INDEX

1) INTRODUCTION

2) PRINCIPLES

3) CONSTRUCTION

4) AIM
5) THEORY

6) APPARATUS REQUIRED

7) PROCEDURE

8) USES

9) CONCLUSION

10) PRECAUTIONS

11) SOURCES OF ERROR

12) APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION:
A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A
varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the
same core. Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils
without a metallic (conductive) connection between the two circuits.
Faraday's law of induction, discovered in 1831, describes the induced
voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux encircled by
the coil.
Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers
being termed step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage
level, respectively. Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic
isolation between circuits as well as to couple stages of signal-
processing circuits. Since the invention of the first constant-potential
transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the
transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric
power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic
and electric power applications. Transformers range in size
from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume, to units
weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power grid.
PRINCIPLES:

An ideal transformer is linear, lossless and perfectly coupled. Perfect

coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and
winding inductance and zero net magnetomotive force (i.e. ipnp − isns
= 0).
electromagnetic induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action
and, in accordance with Lenz's law, the secondary current so produced
creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced by the primary
winding.
The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high magnetic
permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to
the primary winding and a load connected to the secondary winding, the
transformer currents flow in the indicated directions and the core
magnetomotive force cancels to zero.
According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal
transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding proportional to its
number of windings. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to
the winding turns ratio.
An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a typical
commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both
being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio.
The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to the turns
ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance.
REAL TRANSFORMER:

DEVIATION FROM IDEAL TRANSFORMER:

The ideal transformer model neglects many basic linear aspects of real
transformers, including unavoidable losses and inefficiencies.
(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consisting
of

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the transformer

core, and
 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are
proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer have
non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings

 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one
winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive
impedance.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-resonance
phenomenon due to the electric field distribution. Three kinds of
parasitic capacitance are usually considered and the closed-loop
equations are provided

 Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

 Capacitance between adjacent layers;
 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to the core;
Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is complicated, and is
rarely attempted; the ‘real’ transformer model's equivalent circuit shown
below does not include parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance
effect can be measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the
inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is open, to a
short-circuit inductance when the secondary winding is shorted.
LEAKAGE FLUX:

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the
primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In
practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.
Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in
series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux
results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the
magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a
power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the
secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage,
particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally
designed to have very low leakage inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic
paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be
introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it
will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit
negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor
lamps and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become
periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially
audio- frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component
flowing in the windings. A saturable reactor exploits saturation of the
core to control alternating current.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are
operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance and
associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two
transformers were the same, the transformers would share the load power
in proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance
tolerances of commercial transformers are significant.
Also, the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers
tends to vary.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may
be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an
ideal transformer.
Winding joule losses and leakage reactance are represented by the
following series loop impedances of the model:

 Primary winding: RP, XP

 Secondary winding: RS, XS.
In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in
practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these
impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.
Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg
impedances of the model:

 Core or iron losses: RC

 Magnetizing reactance: XM.

RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects
in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for
operation at a given frequency.
The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to
maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with
the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to
saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit
shown are by definition linear and such non- linearity effects are not
typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.
With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced EMF by 90°. With
open- circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I0
equals transformer no- load current.

The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent

circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of
approximations. Analysis may be simplified by assuming that
magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the
branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error

but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances

and reactance by simple summation as two series impedances.
Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio
parameters can be derived from the following tests: open-circuit test,
short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.
POLARITY:
A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams,
nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of
transformer windings.
Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary
winding's ‘dot’ end induces positive polarity voltage exiting the
secondary winding's ‘dot’ end. Three-phase transformers used in
electric power systems will have a nameplate that indicate the phase
relationships between their terminals. This may be in the form of a
phasor diagram, or using an alpha-numeric code to show the type of
internal connection (wye or delta) for each winding.

EFFECT OF FREQUENCY:

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux increases with frequency. By

operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more
compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without
reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin
effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and military equipment
employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding
weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification
systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility
frequencies (50–60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the
limitations of early electric traction motors. Consequently, the
transformers used to step-down the overhead line voltages were much
larger and heavier for the same power high rating than those required for
the higher frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher
frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a
lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a
large transformer at other than its design frequency may require
assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation
is practical. Transformers may require protective
relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated
frequency.
One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit
and high- speed train service operating across regions with different
electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction transformers
have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging
from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV).
At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops
dramatically: a physically small transformer can handle power levels
that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency. The
development of switching power semiconductor devices made switch-
mode power supplies viable, to generate a high frequency, then change
the voltage level with a small transformer.
Transformers for higher frequency applications such as SMPS typically
use core materials with much lower hysteresis and eddy-current losses
than those for 50/60 Hz. Primary examples are iron-powder and ferrite
cores. The lower frequency- dependant losses of these cores often is at the
expense of flux density at saturation. For instance, ferrite saturation
occurs at a substantially lower flux density than laminated iron.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due
to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as
caused in switching or by lightning.

ENERGY LOSS:
Transformer energy losses are dominated by winding and core losses.
Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer
capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between
about 98 and 99 percent.
As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to tabulate no-
load loss, full-load loss, half-load loss, and so on. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate at no load,
while winding loss increases as
load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle
transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing
energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-
quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker
wire, increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a
trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.
Transformer losses arise from:
Winding joule losses:
Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating due
to the resistance of the wire. As frequency increases, skin effect and
proximity effect causes the winding's resistance and, hence, losses to
increase.

Eddy current losses:

Eddy currents are induced in the conductive metal transformer core by
the changing magnetic field, and this current flowing through the
resistance of the iron dissipates energy as heat in the core. The eddy
current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and
inverse square of the material thickness. Eddy current losses can be
reduced by making the core of a stack of laminations (thin plates)
electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all
transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum:

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to
physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic
field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which
produces an audible noise known as mains hum or "transformer hum".
This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers
supplied
at power frequencies and in high-frequency flyback transformers
associated with television CRTs.
Stray losses:
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to
its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle.
However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials
such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents
and be converted to heat.

Radiative:
There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but
these are usually small.

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission:

In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes
fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This
energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus
amplifying audible transformer hum.
CONSTRUCTION:
CORES:
Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'.
When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form.
Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for
distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking
the core around winding coils.Core form design tends to, as a general
rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form
design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end
of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to,
nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings,
shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.Shell form design
tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and higher MVA
applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell
form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-
weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher
immunity to transit damage.
LIMITEDE STEEL CORES:

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores

made of high permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability
many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce
the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely
couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that
cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current
losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of
bundles of insulated iron wires. Later designs constructed the core by
stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in
use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-
conducting layer of insulation. The transformer universal EMF equation
can be used to calculate the core cross-sectional area for a preferred
level of magnetic flux.
The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical
paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner
laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to
construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high-frequency
transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate
up to 10 kHz.

Laminating the core greatly reduces eddy-current losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks
of E- shaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its
name of E-I transformer. Such a design tends to exhibit more losses,
but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is
made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then
bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes,
and the core assembled by binding the two C halvestogether with a steel
strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel
to the metal grains, reducing reluctance.

A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will
cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is
reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform.
Overcurrent protection devices such
as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.

On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines,

induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms
can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection
devices.

Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores

made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-
crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is
offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.
SOLID CORES:

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power

supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of
kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high
bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF
band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called
ferrites are common.Some radio-frequency transformers also have
movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the
coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

TORODAL CORES:

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which,

depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon
steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite. A strip
construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency byreducing the core's reluctance.
The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of
an E-I core. The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular,
but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available.
The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to
cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire
needed and provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field
from generating electromagnetic interference.
Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I
types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I
types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less
mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower
exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making
them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and
greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and
limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because
of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers
also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I
types.
Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a
few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses,
physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of
toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding.
This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding
through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As
a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are
uncommon. Relatively few toroids are offered with power ratings above
10 kVA, and practically none above 25 kVA. Small distribution
transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by
splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing
primary and secondary windings.

AIR CORES:

A transformer can be produced by placing the windings near each other,

an arrangement termed an "air-core" transformer. An air-core
transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material. The
magnetizing inductance is drastically reduced by the lack of a magnetic
core, resulting in large magnetizing currents and losses if used at low
frequencies. Air-core transformers are unsuitable
for use in power distribution, but are frequently employed in radio-
frequency applications.Air cores are also used for resonant transformers
such as Tesla coils, where they can achieve reasonably low loss despite
the low magnetizing inductance.
WINDING:
The electrical conductor used for the windings depends upon the
application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically
insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout
every turn. For small transformers, in which currents are low and the
potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often
wound from enamelled magnet wire. Larger power transformers may be
wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-
impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard.
High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of
kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the
skin-effect and proximity effect losses. Large power transformers use
multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power
frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in
high-current windings. Each strand is individually insulated, and the
strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or
throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative
positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the
current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy
current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more
flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.
The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and
stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split
into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the
other winding.
Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on
the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage
adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or
automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load
tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on
equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage
regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for
the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to
allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped
transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier
in a push-pull circuit.
Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

INSULATION:

Insulation must be provided between the individual turns of the windings,

between the windings, between windings and core, and at the terminals of
the winding.
Inter-turn insulation of small transformers may be a layer of insulating
varnish on the wire. Layer of paper or polymer films may be inserted
between layers of windings, and between primary and secondary
windings. A transformer may be coated or dipped in a polymer resin to
improve the strength of windings and protect them from moisture or
corrosion. The resin may be impregnated into the winding insulation
using combinations of vacuum and pressure during the coating process,
eliminating all air voids in the winding. In the limit, the entire coil may
be placed in a mold, and resin cast around it as a solid block,
encapsulating the windings.
Large oil-filled power transformers use windings wrapped with
insulating paper, which is impregnated with oil during assembly of the
transformer. Oil-filled transformers use highly refined mineral oil to
insulate and cool the windings and core. Construction of oil-filled
transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be
thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced.
Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, by
circulating externally heated transformer oil, or by vapor-phase drying
(VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on
the coil and core. For small transformers, resistance heating by injection
of current into the windings is used.
BUSHING:
Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings
made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex
structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient
without letting the transformer leak oil.
 AIM OF THEPROJECT

•To investigate the relation between the ratio of-

•Input and output voltage.

•Number of turnings in the secondary coil and

primary coil of a self made transformer.

THEORY

When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil, an

alternating current starts falling in it. The altering current in the
primary produces a changing magnetic flux, which induces
altering voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary. In a
good- transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with
primary is also linked with the secondary, and then the induced
e.m.f. induced in each turn of the secondary is equal to that
induced in each turn of the primary. Thus if Ep and Es be the
instantaneous values of the e.m.f.'s induced in the primary and
the secondary and Np and Ns are the no. of turns of the
primary secondary coils of the transformer and
dq / dt = rate of change of flux in
each turnoff the coll at this instant, we have
Ep = -Np drj1/dt (1)

and
Es= -Ns d</J/dt (2)
Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing 2
by 1, we get
EsI Ep = - NsI Np (3)

As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the

primary coil pl, so the instantaneous current in primary coil is

due to the difference (E - Ep) in the instantaneous values of the

applied and back
e.m.f. further if Rp is the resistance o, plp2 coil, thenthe
instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by
Ip= E-Ep/Rp E-Ep = Ip Rp

Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f

Hence equation 3 can be written as

Es/Ep =Es/E
= output e.m.f Iinput e.m.f
=Ns/Np=K
Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.
 APPARATUS REQUIRED

COPPERWIRE

AMMETER VOLTMETER
PROCEDURE FOllOWED

•Take thick iron rod and cover it with a thick paper and wind a
large number of turns of thin Cu wire on thick paper (say 60).
This constitutes primary coil of the transformer.
•Cover the primary coil with a sheet of paper and wound
relatively smaller number of turns (say 20) of thick copper wire
on it. This constitutes the secondary coil. It is a step down
transformer.
•Connect pl, p2 to A.C main and measure the input voltage
and current using A.C voltmeter and ammeter respectively.
•Similarly, measure the output voltage and current through sland s2.
•Now connect sland s2to A.C main and again measure voltage
and current through primary and secondary coil of step up
transformer.
•Repeat all steps for other self made transformers by changing
number of turns in primary and secondary coil.

USESOf TRANSFORMERS.

In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator,

computer, air conditioner, etc.
 A step down transformer is used for weldingpurposes.
  A step down transformer is used for obtaining large current.
 A step up transformer is used for the production of X-Rays and
NEON advertisement.

 Transformers are used in voltage regulators and

stabilized power supplies.

Transformers are used in the transmissions of a.c. over long distances.

Small transformers are used in Radio sets, telephones, loud

speakers and electric bells etc

CONCLUSION

•The output voltage of the transformer across the secondary

coil depends upon the ratio (Ns/Np) with respect to the input
voltage
•The output voltage of the transformer across the secondary
coil depends upon the ratio (Ns/N p) with respect to the input
voltage
•There is a loss of power between input and output coil of a
transformer.

PRECAUTIONS

•Keep safe yourself from high voltage.

•While taking the readings of current and voltage the A.C
should remain constant.
 SOURCES OF ERROR

•Values of current can be changed due to heatingeffect.

•Eddy current can change the readings.

APPLICATION:
Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of
transformer types. Although they all share the basic characteristic
transformer principles, they are customized in construction or electrical
properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions.
In electric power transmission, transformers allow transmission of
electric power at high voltages, which reduces the loss due to heating of
the wires. This allows generating plants to be located economically at a
distance from electrical consumers. All but a tiny fraction of the world's
electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time
it reaches the consumer.
In many electronic devices, a transformer is used to convert voltage
from the distribution wiring to convenient values for the circuit
requirements, either directly at the power line frequency or through a
switch mode power supply.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers
and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the
input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to
carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun
transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal
that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables
and internal circuits. Isolation transformers prevent leakage of current
into the secondary circuit and are used in medical equipment and at
construction sites. Resonant transformers are used for coupling between
stages of radio receivers, or in high-voltage Tesla coils.