and city
infrastructure, and
iii. The housing may not comply with current planning and building regulations.
Notably, it is often situated in geographically and environmentally hazardous areas.
 NB: Informal settlements can be a form of real estate speculation for all
income levels of urban residents, affluent and poor (UN-Habitat III Issue

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Papers, May 2015). The informality thus denotes a lack of authorization,

recognition and legitimacy under urban law.
Slums can be classified as a form of informal settlement. According to the UN-Habitat III
Issue Papers (May 2015), slums are the most deprived and excluded form of informal
settlements. They are:-
i. Characterized by poverty and large concentration of dilapidated housing.
ii. Often located in the most hazardous urban land.
iii. Have insecurity of tenure,
iv. Lack formal supply of basic infrastructure and services,
v. Lack public space and green areas.
vi. They are constantly exposed to eviction, disease and violence.
 You can see more details on slums in UN-Habitat 2003.
https://unhabitat.org/the-challenge-of-slums-global-report-on-
human-settlements-2003

 Fast growing cities exhibit the fastest growth of slums.

 In 2001, 31.6% of the world population lived in slums (UN-Habitat, 2003).
 72% of urban Africans lived in slums (UN- Habitat, 2004).
 Slum dwellers have increased immensely since the 1990s
 Slums and poverty are closely linked. According to the UN-Habitat, slums create
conditions for poor health and insecurity, which, in–turn, reduce human, financial and
social capital. These are the three components/ dimensions of poverty.
 Rasnah Warah associates slums with a ticking time bomb and points out that:
Cities which are unable to bridge income inequalities and manage social
integration are likely to be more violent and insecure than those that are
less polarized.
(Rasnah Warah in UN-Habitat, 2004: 118).

Review Questions
1. What are the patterns of urban stratification in Eswatini? (Who
lives where and why?) In what ways do race, class and
ethnicity, influence these patterns? What about age and
income?
2. With examples from the cities of Mbabane, Ezulwini, Manzini
and other smaller towns of your choice in Eswatini, discuss the
indicators of urban inequality in Eswatini?
3. Are there slums in Eswatini? Would you agree with Rasnah
Warah that they are a ticking time bomb? Why?

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GLOBALIZATION AND URBAN CULTURE

In the last section, we have discussed the way in which urban areas emerge and are shaped
by the process of globalization. In this last sub- theme, we shall explore the way urban
culture emerges and deliberate on aspects of urban integration, inclusiveness and the
plight of migrants.

 The United Nations-Habitat (2005: 10) makes the following observations:-

1. Every city has its unique character (attitude), which is marked by local accents,
and neighbourhoods.
2. Local culture is constantly recalibrated and renegotiated in everyday social
spaces- in its dialogues and interactions. (i.e. culture is not static. It is constantly
changing especially due to globalization).
3. It is visible in local symbols e.g. buildings/ social spaces such as churches and
restaurants, which then become the symbols of local identity. (New symbols are
constantly emerging).
4. Cities become the centres of cultural innovation- in its art, music, clothing,
jewellery, linguistic forms etc. (Cultures become *cosmopolitan( *See Antony
Giddens- Topic 1).
5. In a globalized society, these innovations are rapidly dispersed globally.
[Refer to Cultural theory- Topic 2]

 An important outcome of globalization on cities is the diversification and enrichment of

culture and interesting ‘vibrant fusions’ of it.
 Sometimes, cultures begin to be standardized (NB: cultural convergence). This, as we
have learnt, is enhanced by the elements of the network society.
 Cities are thus powerful contributors to the cultural impact of globalization.
 An important point to note, however, is that all members of society do not partake of
the culture equally. Various, elements of urban social stratification (as we have learnt
in the previous section) mediate access and adoption of new culture. e.g. where one
lives, accesses to information, economic status etc.
 Sometimes, strange/alien cultures brought in by migrants elicit fear, racial tensions and
polarization and inhibit social integration in urban areas.
 Xenophobia [dislike of or prejudice against people from other countries], gated
communities and discrimination today, accentuated by fear (often exaggerated) of
global terrorism, further impedes cultural integration.
 Lack of seamless integration into urban cultural space leads to the development of
urban ethnic spaces, where specific excluded minorities live in culturally exclusive
(sometimes ghettos) and cleave to their culture and practices. These neighbourhoods
are often targets of hostility by local and older residents of the cities.

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 More recently, some of these excluded minority enclaves have become the hotbeds of
religious *fundamentalism (*See Anthony Giddens in Topic 1) and the launching pads
for global terrorism
 An example is recruitment of disillusioned Muslims living in the excluded
neighbourhoods of Brussels, Belgium, who became recruited into the Islamic terrorist
group ISIS (Daesh). These neighbourhoods became the origin of the ISIS terrorism that
was exported to other European countries in 2014 and 2016.
 The problem of the urban inequality, particularly as it affects minority groups, as we
have noted before, is thus an important concern for globalization and urban
sociologists. The case of the international migrants is one example of this exclusion.

Exclusion and the Plight of Migrants

 The United Nations- Habitat points out that newcomers to towns (often international
immigrants) live segregated lives due to discriminatory practices, by choice or due to
the fact that they cannot get affordable housing.
 Consider for instant refugees fleeing war and oppression in their countries of
origin or people fleeing economic hardships. They are unlikely to have much
money and may move in where their fellow country-men/women live.
 Often:-
i. They live in inferior neighborhoods e.g. slums and informal settlements.
ii. They experience labour exploitation- often they work in areas the local
population does not want to work in.
iii. They are socially isolated.
iv. They have insecure tenure - sometimes they are denied residency and are
repatriated to their countries of origin.
v. They experience overcrowding, violence and multiple unhealthy living
conditions.
vi. They experience xenophobia- They are often scapegoated for taking over the
economic opportunities of locals, for committing crimes etc.

 The question of whether people (especially the migrants), become more drawn to
the local (Cultural convergence) or move even further to the global (cultural
differentialism) is thus a question of debate.
 Equally important is whether migrants,
a. Wish to fully integrate into local culture, eventually relinquishing their own
culture and sense of identity.
b. The conditions that enable them to either assimilate into local culture or
alternatively to retain their own.
 The answers to these above questions, to a certain extent, lie in the level of urban
inclusiveness and integration in each city.

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 There is no doubt, however, that despite the challenges, the experience of a

global cosmopolitan citizenship can be enormously rewarding as well as exciting.
 For a real life story of this possibility, refer to The case of Samir Moussa in
your reading list.

Review questions
1 Reflect on the question of globalization and urban culture in
eswatini with a focus on the following:
i. How well integrated are immigrants into Eswatini?
ii. Who integrates easily, and who doesn’t. Why?
iii. What would you say are the greatest impediments to
their integration from their perspective and from the
perspective of local residents?
iv. Have you noticed any challenges faced by immigrants
in Eswatini?
v. Reflecting on the patterns of cultural change (see
cultural theory) what would you say is the extent of
cultural integration and cultural exchange between
local people and immigrants in Eswatini?
vi. Would you emigrate and live in another country and
culture- why or why not?

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II. GLOBALIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

[The globalization of environmental problems]

 In his article The Globalizations of the Environment, Dimitri Stevis (2005), points out that
the link between globalization and the environment has been recognised since the
1940s.
 In their book, Environment and Society: The enduring Conflict (1994), for instance, Gould,
Pellow and Schnaiberg, argue that the goal of global economic growth, which is fed by
a ‘trendmill of production’, is incompatible with protecting the environment (or
society).
 A trendmill has an endless belt that keeps moving fast- much like the
endless flow of the global economy.
 They point out that the inherent logic of the global politico-economic system is in an
enduring conflict with the reality of the global environment.
 Piotr Sztompka (1990) has also argued that in the course of the growing productive forces of
modernization, potential environmental threats have been unleashed to an extent
previously unknown.
 As Held et. al (1999: 380) point out,
The origins and consequences of global and regional environmental
problems intersect with global and regional economic, political and
cultural institutions and processes.

 According to Held et al., the beginning of the industrial revolution in the West in the 18 th
century brought with it the collective power of humanity to generate environmental
degradation and the momentum has increased with the spread of industrialization.
 The North-South transfer of industrialization has, concurrently spread environmental
degradation globally.
 With increased globalization, the intensity, extensiveness, and impact, of environmental
degradation have multiplied.
 At the same time, population growth in the previously un-(under) developed countries has
generated local shortages and the pressure for resources, leading to more
industrialization and more pollution.
 Held et al., however, points out that, in the North, pollution is declining due to greater
environmental protection initiatives. Unfortunately the pollution is intensifying in the
South as industrialization increases, without commensurate environmental protection.
 Of note is that:
No state has the autonomous capacity to control the quality of its
atmosphere, to prevent pollution arriving on the wind or …to prevent all the
negative consequences of its own environmental decisions travelling across
the borders to others (Held, et al. 1991: 412).
 This implies that environmental pollution has no respect for national borders. Societies
widely suffer the consequences.

Let us examine some of the social consequences.

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS AND IMPACT ON SOCIETY

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 According to Held et al. (1999), there are multiple environmental problems arising from the
activities that are associated with industrial production and their modes of
consumption in a globalized world.
 Some clear symbols of trans-boundary environmental pollution include:-
 Global warming- Closely associated with anthropogenic (caused by humans
or their activities) climate change, this problem is currently considered as
the starkest threat to human existence on this planet.
 Ozone depletion- The destruction of the atmospheric ozone layer due to
environmental pollution. The ozone layer covers the entire planet
and protects life on earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B)
radiation from the sun. Ozone depletion is a major contributor to global
warming among other problems.
 Acid rain due to industrial emissions, the pollution of rivers, the destruction
of forests etc, are further examples.
 NB: Pollution can emanate from factory emissions, poor solid and
chemical waste disposal, burning of fossil fuels etc.

 A report by Lancet, highlights the fact that in 2015, nearly 1 in 6 deaths globally (about
9 million people) were linked to one type of pollution or another- water, air, soil,
chemical or occupational- related pollution.
 The World Health Organization also reports that an estimated 1.7 million children
under the age of 5 died from environmental pollutants in 2017.
 According to the annual State of Global Air Report (Health Effects Institute, Report by
CNN, April 17, 2018) 95% of the world’s population is breathing unhealthy air and the
poorest nations are the most affected by the pollution.
 According to the report, exposure to air pollution leads to strokes, heart
attacks, lung cancer and chronic lung disease, which leads to premature
deaths.
 As many as 6.1 million deaths globally are estimated to have been the
caused by long-term exposure to air pollution in 2016.
 Pollution is the 4th highest cause of death among all health risks globally.
 China and India are jointly responsible for over 50% of global deaths due to
pollution.
 A total of 2.5 billion people (1/3 people), mainly in low and middle-income
countries of Asia and Africa are exposed to indoor air pollution arising
mainly from the burning of solid fossil fuels (wood, charcoal etc).
 Besides the indoor pollution, countries in Asia and Africa are also faced with
outdoor pollution.
 India leads in outdoor deaths due to pollution, with 1 out of 4 people dying
of pollution (China follows with 1 out of 5 deaths).

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A look at the following world air quality index map showing the variations in quality
between countries, ranging from Good to Hazardous. These change constantly depending
on the state of environmental pollution driven, not just by local pollution but by trans-
boundary pollution as well https://waqi.info/#/c/26.233/7.119/2.1z
 Compare for instance the following locations captured on 30th August, 2021:-
 Khadakpada, Kalyan, India- Index 880- Hazardous
 Olav V Gate, Bodo Norway- Index 17- Good
 Half Moon Bay, California, U. S. A.- Index 411 – Hazardous
 George, Garden Route, South Africa- Index 59- Good

 We also note that although many environmental forums that focus on the environment
exist [e.g. United Nations- Habitat, Greenpeace etc], the problem of global
environmental governance is overtly outstanding and there is no existing successful
mechanism for forcing polluting states to do the right thing (Stevis: 2004).
 Of note is that while globalization has tangible effects on the environment, the environment
too has an impact on globalization (Najam, Runnalls and Halle, 2007). For example:
 The resources (or scarcity thereof) that feed globalization come from the
environment.
 Resources diverted to resolve environmental degradation subtract from the
economy (Najam, Runnalls and Halle, 2007).
 In essence, there is expressed alarm by theorists such as Antony Giddens ( See Topic 1) and
Ulrich Beck that the modern globalized world is one fraught with RISK, especially man made /
manufactured risk.

Let us take a quite look at Ulrich Beck’s ideas about risk

ULRICH BECK- THE RISK SOCIETY

 Ulrich Beck’s work on the Risk Society (1992) is one of the most influential books on the
subject of globalization.
 Beck contends that globalization creates risks that concern people from all classes of society
e.g. radioactivity, pollution, and even unemployment.
 He points out that ‘in advanced modernity’, the social production of wealth is
systematically accompanied by the social production of risk.
 Beck points out that while social wealth is desirable and scarce, risk is undesirable and
abundant.
 Moreover, both wealth and risk adheres to a class pattern but in opposite directions.
 Wealth accumulates at the top, risk at the bottom. Thus, risk tends to
strengthen rather than abolish the class society.
 The rich can sometimes insulate themselves from risks but the poor suffer most from them.
As Beck points out, wealth (including income, power and education) can ‘purchase’
safety and freedom from risk.

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 In a factory situation, for example, the risk of toxic chemicals, radiation etc,
are unevenly distributed among occupations- the lower cadres are most
exposed because they work directly at the source of the pollution- unlike the
managers who are a little further removed in the offices.
 Cheaper residential areas for low-income groups (slums and informal
settlements, particularly in urban areas) are most exposed to centres of
industrial production and their pollutants- in air, water, soil. This is unlike the
higher income neighbourhoods and suburbs that may be lfurther removed
and less densely aggraged.

 Risks are also socially constructed- i.e. Society defines/ labels what is ‘risk’ and what is not.
Some risks e.g. terrorism, are perceived as more dangerous because they are
discussed in mass media more frequently. Environmental risks are not covered as
much and may be perceived as less important
 This means implies that less resources and priority are allocated towards
their eradication.
 Some environmental risks, however, may not be avoidable. This is especially so for pollution
that is shared by all such as air and water.
 Pollution blowing in from South Africa or that which is transmitted via shared
surface and subterranean rivers may reach the most remote village in Eswatini.
 Sandstorms blowing from the Sahara desert typically reach the furthest corner of
Europe, America, Asia and Australia/ New Zealand.

 As risk grows, it also crosses class boundaries. The whole society, irrespective of class is
affected.
 As Beck (1992: 46) remarks ‘poverty is hierarchic, smog is democratic’ – i.e.
[poverty affects different classes of people differently but environmental
pollution affects everyone indiscriminately].

 A risk society is also characterized by what Beck refers to as Reflexive modernization.

 In this process of modernization, progress is achieved through reorganization and
reform- i.e. Society looks at the cause- effect relationship of social phenomena and acts
to influence and reorder the outcomes.
 Example: If cutting trees/deforestation is leading to global warming and climate
change, , you take action to reverse the global warming and climate change by
protecting your forests from deforestation and by planting more trees
[reforestation].
 The central issue is how risks can be prevented, minimized, or channelled.
 Beck argues that science has become a protector of the global contamination of
people and nature. He suggests that subgroups, such as large companies, are
more likely than the governments to lead the way when coping with risks.

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 The growth of sustainability movements and the New Social movements (e.g.
feminist and green movements) are also examples of movements that have their
roots in reflexive modernization. These are often global in nature.
 In an industrialized economy, risks are considered a market opportunity by some.
 The global environmental group, Greenpeace (1993) noted for, instance,
that in the 1980s, there was an increase in the international trade in toxic
substances such as nuclear waste, destined for disposal in the South.
 In 2020, the president of The Philippines was in a diplomatic spurt with
Canada for exporting their waste to the Philippines. China is also rejecting
plastic waste from the USA (previously they imported it for recycling).
 As a result of these interests, instead of the reality of risk bringing about harmony in society
based on a shared social problem, risk enhances differentiation and conflict.
 As the risk society develops, so too does the antagonism between those
who are afflicted by the risks and those who profit from it.
 Held et al. for instance, point out that international and local governments
try to exclude environmental NGOs from formal environmental forums.
 NGOs are more likely to fight pollution to protect society- hence
undermine business/ trade interests.
 New positions are created in society in relation to risk, conflict and
consensus- Who is affected and who is associated with whom relative to the
risk issues in contention.

 Beck (1992: 46-47) thus, explains that the social reality and narrative around risk is not
always clear or transparent. He points out that ‘the market-expanding exploitation’
[see Schnaiberg and Gould’s (1994) Trendmill of Production] of risks favours a to-and
fro- between revealing and concealing risk. The effect is that in the end:-
 No one quite knows whether the ‘problem’ might not be the ‘solution’ or the
‘solution’ might not be the ‘problem’.
 Example:- Monsanto the global pesticide/GMO multi-national and the
conflicts over commodification of food security and cancer-causing/bee-
killing chemicals.
 Who profits from what is often not clear.
 Whether responsibilities for creation of risk are being covered up or concealed
through causal speculation.
 Whether the whole talk of risk is not the expression of a displaced political
drama, which, in reality, intends something quite different.

Review Questions
1. What global environmental risks do you think are impacting
Eswatini?

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2. What local environmental risks do you think are being

globalized?

Readings
 Case Study: The story of Samir Moussa. Accessed from
http://www.globalization101.org/story-of-samir-moussa-a-global-nomad/on
15/01/2018
 Ritzer, G. 2012. Sociological Theory (8th Edition). New York: McGraw Hill
(Chapter 16- Globalization Theory. Pp 556-559).

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