Unit -2

1. Explain about the Components of a Computer Organization?

Computer:
A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user.
 Hardware are the physical components of a computer like the processor, memory
devices, monitor, keyboard etc.
 while software is the set of programs or instructions that are required by the
hardware resources to function properly.
There are a few basic components that are working-cycle of a computer i.e. the
Input- Process- Output Cycle and these are called as the functional components of a
computer.
 It needs certain input, processes that input and produces the desired output.
 The input unit takes the input, the central processing unit does the processing of data
and the output unit produces the output.
 The memory unit holds the data and instructions during the processing.
Digital Computer:
A digital computer can be defined as a programmable machine which reads the
binary data passed as instructions, processes this binary data, and displays a calculated
digital output. Therefore, Digital computers are those that work on the digital data.

Functional Components:
Input Unit :

The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the computer. These
devices take input and convert it into binary language that the computer understands.
Some of the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner etc.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) :
The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control center of the
computer.
It first fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know
what is to be done.
If required, data is fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or
performs the required computation and then either stores the output or displays on the
output device.
The CPU has three main components which are responsible for different functions –
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
 Control Unit (CU) and
 Memory registers

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) :

The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations and takes
logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Logical decisions involve comparison of two data items to see which one is
larger or smaller or equal.

Control Unit :
The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of CPU and
also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It
is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes
the fetched instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices
until the required operation is done properly by ALU and memory.
Memory Registers :
A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store
the data which is directly used by the processor.
Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register
inside the CPU has a specific function like storing data, storing an instruction, storing
address of a location in memory etc.
The user registers can be used by an assembly language programmer for storing
operands, intermediate results etc.
Accumulator (ACC) is the main register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of
an operation to be performed in the ALU.
Memory :
Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and instructions and is
called internal memory.
The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which can
store data or instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an address.
With the help of the address, the computer can read any memory location easily without
having to search the entire memory.
when a program is executed, it’s data is copied to the internal memory and is
stored in the memory till the end of the execution.
The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main memory. This memory
is also called as RAM, i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is
independent of its location in memory, therefore this memory is also called Random
Access memory (RAM).

Output Unit :
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached with the computer. It
converts the binary data coming from CPU to human understandable form. The common
output devices are monitor, printer, plotter etc.
Interconnection between Functional Components
A computer consists of input unit that takes input, a CPU that processes the input and an
output unit that produces output. All these devices communicate with each other through a
common bus. A bus is a transmission path, made of a set of conducting wires over which
data or information in the form of electric signals, is passed from one component to another
in a computer. The bus can be of three types – Address bus, Data bus and Control Bus.

Following figure shows the connection of various functional components:

The address bus carries the address location of the data or instruction. The
data bus carries data from one component to another and the control bus carries the control
signals. The system bus is the common communication path that carries signals to/from
CPU, main memory and input/output devices. The input/output devices communicate with
the system bus through the controller circuit which helps in managing various input/output
devices attached to the computer.
2. Briefly explain about INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An integrated circuit (IC) is manufactured using silicon material and mounted in a

ceramic or plastic container (known as Chip).

The basic components of an IC consist of electronic circuits for the digital gates. The
various gates are interconnected inside an IC to form the required circuit.

The following categories can broadly classify an Integrated Circuit (IC):

SSI (Small Scale Integration Devices)

These type of devices contain several independent gates in a single package. The
inputs and outputs of these gates are connected directly to the pins in the package. The
number of logic gates are usually less than 10 and are limited by the number of pins
available in the IC.

MSI (Medium Scale Integration Devices)

These type of devices has a complexity of approximately 10 to 200 gates in a single

package. The basic components include decoders, adders, and registers.

LSI (Large Scale Integration Devices)

LSI devices contain about 200 to a few thousand gates in a single package. The basic
components of an LSI device include digital systems, such as processors, memory chips,
and programmable modules.

VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration Device)

This type of devices contains thousands of gates within a single package. The most common
example of a VLSI device is a complex microcomputer chip.
The most popular among the digital logic families include:

TTL (Transistor-transistor Logic)

The TTL technology was an upgraded version of a previous technology called as DTL
(Diode-Transistor Logic).

The DTL technology used to have diodes and transistors for the basic NAND gate. TTL
came in existence when these diodes are replaced with transistors to improve the circuit
operation.

 TTL is used as a switching device in driving lamps and relays.

 TTL is used in controller application for providing 0 to 5Vs.
 TTL families are mostly used in processors of minicomputers.
 It is also used in printers and video display terminals.

ECL (Emitter-coupled Logic)

The ECL technology provides the highest-speed digital circuits in integrated form.

An ECL circuit is used in supercomputers and signal processors where high speed is
essential.
CMOS

CMOS or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor is a combination

of NMOS and PMOS transistors that operates under the applied electrical field. The
structure of CMOS was initially developed for high density and low power logic gates.

The CMOS transistors are used in various applications, such as amplifiers, switching
circuits, logic circuits, Integrated circuit chips, microprocessors, etc.

The importance of CMOS in semiconductor technology is its low power dissipation and
low operating currents. Its manufacturing requires fewer steps as compared to the Bipolar
Junction transistors.

CMOS technology is used in digital logic circuits to construct ICs, microprocessors, static
RAM, microcontrollers. This technology is also used in numerous analog circuits like
image sensors, data converters, and in highly integrated transceivers.
3.Explain about Multiplexer in detail

A multiplexer also known as a MUX is defined as a combinational circuit that

selects one of several data inputs and forwards it to the output. Multiplexers are also known
as data selectors.
A multiplexer is useful for transmitting a large amount of data over the network within a
certain amount of time and bandwidth.

 Multiplexers that are built from transistors and relays are termed as analog
multiplexers which are used in analog applications.

 Multiplexers that are built from logic gate termed as digital multiplexers which
are used in digital applications.

Working principle:
The multiplexer works like a multiple-input and single-output switch. The output
gets connected to only one of the n data inputs at a given instant of time. Therefore, the
multiplexer is ‘many into one’ and it works as the digital equivalent of an analog selector
switch.

Depending on the digital code applied at the selected inputs, one out of n data sources is
selected and transmitted to the single output Y. E is called enable input which is useful for
the cascading. It is generally an active low terminal that means it will perform the required
operation when it is low.

Block diagram:
Types of multiplexers:

Multiplexers come in multiple variations

 2 : 1 multiplexer
 4 : 1 multiplexer
 16 : 1 multiplexer
 32 : 1 multiplexer
8 to 1 Multiplexer
An 8-to-1 multiplexer is a digital multiplexer that has 8 data inputs, 3 select lines,
and one output. To implement an 8-to-1 multiplexer circuit we need 8 AND gates, an OR
gate, and a 3 NOT gate.

In 8-to-1 multiplexer, eight inputs D0, D1, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, and D7, three data select lines
that are S0, S1, and S2 as 8-inputs represent 2m = 23 data select lines. In an 8-to-1
multiplexer, the selection of a particular input line is controlled by three selection lines.
Block diagram of the 8-to-1 multiplexer.
Circuit Diagram

Truth Table
4..Explain about De-multiplexer with a neat diagram

A De-multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has only 1 input line and 2 N output lines.
Simply, the multiplexer is a single-input and multi-output combinational circuit. The
information is received from the single input lines and directed to the output line. On the
basis of the values of the selection lines, the input will be connected to one of these outputs.
De-multiplexer is opposite to the multiplexer.

Demultiplexers comes in multiple variations.

 1 : 2 demultiplexer
 1 : 4 demultiplexer
 1 : 16 demultiplexer
 1 : 32 demultiplexer

1×8 De-multiplexer

In 1 to 8 De-multiplexer, there are total of eight outputs, i.e., Y 0, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, and
Y7, 3 selection lines, i.e., S0, S1and S2 and single input, i.e., A. On the basis of the
combination of inputs which are present at the selection lines S 0, S1 and S2, the input will be
connected to one of these outputs. The block diagram and the truth table of the 1×8 de-
multiplexer are given below.

Block Diagram:
Circuit:

Truth Table:
5.Explain about Decoder and sketch out briefly 3x8 decoder

The combinational circuit that change the binary information into 2 N output lines is known

as Decoders. The binary information is passed in the form of N input lines. The output lines
define the 2N-bit code for the binary information. In simple words, the Decoder performs the

reverse operation of the Encoder. At a time, only one input line is activated for simplicity. The

produced 2N-bit output code is equivalent to the binary information.

3 to 8 line decoder:

The 3 to 8 line decoder is also known as Binary to Octal Decoder. In a 3 to 8 line decoder, there

is a total of eight outputs, i.e., Y0, Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y6, and Y7 and three outputs, i.e., A0, A1, and A2.

This circuit has an enable input 'E'. Just like 2 to 4 line decoder, when enable 'E' is set to 1, one of
these four outputs will be 1. The block diagram and the truth table of the 3 to 8 line encoder are
given below.

Block Diagram:
Truth Table:
6.Explain about Encoder and also explain about octal to binary encoder with a neat
sketch
An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the reverse operation of Decoder.It
has maximum of 2^n input lines and ‘n’ output lines, hence it encodes the information from 2^n
inputs into an n-bit code. It will produce a binary code equivalent to the input, which is active
High. Therefore, the encoder encodes 2^n input lines with ‘n’ bits.

8 : 3 Encoder (Octal to Binary) :

The 8 to 3 Encoder or octal to Binary encoder consists of 8 inputs : Y7 to Y0 and 3 outputs :

A2, A1 & A0. Each input line corresponds to each octal digit and three outputs generate
corresponding binary code.
The figure below shows the logic symbol of octal to binary encoder:
Truth table :

7.Explain about Decimal to BCD Encoder :

The decimal to binary encoder usually consists of 10 input lines and 4 output lines. Each
input line corresponds to the each decimal digit and 4 outputs correspond to the BCD code. This
encoder accepts the decoded decimal data as an input and encodes it to the BCD output which is
available on the output lines. The figure below shows the logic symbol of decimal to BCD encoder
:
Circuit diagram:

Truth table :
8. Explain briefly about Registers and its types?

A Register is a memory used to accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU.

It is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of information.

A register with flip-flops is capable of storing binary information.

The flip-flops contain the binary information whereas the gates control the flow of
information..

Operation Performed by Registers

Fetch:

The fetch operation is utilized for taking the directions by the client. The
instructions that are stored away into the main memory for later processing are fetched by
registers.

Decode:

This operation is utilized for deciphering the instructions implies the instructions
are decoded the CPU will discover which operation is to be performed on the instructions.

Execute:

The CPU performs this operation. Also, results delivered by the CPU are then
stored in the memory, and after that, they are shown on the client Screen.
Types of Register

There are different kinds of registers that is used for purpose. Some of the commonly used
registers are:

 Accumulator
 Data registers
 Address registers
 Program counter
 Memory data registers
 index registers

Accumulator

An accumulator is the most often utilized register, and it is used to store information taken
from memory.

Memory address registers

Address location of memory is stored in this register to be accessed later.

Memory data registers

All the information that is supposed to be written or the information that is supposed to be
read from a certain memory address is stored here.

General-purpose register

These registers tend to store any form of temporary data that is sent to a register during any
undertaking process.

Program counter

These registers keeping the record of a program that is being executed or under execution.
These registers consist of the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched.
Instructions registers

Instruction registers hold the information about to be executed. The immediate instructions
received from the system are fetched and stored in these registers.

Once the instructions are stored in registers, the processor starts executing the set
instructions, and the Program Counter will point to the next instructions to be executed.

9.EXPLAIN ABOUT SHIFT REGISTERS

A Register is a device which is used to store such information. It is a group of flip

flops connected in series used to store multiple bits of data.
The information stored within these registers can be transferred with the help of shift
registers.
 Shift Register is a group of flip flops used to store multiple bits of data. The bits
stored in such registers can be made to move within the registers and in/out of the
registers by applying clock pulses.
 A shift register can be formed by connecting flip-flops where each flip flop stores a
single bit of data.
 The registers which will shift the bits to left are called “Shift left registers”.
 The registers which will shift the bits to right are called “Shift right registers”.
Shift registers are basically of 4 types. These are:

1. Serial In Serial Out shift register

2. Serial In parallel Out shift register
3. Parallel In Serial Out shift register
4. Parallel In parallel Out shift register
Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register (SISO)

The shift register, which allows serial input one bit after the other through a single data line
and produces a serial output is known as Serial-In Serial-Out shift register.

The circuit consists of four D flip-flops which are connected in a serial manner. All these
flip-flops are synchronous with each other since the same clock signal is applied to each flip
flop.

Serial-In Parallel-Out shift Register (SIPO)

The shift register, which allows serial input one bit after the other through a single
data line and produces a parallel output is known as Serial-In Parallel-Out shift register.

The circuit consists of four D flip-flops which are connected. The clear (CLR) signal is
connected in addition to the clock signal to all the 4 flip flops in order to RESET them.

The output of the first flip flop is connected to the input of the next flip flop and so on.
All these flip-flops are synchronous with each other since the same clock signal is applied
to each flip flop.
Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register (PISO)

A Parallel in Serial out (PISO) shift register us used to convert parallel data to serial data

The shift register, which allows parallel input data is given separately to each flip flop and
in a simultaneous manner and produces a serial output is known as Parallel-In Serial-Out
shift register.

The circuit consists of four D flip-flops which are connected as shown above fig .
The clock input is directly connected to all the flip flops but the input data is connected
individually to each flip flop.

The output of the previous flip flop and parallel data input are connected to the input and
the output is connected to the next flip flop. All these flip-flops are synchronous with each
other since the same clock signal is applied to each flip flop.

Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register (PIPO)

A Parallel in Parallel out (PIPO) shift register is used as a temporary storage device and like
SISO Shift register it acts as a delay element.

The shift register, which allows parallel input data is given separately to each flip flop and
in a simultaneous manner and also produces a parallel output is known as Parallel-In
parallel-Out shift register.
In this type of register, there are no interconnections between the individual flip-flops since
no serial shifting of the data is required. Data is given as input separately for each flip flop
and in the same way, output also collected individually from each flip flop.