CHAPTER 3: HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Introduction
The geometric design of roadway necessitates the determination of specific design elements and
fixation of standards with respect to various components. It is dictated within economics and other
limitations to satisfy the requirements of traffic in designing geometric elements which include
roadway vertical and horizontal alignment, cross sections, stopping and passing sight distances,
number of lane, lane width, median type (if any) and width, lateral and vertical clearances,
intersections, length of acceleration and deceleration lanes, need for truck climbing lanes for steep
grades, curve radius for required for turning vehicle, etc. When one considers the diversity of
vehicles, in terms of performance and physical dimensions, and the interaction of these
characteristics with the many elements comprising the design of the roadway, it is clear that proper
highway design is a complex procedure that requires numerous compromises. Moreover, it is
important for design guidelines to evolve over time in response to changes in vehicle performance
and dimensions, and to evidence collected regarding the effectiveness of existing highway design
practices (e.g. the relationship between accident rates and various roadway design characteristics).

Design controls and criteria

The choice of design standard and criteria is influenced by the following factors:
1. The functional classification of the road is a process by which streets and highways are
grouped into classes, or systems, according to the character of service they are tended to
provide.it is largely determined by the volume and composition of the traffic to be served and
the speed that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway. In general there are two
major Functional of a highway: Access to property and Travel mobility. The objective to
classify (setting hierarchy) the road are:-
 To obtain best use of an existing network
 To ensure that each type of traffic is using the most appropriate route
 To minimize the risk to users and to the natural built environment
 To ensure better management, maintenance regimes and design policies
 To ensure funding for routes is targeted appropriately
 To offer network users a choice for how to travel

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 Table4.1 ERA Functional Classification of Road (Highway)

ERA (2013)

What is
difference
between the
mobility and
accessibility?

Figure AASHTO
functional
classification roadway (Highway)

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2. The nature of the terrain: - The location and geometric design elements such as gradients,
sight distance, cross-sections, radius of curvature, speeds, etc. of a highway are affected by
topography, physical features, and land use. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into
four classes as follows:
a) Flat:- Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road,
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
up to 5 percent)

b) Rolling: - Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions
in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).

c) Mountainous: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain
imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long
steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50
percent).

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 d) Escarpment:- Escarpment include situations where switchback roadway sections are used
or side hill transverse sections which cause considerable earthwork quantities, with
transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.

3. The design vehicle: refer ERA Geometric Design manual 2013 for more information
4. The traffic volume expected on the road: In forecasting, Traffic categorized into:
Normal Traffic-Traffic that would pass along the existing road or track even if no new or
improved pavement were provided.
Diverted Traffic - Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement.
Generated Traffic- Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road. It may arise either because a journey becomes more attractive by
virtue of a cost or time reduction or because of the increased development that is brought
about by the road investment
5. The design speed: refer ERA Geometric Design manual 2013 for more information.
6. The density and characteristics of the adjoining land use
7. Vehicle size and performance
8. Safety
9. Right of way impacts and costs associated with it
10. Economic and environmental considerations

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 ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN
1. Sight distance
2. Horizontal alignment
3. Vertical Alignment

3.1. Sight distance

Sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a vehicle ahead of him. For highway safety, the
designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of
their vehicles. The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the
visibility of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such
that any obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance a head.
This distance is said to be the sight distance.
Types of sight distance:-
 Stopping sight distance
 Passing sight distance
 Intersection sight distance
Intersection sight distance: the distance in advance of an intersection that is free of obstructions
and that allows a driver to determine whether or not the intersection is safe to maneuver. It is
provided at Intersections is based on same Principles as stopping sight distance incorporating
observed driver behavior results.
Driver approaching an intersection needs:-
 Unobstructed view of the entire intersection
 To see traffic control device if available
 Sufficient length along intersection Highway to anticipate and void potential collisions
 Stopping distance related to vehicle speeds

Each intersection has the potential for several different types of vehicular conflicts. The possibility
of these conflicts actually occurring can be greatly reduced through the provision of proper sight
distance and appropriate traffic controls. The avoidance of conflicts and the efficiency of traffic
operations still depend on the judgment, capabilities and response of individual driver.
Vehicles are assigned the right of way at intersections by traffic control devices or, where no
traffic-control devices are presented, by the rules of the road. A basic rule of the road, at an
intersection where no traffic-control devices are present, requires the vehicle on the left to yield to
the vehicle on the right if they arrive at approximately the same time.
NB: Intersection sight distance is to provide sight distance at intersections to allow drivers to
perceive the presence of potentially conflicting vehicles.
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 Driver stopped at an intersection needs
 Sufficient view of intersecting highway to decide when to enter or cross

Case of intersection sight triangles:-

 Uncontrolled intersection
 Stopped controlled intersection
 Yield controlled intersection
 Signal controlled intersection
 Left turn from major highway

Sight triangles
The specified area along intersection approach legs and corners should be clear of obstructions that
might block a driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles. These specified areas are known as
clear sight triangle. The dimensions of the legs of the sight triangles depend on the design speeds of
the intersecting roadways and the type of traffic control used at the intersection. Two types of clear
sight triangles are considered
 Approach sight triangle
 Departure sight triangle

Approach sight triangle

Figure 4A shows typical clear sight triangle to the left and to the right for a vehicle approaching an
uncontrolled or yield-controlled intersection. The vertex of the sight triangle on a minor road
approach (or an uncontrolled approach) represents the decision point for the minor-road driver (see
figure 4A). This decision point is the location at which the minor-road driver should begin to brake
to a stop if another vehicle is present on an interesting approach. The distance from major road,
along the minor road, is illustrated by the dimension “a” in figure 4A.
The geometry of a clear sight triangle is such that when the driver of a vehicle without the right of
way sees a vehicle that has the right of way on an intersection approach, the driver of that
potentially conflicting vehicle can also see the first vehicle. Dimension “b” illustrated the length of
this leg of the sight triangle.
Departure sight triangle
A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient for stopped driver on a
minor-road approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross the major road. Figure 4B
shows typical departure sight triangles to left and to right of the location of a stopped vehicle on the

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minor road. Departure sight triangle should be provided in each quadrant of each intersection
approach controlled by stop or yield signs.

 tg= travel time to reach and clear the major road (s),
 b= length of leg of triangle along the major road (m)
 ta =travel time to reach the major road from the decision point for a vehicle that
does not stop(s) (use appropriate value for the minor-road design speed from figure
adjusted for approach grade, where appropriate)
 w= width of intersection to be crossed (m)
 La= length of design vehicles (m)
 Vminor= design speed of minor road (Km/hrs.),
 Vmajor= design speed of major road (Km/hrs.)

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The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor road to to accommodate
crossing maneuver from a yield-controlled approach (distance a in figure 4A) is given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Crossing Maneuvers from Yield-Controlled Approaches- Length of minor road leg and
travel times

General Notice on intersection sight triangle

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 Figure 4.Intersection Sight Triangles
The intersection sight distance along the major road (dimension “b” in figure 4B is determined by:

Where
 ISD= intersection sight distance (length of the leg of sight triangle along the major road) (m).
 Vmajor= design speed of major road (km/hrs.)
 tg= time gap for minor road vehicle to enter the major road (s)
Table4.2 Time gap for intersection with Stop control on minor road (left turn from stop

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3.2. Horizontal Alignments
The horizontal alignment should always be designed to the highest standard consistent with the
topography and be chosen carefully to provide good drainage and minimize earthworks. The
alignment design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform operating speed. Therefore the
standard of alignment selected for a particular section of road should extend throughout the section
with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature. The horizontal alignment consists of a series
of intersecting tangents and circular curves, with or without transition curves and super-elevation
element.
Straights (tangents)

Long straights should be avoided, as they are monotonous for drivers and cause headlight dazzle on
straight grades. A more pleasing appearance and higher road safety can be obtained by a winding
alignment with tangents deflecting some 5-10 degrees alternately to the left and right. Short
straights between curves in the same direction should not be used because of the broken back effect.
In such cases where a reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of long, transitions or
compound curvature should be considered.

The following guidelines may be applied concerning the length of straights:

 Straights should not have lengths greater than (20 * V) meters, where V is the design
speed in km/h.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have lengths
greater than (6*V) meters, where V is the design speed in km/h.
 Straights between the end and the beginning of un-transitioned reverse circular curves
should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total super elevation run-off.

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Simple Circular Curves

Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and
safety of a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds and lowering of highway capacity.

Figure 4-15: Parts of a Circular Curve

Note: The following elements of Simple circular curve formuli are proved on
blackboard.
 PC – point of curvature
 PI – point of intersection
 PT – point of tangency
 Δ – central angle
 R – radius of curve
 D – degree of curve that defines,
a. Central angle which subtends 20m arc (arc definition),
b. Central angle which subtends 20m chord (Chord definition)
From arc definition,
R = 1145.916 / D
From chord definition,
R = 10 / Sin (D/2)

Tangent (T): distance from PC to PI(backward tangent) or from PT to PI(forward

tangent)
T = R*tan (Δ/2)
External distance (E): distance from PI to middle of curve.
E = R*(Sec (Δ/2) – 1 or E = T*tan (Δ/4)
Middle ordinate (M): length from the middle of chord to the middle of curve.
M = R*(1- Cos (Δ/2))
Long chord(C): straight-line distance from A to B.
C = 2R*Sin (Δ/2)
Length of Curve (Lc): distance from PC to PT along the curve.
Lc = 20* Δ/D or Lc = R*π* Δ/180
Sub-arc angles di: are angles subtended by an arc less than the degree of curve (D).
di = Ai*D/20
Where: di = angle subtended by sub-arc of length Ai

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 Ai = arc less than 20m.
Sub chord angle (dj): are angles subtended by a chord less than the degree of curve (D).
cj = 2R*Sin(dj/2)

Also
cj = 20Sin(dj/2)/Sin(D/2)
Where:
dj = angle subtended by sub-chord of length cj
cj = chord less than 20m.

Deflection angles: The angle that a chord deflects from a tangent to a circular curve is
measured by half of the intercepted arc.
o Deflection angle for Lc m = Δ/2
o Deflection angle for 20m = D/2
o Deflection angle for Ai m = di/2
Stations of PC, PI, and PT:
PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T

Several variations of the circular curve deserve consideration when developing the horizontal
alignment for a highway design. When two curves in the same direction are connected with a short
tangent, this condition is referred to as a “broken back” arrangement of curves. This type of
alignment should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way conditions
dictate otherwise. Highway engineers generally consider the broken back alignment to be
unpleasant and awkward and prefer spiral transitions or a compound curve alignment with
continuous super elevation for such conditions.

Figure 4-16 identifies elements of a typical compound highway curve with variable definitions and
basic equations developed for a larger and smaller radius curve, based on the assumption that the
radius dimensions RL and RS and central angles ΔL and ΔS are given or have been previously
determined.

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Compound curve

Figure 4-16 Properties of a Compound Curve

Another important variation of the circular highway curve is the use of reverse curves, which are
adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions. The alignment illustrated in figure 4-17, which
shows a point of reverse curvature, PRC, and no tangent separating the curves, would be suitable
only for low-speed roads such as those in mountainous terrain. A sufficient length of tangent
between the curves should usually be provided to allow removal of the super elevation from the first
curve and attainment of adverse super elevation for the second curve.

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Reverse curve

Figure 4-17 Properties of a Reverse Curve

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves:

(a) (b)

Figure 4-18 Sight Distance around Horizontal Curve: (a) S < Lc and (b) S > Lc

Situations frequently exist where an object on the inside of a curve, such as vegetation, building or
cut face, obstructs the line of sight. Where it is either not feasible or economically justified to move
the object, a larger radius of curve will be required to ensure that stopping sight distance is

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available. The required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of the obstruction from the
centerline and the sight distance.

Case-1 S < L
( )
Whered Rv-Radius fo vehicle path
Ms- distance of the obstruction from the center of inner lane
S- sight distance (through center of inner lane)

Case-2 S > Lc
( ) ( ) ( )

Where: Ms- distance of the obstruction from the center of inner lane
L – Curve length
S- sight distance (through center of inner lane)
P- lane width
R-Radius fo of curve

Night driving around sharp curves introduces an added problem related to horizontal sight distance.
Motor-vehicle headlights are pointed directly toward the front and do not provide as much
illumination in oblique directions. Even if adequate horizontal sight distance is provided, it has little
useful purpose at night because the headlights are directed along a tangent to the curve, and the
roadway itself is not properly illuminated.

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Super elevation
Anybody moving rapidly along
a curved path is subject to an
outward reactive force called
the centrifugal force. If the
surface is flat, the vehicle is
held in the curved path by side
friction between tyres and
pavement. The total of these
friction forces balances the
centrifugal force.

Figure 4-19 Forces acting on a vehicle moving along a curved path.

When velocity v. (m/s) is stated in V (Km/h), and the radius of curve(R) in meters, the equation

reduces to

Where, v- design speed, f- side friction & e-super elevation rate

On highway curves, this centrifugal force acts through the center of mass of the vehicle and creates
an overturning moment about the points of contact between the outer wheels and the pavement. But
a stabilizing (resisting) moment is created by the weight acting through the center of mass. Thus for
equilibrium conditions, the height to the center of mass must be greater than the lateral distance
between the wheels before overturning will take place. Modern passenger vehicles have low center
of mass so that relatively high values of f have to be developed before overturning would take place.
In practice, the frictional value is usually sufficiently low for sliding to take place before
overturning. It is only with certain commercial vehicles having high center of mass that the problem
of overturning may arise.
In order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force, and to enable vehicles to round curves at
design speed without discomfort to their occupants, the pavements are “tilted” or “super elevated”
so that the outer edges are higher than the inner edges. This tilting, plus frictional resistance

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 between the tires and the pavement provides a horizontal resistance to the centrifugal forces
generated by the circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.
Analysis of the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius indicates
that the theoretical super elevation can be expressed as:
e + f = V2 / (127*R) …………………………………………… (*)
Where, e = rate of super elevation (m per m)
V = speed (Km/hrs.)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral friction)
R = radius of curvature (m)
Equation (*) above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of curve, the super
elevation and the coefficient of lateral friction. This equation forms the basis of design of horizontal
curves.
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by the super elevation, frictional force will not be
called into play. Proper design does not normally take full advantage of the obtainable lateral
coefficients of friction, since the design should not be based on a condition of incipient sliding. In
design, engineers use only a portion of the friction factor, accounting for the comfort and safety of
the vast majority of drivers.

From equation (*), the minimum radius or maximum degree of curvature for a given design speed
can be determined from the rate of super elevation and side friction factor.
R = V2 / (127*(e + f))
D = 1145.916 / R
Attainment of Super elevation:
The transition from a tangent, normal crown section, to a curved super elevated section must be
accompanied without any appreciable reduction in speed and in such a manner as to ensure safety
and comfort to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super elevated surface
into two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level. In
the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation.
i. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually lowering the
inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline constant.
ii. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the center and the outer edge.
iii. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and the outer edge.
Method (i) is the most generally used.
Lecture Note: - Highway Geometric Design Page 17
Super elevation Runoff
The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal to a super elevated section,
commonly referred to as the transition runoff, is a function of the design speed and the rate of
super elevation.
In alignment design with spirals, the super elevation runoff is affected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by removing the
adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just
ahead of TS (the tangent run out). Between the TS and SC (the super elevation runoff) the traveled
way is rotated to reach the full super elevation at the SC. This procedure is reversed on leaving the
curve. By this design the whole of the circular curve has full super elevation, as shown in Figure
below.

Figure 4-20 Spiral Curve Transition

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 Figure 4.20 (A) Super elevation and elements of Super elevation

In design of curves without spirals the super elevation runoff is considered to be that length beyond
the tangent run out. Empirical methods are employed to locate the super elevation runoff length
with respect to the point of curvature (PC). Current design practice is to place approximately two-
thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in Figure below

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Figure 4-21 Circular Curve Transition

Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction:

The value of coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief among them
being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surfaces, and type and condition of the tyres.
Table 4-2: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by TRL Overseas Road Note 6
Design Speed(Km/hr) 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
f 0.33 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.15

Table 4-3: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Design Speed (Km/hr) 50 65 80 100 120 130
Maximum f 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11

Maximum Super elevation Value:

If equation (*) is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super elevation that can
be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country. (ERA emax=8% )
According to Transport Construction Design Enterprise (TCDE):
 emax = 10%
 fmax = 0.16

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Lecture Notice Highway Engineering 1 Page 21
 Table4-4: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: for 8% and 4% maximum super elevation

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Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
Transition Curves

Transition curves provide a gradual change from the tangent section to the circular curve and vice
versa. For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a normal lane
width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary. However, along high-speed
roadways with sharp curvature, transition curves may be needed to prevent drivers from
encroaching into adjoining lanes.

The principal advantages of transition curves in horizontal alignments are:

 Properly designed transition curves provide a natural and easier to follow path for drivers
such that the centrifugal force increases or decreases gradually as a vehicle enters or leaves
a circular curves

 The transition curve provides a convenient desirable distance for super elevation runoff.

 Where the pavement section to be widened around a circular curve, the transition curve
facilitates gradual change in width of pavement (full widening to start at circular curve)

 The aesthetic appearance of a highway is enhanced by application of spirals. Their use

avoids noticeable breaks at the beginning and end of circular curves.

A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid is commonly used in highway design. The radius of
the spiral varies from infinity at the tangent end to the radius of the circular arc at the end of the
spiral. The radius of the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the distance from its
beginning point.

Figure 4-22 Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

Some of the important properties of the spirals are given below:
 L = 2Rθ
 θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
 θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
 Ts = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
 S = Ls2 / 24Rc
 Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc

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Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
Note:
θs = spiral angle
Δ = total central angle
Δc = central angle of the circular arc extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs
Rc = radius of circular curve
L = length of spiral from starting point to any point
R = radius of curvature of the spiral at a point L distant from starting point.
Ts = tangent distance
Es = external distance
S = shift
HIP = horizontal intersection point
BS = beginning of spiral
BC = beginning of circular curve
EC = end of circular curve
ES = end of spiral curve
Length of Transition:

The length of transition should be determined from the following two conditions:
 The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,

Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)
Where:
V = speed (Km/hr)
Rc = radius of the circular curve (m)
 The rate of change of super elevation (super elevation application ratio) should be such as
not to cause higher gradients and unsightly appearances. Since super elevation can be
given by rotating about the centerline, inner edge or outer edge, the length of the transition
will be governed accordingly.
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Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
Widening of Curves

Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow
the front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the vehicle in
relation to the lane width of the roadway. Studies of drivers traversing curves have shown that
there is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the actual curve, shifting the vehicle laterally
to the right on right-turning curves and to the left on left-turning curves. Thus, on right-turning
curves the vehicle shifts toward the inside edge of the pavement, creating a need for additional
pavement width. The amount of widening needed varies with the width of the pavement on
tangent, the design speed, and the curve radius or degree of curvature.

The widening required can be calculated from

We = n *B2/ 2R + V / 10 R
Where: We = total widening
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed (Km/hr)
n = number of lanes

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Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
3.3. Vertical Alignment
Introduction

Once the horizontal alignment has been determined, the vertical alignment of the section of
highway in question can be addressed. Again, the vertical alignment is composed of a series of
straight-line gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in form. These vertical parabolic
curves must therefore be provided at all changes in gradient. The curvature will be determined by
the design speed, being sufficient to provide adequate driver comfort with appropriate stopping
sight distances provided. The most desirable design is one with long vertical curves between grade
tangents that provides smooth riding qualities and good visibility with the minimum amount of
earth work.

Grades
Grade is a measure of the inclination, or slope, of the roadway. It is defined as the rise over the
run. In other words, a 10% grade simply means that the elevation of the roadway increases by 10
meter for every 100 meter of horizontal distance. Grade affects speed, capacity and cost of
operation.
Maximum Gradients
Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a number of factors: severity and
length of gradient; level and composition of traffic; and the number of overtaking opportunities on
the gradient and in its vicinity.

For very low levels of traffic flow represented by only a few four-wheel drive vehicles other
references advocate a maximum traversable gradient of up to 18 percent. Small commercial
vehicles can usually negotiate an 18 per cent gradient; whilst two-wheel drive trucks can
successfully manage gradients of 15-16 per cent except when heavily laden.

However, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is composed of a high percentage of vehicles that are
underpowered and poorly maintained. Certain existing roads in fact are avoided and underutilized
by traffic due to an inability to ascend the existing grades. The ERA finds it is in a position where
it has no choice but to limit gradients based on the design vehicle of existing fleet, although this
translates into an added cost to develop the road infrastructure.

Maximum vertical gradient is therefore and extremely important criterion that greatly effects both
the serviceability and cost of the road.
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Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
Table 4-5: Maximum Gradients

Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard

DS1 to DS3 DS4 & DS5 DS6 to DS8 DS9 DS10
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Escarpment 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
Note: First value shown is desirable value (D), second is absolute value (A).

Standards for desirable maximum gradients were set to assure user comfort and to avoid severe
reductions in the design speed. If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that requires
excessive earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an absolute
maximum gradient can be used. Employment of a gradient in excess of the desirable maximum
can only be authorized through the employment of a Departure from Standard.
Maximum Gradients at SWITCH BACKS
Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous or escarpment terrain, there is a need to
reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The maximum allowable
gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road standards DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for
DS6-DS10. Minimum allowable gradient is 0.5%.

Minimum Gradients
The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent. However, flat and level gradients on
uncurbed paved highways are acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation above
the surrounding ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed highways or streets,
longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
Critical length of gradient
Critical length may be defined at the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at
which it has lost a certain amount of speed.
Critical length of gradient is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon
which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
Critical length of gradient is, to some extent, dependent on the gradient of the approach; a
downhill approach will allow vehicles to gain momentum and increase the critical length.

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In general, the critical length of gradient decreases as gradient increases. This is shown in Table 4-
21 below. Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked
roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe passing distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for
heavy vehicles.

Climbing Lanes
A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient. A climbing lane
is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of reducing congestion in
the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream. It also enhances
road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane. The requirements for climbing
lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed and traffic volume.

Benefits from the provision of a climbing lane accrue because faster vehicles are able to overtake
more easily, resulting in shorter average journey times, reduced vehicle-operating costs, and
increased safety. Benefits will increase with increases in gradient, length of gradient, traffic flow,
the proportion of trucks, and reductions in overtaking opportunities. The effect of a climbing lane
in breaking up queues of vehicles held up by a slow moving truck will continue for some distance
along the road.

Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are greater than 400
ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link roads. Table
4-21 is prepared according to the criteria that a 20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck. It
is used in the design to indicate locations where climbing lanes are recommended.

Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on level or downhill
sections where speed differences between different classes of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and
efficient merging maneuvers.

Table 3-6: Climbing Lanes

Maximum
Critical Length of Gradient above
Gradient Desirable
Design Class which a Climbing Lane is
(%) Length of
required (m)
Gradient (m)
DS2 &3 4 300 900
DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500
DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400
DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400

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 Vertical Curves

In highway design, most vertical curves are equal-tangent curves. This means that the horizontal
distance from the center of the curve to the end of the curve is identical in both directions.

In highway design, the grades of the disjointed segments of roadway are normally known before
any vertical curve calculations are initiated. In addition, the design speed of the roadway and the
sight distance are also well established. The first step in the design of a vertical curve is the
calculation of the curve length, which is the length of the curve as it would appear when projected
on the x-axis.

 Factors to be considered in selecting length of the curve include:

 Sight distance
 Riding comfort which depends on rate of radial acceleration
 Economy of earth work
Vertical curves are characterized by the length L and algebraic difference A of corresponding
grades g1 and g2
PVI A

y M PVT

PVC x L/2 L/2

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2
d y
Mathematically, rate of change of slope of parabolas is a constant; i.e = r. Integrating we
dx 2
dy dy dy
get, = rx + c1. Where x = 0, = g1, c1 = g1. Where x = L, = g2;
dx dx dx

g 2  g1
g2 = rL + c1. Putting c1 = g1, g2 = rL + g1, r = .
L

dy g  g1 g  g1 x 2
= 2 x + g1. Integrating again, y = 2 + g1x + c2. At x = 0, c2 = y =
dx L L 2
g 2  g1 x
2
elevation of PVC. y= + g1x + Elevation of PVC.
L 2

 The vertical offsets from a tangent to the vertical curve vary as the square of the distance,
g 2  g1 x 2 Ax 2
offset e = , taking g2 – g1 = A, e = because slope is defined in
L 2 2 L *100
AL e E
percent. Where x = L/2, e = E; E = , and 2 = is constant for the whole
800 x L / 22
Ax 2
curve. Offset at any distance x, is given by e= where A = g2 – g1
200L

 Length of crest vertical curves

Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined sections of roadway, forming a crest, and
they are relatively easy to design. The stopping sight distance is usually the controlling sight
distance in determining the length of crest curves, but even the passing sight distance could be
used if desired. The passing sight distance is rarely ever used as the design sight distance, because
it demands long, gentle curvatures that are expensive and difficult to construct. The sight distance
and the length of the curve can be related to each other in one of two ways. Sight distance S and
length L are considered to be horizontal projections of the lines of sight and the length of curve
respectively. The first possibility is that the sight distance is less than the length of the
curve. Alternatively, the length of the curve could be less than the sight distance.

Case I. S > L

Case II. S < L

Where:
L = Length of the crest vertical curve (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft)
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A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent)
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (ft.)
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway (ft.)

The heights in the calculations above should be those that correspond to the sight distance of
interest. For the stopping sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft. and h2 = 0.5 ft. For the passing sight
distance, h1 = 3.5 ft. and h2 = 4.25 ft.

While the sight distance has been portrayed as the only parameter that affects the design of vertical
curves, this isn't entirely true. Vertical curves should also be comfortable for the driver,
aesthetically pleasing, safe, and capable of facilitating proper drainage. In the special case of crest
vertical curves, it just so happens that a curve designed with adequate sight distances in mind is
usually aesthetically pleasing and comfortable for the driver. In addition, drainage is rarely a
special concern for crest vertical curves.

Sight distance possibilities

 Sag Vertical Curves

Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades, forming a bowl or sag. Designing
them is very similar to the design of crest vertical curves. Once again, the sight distance is the
parameter that is normally employed to find the length of the curve. When designing a sag vertical
curve, however, the engineer must pay special attention to the comfort of the drivers.

The length of sag vertical curves, which is the only parameter that we need for design, is
determined by considering sight distance, driver comfort, drainage, and aesthetics. Once again,
the aesthetics and driver comfort concerns are normally automatically resolved when the curve is
designed with adequate sight distance in mind. Driver comfort, for example, requires a curve
length that is approximately 50% of the curve length required for the sight distance. Drainage may
be a problem if the curve is quite long and flat, or if the sag is within a cut. For more information
on these secondary concerns, see your local design manuals.

The theory behind the sight distance calculations for sag vertical curves is only slightly different
from that for crest vertical curves. Sag vertical curves normally present drivers with a
commanding view of the roadway during the daylight hours, but unfortunately, they truncate the
forward spread of the driver's headlights at night. Because the sight distance is restricted after

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dark, the headlight beams are the focus of the sight distance calculations. For sight distance
calculations, a 1° upward divergence of the beam is normally assumed.

In addition, the headlights of the vehicle are assumed to reside 2 ft above the roadway surface. As
with crest vertical curves, these assumptions lead to two possible configurations, one in which the
sight distance is greater than the curve length, and one in which the opposite is true. The figure
below illustrates these possibilities.

As with crest vertical curves, each possibility has a different design equation. All that you need to
do, therefore, is make sure that the results from the equation that you use are consistent with that
equation's assumptions. For example, if you employ the equation that assumes the sight distance is
greater than the curve length, you should make sure that the resulting curve length is less than the
sight distance. The equations for each possibility are given below.

Case I. S > L

Case II. S < L

Where:
L = Curve length (ft.)
S = Sight distance (ft.) (normally the stopping sight distance)
B = Beam upward divergence (°) (normally assumed as 1°)
H = Height of the headlights (ft.) (normally assumed as 2 ft.)
A = Change in grade (|G2-G1| as a percent)

 Riding comfort: - The effect of comfort of driving in vertical direction is more pronounced in
sag curves than on crest vertical curves. The effect is not measured readily but a general
conclusion is that riding is comfortable on sag curves when radial acceleration does not exceed
0.3m/sec2.

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2
V
Let radial acceleration be a, a = . Since the parabola practically concide with a circle of
R
radius R, L = ΔR, where Δ is in radians. Expressing Δ in percentage of the difference in the
A V 2A
downward and upward grades, Δ = , combining all the above equations L = .
100 100a

If a = 0.3m/sec2, then L = ( V2A)/30

 Sight Distance at underpass Structures

When sag curves occur at an under pass, the overhead structure may shorten the sight
distance. Therefore, the minimum length of vertical curve which will provide a specified
sight distance for under pass structures should also be considered.

Case I. S > L overhead structure

H1 C H2

y
E

L/2 L/2

S E Y Y H  H2 AL
From similarity of triangles; = =½+ ;Y=C- 1 ,E=
L 2E 2E 2 800

800   H1  H 2 
Therefore, L = 2S - d     , where H1 is the height of drivers eye above road; H2
A   2  
is object height (usually taken as the tail light height = 0.45m).

Case II: S < L

AS 2 
 H H  
1

The formula is; L = d   1 2

 
800   2  
 

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Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

 ALIGNMENT DEFECTS DUE TO MIS-PHASING

Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so that the line of
the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of hazards and visual defects.
It is particularly important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be able to
anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe stopping distance.
It becomes more important with small radius curves than with large.

Defects may arise if an alignment is mis-phased. Defects may be purely visual and do no more
than present the driver with an aesthetically displeasing impression of the road. Such defects often
occur on sag curves. When these defects are severe, they may create a psychological obstacle and
cause some drivers to reduce speed unnecessarily. In other cases, the defects may endanger the
safety of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead. A sharp bend hidden by a crest curve is
an example of this kind of defect.
Types of Mis-Phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action
When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they are coincident, no
phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required. Where defects occur, phasing may
be achieved either by separating the curves or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and end at a common station. In some cases,
depending on the curvature, it is sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a common
station.

Cases of mis-phasing fall into several types. These are described below together with the
necessary corrective action for each type.

 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS ONE END OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If a vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve, a driver’s
perception of the change of direction at the start of the horizontal curve may be delayed because
his sight distance is reduced by the vertical curve. This defect is hazardous. The position of the
crest is important because the vehicles tend to increase speed on the down gradient following the
highest point of the crest curve, and the danger due to an unexpected change of direction is
consequently greater. If a vertical sag curve overlaps a horizontal curve, an apparent kink may be
produced, as indicated in Figures 4:23b and c.

The defect may be corrected in both cases by completely separating the curves. If this is
uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at both ends, if the horizontal
curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident at only one end, if the horizontal curve is of
longer radius.

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 INSUFFICIENT SEPARATION BETWEEN THE CURVES

If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and vertical curves, a false
reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line at the beginning of the horizontal curve. This is
a visual defect, illustrated in Figure 4-23d. Corrective action consists of increasing the separation
between the curves, or making the curves concurrent, as in Figure 4-23a.

 BOTH ENDS OF THE VERTICAL CURVE LIE ON THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the length of the crest curve. If the vertical curve is
a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may appear to increase. An example of such a
visual defect is shown in Figure 4-23e. The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves
coincident as in Figure 4-23a, or to separate them.

 VERTICAL CURVE OVERLAPS BOTH ENDS OF THE HORIZONTAL CURVE

If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may be created
because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical
curve while sight distance is reduced.

The corrective action is to make both ends of the curves coincident. If the horizontal curve is less
sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the
change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will then occur on a downgrade (for
traffic in one direction) where vehicles may be increasing speed.

The corrective action is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on to the
horizontal curve. No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is combined with a
gentle horizontal curve. If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on
the “hand” of the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment. The corrective action is to
make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate them.

 OTHER MIS-PHASING

Other types of mis-phasing are also indicated in Figure 4-23:

A sag curve occurs between two horizontal curves in the same direction in Figure 4-23g. This
illustrates the need to avoid broken back curves in design. A double sag curve occurs at one
horizontal curve in Figure 4-23h. This illustrates the effect in this case of a broken back vertical
alignment on design. Figure 4-23i shows a lack of phasing of horizontal and vertical curves. In
this case, the vertical alignment has been allowed to be more curvilinear than the horizontal
alignment.

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THE ECONOMIC PENALTY DUE TO PHASING
The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to the ground so that the
designer is prevented from obtaining the lowest cost design. Therefore, phasing is usually bought
at the cost of extra earthworks and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic.
He will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of safety. In cases when the
advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer will have to balance the costs of trail
alignments against their elegance.

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Figure 3-23: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves

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Cross sectional Elements of Urban Highways

 INTRODUCTION
A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features,
and earthwork profiles. These terms are defined in the Definition portion of the manual text; major
elements are repeated here for clarity:

 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including traffic
lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and
passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.

 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas

 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes

For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may also
provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include medians. The
elements of a roadway Cross Sections are illustrated below.

Fig3-24 elements of roadway cross-section

Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain. The cross-section may vary over a particular route because these controlling factors vary.
The basic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform
within each sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross-section shall be effected
gradually and logically over a transition length. Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-section
standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction
operations.In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept isolated reductions in cross-
section standards, for example when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is
not economically feasible to replace it. In such cases a proper application of traffic signs and road
markings is required to warn motorists of the discontinuity in the road. However, all such narrow
structures must be widened or replaced however when the width across the structure is less than
the adjacent carriageway width.

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Figure 3-25: Two Lane Town Section

Figure 3-26: Four Lane Town Section

 LANE WIDTHS
A feature of a highway having great influence on safety and comfort is the width of the
carriageway. Lane widths of 3.65m are used for Design Classes DS1 and DS2. The extra cost of

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3.65 m above that for 3.0 m is offset to some extent by a reduction in cost of shoulder maintenance
and a reduction in surface maintenance due to lessened wheel concentrations at the pavement
edges. The wider 3.65m lane also provides desired clearances between large commercial vehicles
on two-way rural highways. Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume roads. Standards for
carriageway widths are shown in Table 4-22 for all Road Design Standards.

 SHOULDERS

A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation of
stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians;
emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses.
Shoulder widths vs. design standards, terrain type, and urban/rural environment are presented in
Table 4-2. They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-
3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the terrain and design
classification.

Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single bituminous
surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance
problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved space for vehicular
parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for vehicles experiencing
emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic observed in the
villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use the roadway. All of
the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety.

The sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban areas where a provision
for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a parking lane is
required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.

For Design Standard DS3 roads, the engineer often needs to be observant and use his discretion in
defining the width of the shoulder. On market days, the urban center can cause a high volume of
pedestrian traffic commencing a significant distance outside of the center, indicating a need to
consider the higher limit over this distance. The actual shoulder width provided shall be
determined from an assessment of the total traffic flow and level of non-motorized traffic for each
road section.

In cases where terrain is severe, the existing roadway width is narrow, and where the shoulder
width could only be maintained through an excessive volume of earthwork – e.g. at escarpment
conditions, standards can be reduced through the Departure from Standard process.

 NORMAL CROSS FALL

Normal crossfall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies
with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of crossfall

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should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively,
with a maximum value above which erosion of material starts to become a problem.

The normal crossfall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads.
Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal crossfall.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the crossfall of the
roadway. The precise choice of normal crossfall on unpaved roads will vary with construction type
and material rather than any geometric design requirement. In most circumstances, crossfalls of 4
percent should be used, although the value will change throughout the maintenance cycle. The
recommended applications of normal crossfall are given ERA design manual 2002

 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES

Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Three regions of the roadside are important
when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of
the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope, forming a ditch).

Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard potential.

(1) HINGE POINT

CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE

(4) DITCH BOTTOM

SHOULDER

(3) TOE OF SLOPE

Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.

Figure 3-27: Designation of Roadside Regions (Source: AASHTO)

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as recoverable, non-
recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter.
Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them
enough to return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles such as culvert head walls should not
extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.

A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most motorists
will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles on such slopes
typically can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall
into this category.

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A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally
fall into this category. The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety
considerations, height of cut or fill, and economic considerations.

Table 3-23 indicates the side slope ratios recommended for use in the design according to the
height of fill and cut, and the material.
Table 4.7: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal

Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description

Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
*Move ditch away from fill as shown in Figure46-22

However, this table should be used as a guide only, particularly as concerns applicable standards
in rock cuts, where a controlling influence is cost. Note also that certain soils that may be present
at sub grade may be unstable at 1:2 side slopes, and for these soils a higher standard will need to
be applied. Slope configuration and treatments in areas with identified slope stability problems
should be addressed as a final design issue.

 ROADSIDE DITCHES
For detailed design of roadside ditches, refer to Highway Engineering II. However, a summary of
minimum ditch dimensions is given as follows.

Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m
elsewhere, using a “v-ditch” configuration. The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally be no less than 1:2; however, these slopes should conform to the slopes given in Table
4-23.

Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such as black cotton soils. Where
this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the
embankment, dependent on functional classification (6m for trunk roads), as shown in Figure 4-
28.

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The ditch in this instance should have a trapezoidal, flat-bottom configuration.

Figure 3-28: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils

 CLEAR ZONE
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an encroachment
depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable
slopes will minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas is options in the development of safer roadsides.
If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded,
for whatever reason, consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is readily visible
to a motorist.

For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery area that is as
wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width should be a minimum of 15
meters each side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road standards.

For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as practical. It should extend beyond the
toe of the slope. Lateral clearances between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the
carriageway should normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe culverts, box culverts
and bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if this clearance is not met,
the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert installations, and extensions to same,
must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the edge of the shoulder.

Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m from the edge
of the carriageway.

 RIGHT-OF-WAY
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided in order to accommodate road width and to enhance
the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The width of right-of-way depends on the cross
section elements of the highway, topography and other physical controls together with economic
considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to accommodate all

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elements of the cross section and appropriate border areas, right-of-way widths should be limited
to a practical minimum in both rural and developed areas affecting the economy of the inhabitants.

Right of ways will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right of the
carriageway. It should always be determined and shown on the final design plans of road projects.

Road reserve widths applicable for the different road classes are given in Tables 4-3 through 4-12.
Additional areas required for outlets etc., should be provided in a manner that will not endanger
the future integrity of the drainage facility and will provide adjoining land owners restricted use of
this land after completion of the road.

Reduced widths should be adopted only when these are found necessary for economic, financial or
environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or
when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs because of physical
constraints. In such cases, it is recommended that the right-of-way should extend a minimum of a
nominal 3 meters from the edges of the road works. However, where this occurs, it is advisable to
restrict building activity along the road to prevent overcrowding, to preserve space for future
improvements, and to provide for sight distances at curves. The distance across the carriageway
from building line to building line should be a minimum of 15m.

For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above the given
values.

 FOUR-LANE AND DIVIDED ROADS

Depending on the traffic volumes, there is a need to increase the roadway to a four-lane facility
when a certain volume is reached. It is also the case that some of our cities and villages have
included a four-lane roadway as a feature in their master plans.

Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient to justify
their use. They are also frequently used in urban/peri-urban areas.

A minimum median width of 5.0 meters is required to allow the provision of left-turning lanes
outside of the adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning passenger vehicle from the
minor road protrude into the through lanes. Geometric Standards for four lane roads are given in
Tables 4-1, 4-2, and 4-3.

 SINGLE LANE ROADS

For low traffic volume roads (<100ADT), single lane operation is adequate as there will be only a
small probability of vehicles meeting, and the few passing maneuvers can be undertaken at very
reduced speeds using either the shoulder (DS6 and DS7) or passing bays (DS8 to DS10). Provided
sight distances are adequate for safe stopping, these maneuvers can be performed without hazard,
and the overall loss in efficiency brought about by the reduced speeds will be small, as only a few
such maneuvers will be involved.

Lecture Note: - Highway Geometric Design Page 45

Faculty of Civil Engineering AMIT
The lowest design standards (DS8, DS9 and DS10) will not allow passing and overtaking to occur
on the carriageway and passing bays must be provided. The increased width at passing bays
should be such as to allow two design vehicles to pass, i.e. a minimum of 5.0 meters width, and
vehicles would be expected to stop or slow to a very slow speed.

Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the terrain and
geometric conditions. However, adjacent passing bays must be inter-visible. Account should be
taken of sight distances, the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing bays and the potential
difficulty of reversing. In general, passing bays should be constructed as the most economic
locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions, such as transitions from cuttings to
embankment, rather than at precise intervals. The length of individual passing bays will vary with
local conditions and the type of design vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 meters including
tapers will cater for most commercial vehicles.

Lecture Note: - Highway Geometric Design Page 46