PRACTICAL 1

Ques 1. What is computer network? Discuss its need, merits and

demerits.

A network set up by connecting two or more computers and other supporting

hardware devices through communication channels is called a computer
network. It enables computers to communicate with each other and to share
commands, data, etc., including the hardware and software resources.

Each computing device in a network is called a node or station. The nodes can
be routers, personal computers, and servers. Data transformation is done via the
network using rules known as protocols. The protocols are the set of rules which
every node of the network should follow for transferring information over the
wired or wireless network.

Computer networking is the branch of computer science that deals with the
ideation, architecture, creation, maintenance, and security of computer
networks. It is a combination of computer science, computer engineering, and
telecommunication.

Needs :-
 To share computer files:- Networks enable users to share files with
others. For example, in a company, one file is to be shared by multiple
branches. When we locate this file on the network system, all the
branches can use this file.
 To share computer equipment:-Laser printers and large hard-disk
drives can be expensive. Networks enable users to share such equipment
by networking microcomputers or workstations together.
 To enable unlike computer equipment to communicate:- A company
with computers of multiple uses using several operating systems,
including MS-DOS, UNIX, WINDOWS 95, and Apple DOS, cannot
share files from one computer to another unless arranged using a
Networking operating system including Network 4.1 or Windows NT 4.0.
 To improve communication speed and accuracy :- Sending messages
through networks is virtually instantaneous, and there is also less chance
of a message being lost.
 To reduce the cost of data transfer:- The cost of transfers of files using
computers associated with networks is less expensive than other
traditional means like telegrams.

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  Verify Data Transfer:- Fluctuations of costs in foreign exchange and
shares can be broadcasted promptly using the channel of computer
communications. The transmission can be increased and checked at any
occurrence of time.
 High Reliability:- All files can be recreated on a few machines, and
therefore if one of them is unavailable (because of hardware failure), the
different copies can be used.

Advantages
 Increased storage capacity: You will be able to access files and
multimedia, suchas music and images, which are stored remotely on
another computer ornetwork-attached storage.
 Higher information security: As a result of grantingauthorization to
computers, computer networks can provide a sense of security. Most of
the time, authorization is done using a user ID and password. Thus, it
ensures that someone can only log in if their information matches details
in the database.
 Easy sharing of files: The data you store on other devices can be shared
with other users and accessed remotely if they are connected.
 Faster resources sharing: You can also save money by using networked
resources like printers, scanners, copiers, etc. or by sharing software
among multiple users.
 Enhanced data reliability: There is no question that the information
contained in the central server is more reliable. It is also possible to
access similar kinds of data by using another computer if the information
on one PC happens to be lost for any reason. Thus, there are no
disruptions in the office environment, leading to a smooth operation.
 Improved communication: Customers, suppliers and the staff can easily
share information and contact one another via email, chat or calls made
over the network.
 Better collaboration: Collaboration in the business world is made easier
with the use of computers and a computer network. All these tasks can be
performed comfortably, whether it’s connecting teams, arranging social
gatherings, or acquiring personal responses.
 Higher connectivity: It allows individuals to stay connected no matter
where they are. With the advent of video calling apps and Google
documents, we can see live examples of how we can connect with our
friends and colleagues in these testing times.

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 Enhanced flexibility: Computer networks are flexible for several
reasons. They provide users with the opportunity to explore anything they
need to know.
 Reliability: Computer networking ensures information backup for
uninterrupted functioning. So, you need not worry about device and
equipment crash anymore.
Disadvantages
 Network Setup Costs: Setting up the network requires hardware like
routers, hubs and switches and cabling that can cost significantly. The
cost further varies based on the number of systems to be added to the
network.
 Issues with Independent Usage: Because everything is centralized, the
network lacks independence. As a result, individual users cannot use the
computer as they wish.
 Malware Infection: Viruses or Malware can propagate easily between
the connected computers in a network. It is quite likely that malware will
spread to the remaining computers if one of the systems gets infected.
However, this can be prevented by running regular malware scans.
 Impact on Productivity: Computer networks have many applications
and advantages, which allow simultaneous use of many services.
However, multitasking impacts productivity overall, as your employees
end up managing multiple tasks in one go.
 Expert Assistance is Required: Networks must be monitored
continuously to ensure their performance and functionality. Therefore, if
you want to maintain your computer network, you need a team of experts.
 Security of Computer Networks is a Concern: From viruses to hackers,
there are many ways in which computer networks can be disrupted.
DDoS attacks, viruses, data corruption, and internet outages are just a few
examples of disruptions you might see on a day to day basis. Regardless
of whether a network is running online or offline, it will not be 100%
secure.
 Health Issues: Since computer networks provide access to a variety of
content such as entertainment, games, and movies, this leads to an
addictive dependence on the services and overuse. The excessive amount
of screen time can cause fatigue, eye strain, and body pain as well as
make you feel lethargic.
 Poor Internet Accessibility: Despite the fact that most computers
nowadays offer free access, some countries still have connectivity issues.

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 Connectivity challenges are particularly severe in countries that are
developing. It is impossible to guarantee a truly global network until
these challenges are overcome.
 Not robust enough: In case a systems’ central linking server or bridging
device fails, or if its principal server detaches, the whole network is
affected. However, you can use a large system as a document server to
resolve this issue.
 Light Policing Usage Leads to Negativity: With uninterrupted internet
connectivity, employees often tend to waste their time in gaming or
browsing through non-work-related sites.

Ques 2. What are the various types of networking. Discuss in detail with
proper diagrams.
According to the communication requirements, multiple types of network
connections are available. The most basic type of network classification
depends on the network's geographical coverage.

LAN (Local Area Network)

Local Area Network (LAN) is designed to connect multiple network devices

and systems within a limited geographical distance. The devices are connected
using multiple protocols for properly and efficiently exchanging data and
services.

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Characteristics of LAN

1. LANs are simple to construct and maintain.

2. To link the LAN networks, a centralized database is needed.

3. A private owner owns the network.

Benefits of LAN

1. Its main advantages are the local area network's rapid, simple setup and
low cost.

2. Keeping everything stored on the server safe and secure is done through
data protection.

3. LAN model and established ethernet cabling allow a system linked to a

LAN to interact directly at a very high speed.

Advantages

1. Transmission of data and services is relatively higher than other network

connections.
2. The Network Server acts as a central unit for the whole network.

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Disadvantages
1. Need constant administration of experienced engineers for functioning.
2. Probability of leak of sensitive data by LAN administration.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network type that covers the
network connection of an entire city or connection of a small area. The area
covered by the network is connected using a wired network, like data cables.

Characteristics of MAN

1. The geographical region covered exceeds that of LAN.

2. Through this network, there is more than one computer connected.

Benefits of MAN

1. MAN offers more security than WAN and is simpler to deploy.

2. Due to MAN's lower resource requirements than WAN, MAN

deployment costs are lower than WAN. It reduces the cost of
implementation.

3. MANs may be controlled centrally, making network traffic monitoring

and control easier.

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Advantages
1. Provides Full-Duplex data transmission in the network channel for
devices.
2. The network connection area covers an entire city or some parts using the
optic cables.
Disadvantages
1. High probability of attack from hackers and cybercriminals due to large
networks.
2. The need for good quality hardware and the installation cost is very high.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to connect devices over large
distances like states or between countries. The connection is wireless in most
cases and uses radio towers for communication.

The WAN network can be made up of multiple LAN and MAN networks.

Characteristics of WAN

1. WAN covers the biggest region, comparable to a nation.

2. WANs can be networked all over the world.

3. Through phone lines or satellites, the networks are connected.

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Benefits of WAN

1. WAN has a wide geographical coverage.

2. The information connected to every device in the relevant network can be

shared through the WAN network.

Advantages
1. This network covers a high geographical area and is used for large-
distance connections.
2. They also use radio towers and connect channels for users.
Disadvantages
1. High cost to set up the network and the Support of experienced
technicians is needed to maintain the network.
2. It is difficult to prevent hacking and debug a large network.

Basis LAN MAN WAN

LAN is a network
that enables the Several computers
communication can be connected to
The WAN network
between many linked MAN in the same city
extends to a much
devices. It is in or separately. It
Meaning greater area. It can
charge of establishing encompasses a greater
link multiple
connections among region, including
countries together.
neighborhood units, minor towns and
including universities cities.
and schools.

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 LAN is a private and MAN can be either
A single company
secured network. public or private. A
Network may not own WAN. It
Hospitals, schools, lot of businesses and
Authority can be private or
offices, etc., can own telephone companies
public.
it. could own them.

The Internet speed MAN provides a

WAN provides a slow
Speed provided through modest Internet
Internet connection.
LAN is fast. connection speed.

MAN's maintenance
LAN maintenance is WAN maintenance is
Maintenance is easier compared to
very easy. very difficult.
LAN.

Congestion is more in
Congestion is less in the
Congestion It is more in MAN. WAN when compared to
LAN network.
LAN and MAN.

The bandwidth in LAN is In MAN, bandwidth is WAN bandwidth is quite

Bandwidth
very high. less. limited.

Designing It is very easy to design a It isn't easy to design a It is complicated to

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 LAN network. MAN network. design WAN.

Ques 3. Write short notes on :-

1. Data communication and its modes

2. Network devices( repeater, hub, bridges, routers)
3. Analog and digital signal
Data communication and its modes

Data communication is the process of communicating data from one location to

another using various modes or ways. The efficiency and reliability of the
communication mode chosen are critical to the success of any communication
system. Modes of data communication are categorized into three types: simplex,
half-duplex, and full-duplex. This article discusses modes of data
communication along with their advantages and disadvantages and at the end of
the article, we will also look at the differences between these modes of data
communication.

Modes of Data Communication

Modes of data communication in computer networks refer to the methods used

to communicate data between devices in a network. There are three modes of
data communication in computer networks:

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Simplex Mode
Communication in Simplex mode is unidirectional, similar to a one-way street.
On a channel, only one of the two devices can send and the other can only
receive. The simplex mode can utilize the entire channel capacity to transfer
data in only one direction.

As an example, consider the keyboard and standard monitors. The keyboard can
only provide input, whereas the monitor can only provide output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode:

1. Simplex mode is straightforward and easy to implement.

2. It requires less complex hardware than other modes of data
communication.
3. Simplex mode is ideal for applications that require one-way
communication, such as broadcasting or monitoring systems, where the
receiver does not need to send any data back to the sender.
4. It is less susceptible to errors and signal interference compared to other
modes of data communication.

Disadvantages of Simplex Mode:

1. It is not suitable for applications that require bi-directional

communication.
2. It is less efficient than other modes of data communication, as only one
device can send data at a time, leading to lower data transfer rates.
3. It is limited in range and speed.

Half-Duplex Mode

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In half-duplex mode, each station can send and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending the signal, the other can only receive it, and
vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used when communication is not required
in both directions at the same time. For either direction, the channel’s complete
capacity can be used.

Example: A walkie-talkie, in which messages are sent one at a time in both

directions.

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode:

1. Half duplex mode offers bidirectional communication, allowing devices

to send and receive data to and from each other.
2. It requires less bandwidth than full-duplex mode since only one device
can transmit at a time, making it more efficient in situations where the
number of devices is limited.
3. It is less expensive than full-duplex mode since it requires less complex
hardware.

Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode:

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 1. It is slower than full-duplex mode since devices need to take turns to send
and receive data.
2. It is susceptible to collisions when multiple devices try to transmit data
simultaneously, which can lead to data loss and increased latency.
3. It is not suitable for real-time applications that require high-speed data
transfer.

Full Duplex Mode

Full duplex mode is a type of data communication mode that allows data to be
transmitted in both directions simultaneously. In full duplex mode, devices can
send and receive data at the same time.

Full-duplex mode comes in handy when communication in both directions is

required all the time. But because of two-way communication, the capacity of
the channel must be divided equally between the two directions.

Example: A telephone network connects two people via a phone line, allowing
both to talk and listen at the same time.

Advantages of Full Duplex Mode:

1. Full duplex mode offers bidirectional communication, allowing devices

to send and receive data simultaneously.
2. It provides faster data transfer compared to half-duplex mode.
3. It is less susceptible to collisions since devices can transmit and receive
data simultaneously, reducing data loss and latency.

Disadvantages of Full Duplex Mode:

1. It requires more bandwidth than half duplex mode.

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 2. It requires more complex hardware than half duplex mode, making it
more expensive.
3. It may be more susceptible to signal interference since it requires
complex signal processing and error correction mechanisms.
Comparing Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Modes of Data
Communication

Basis
Half Full
of Simplex
Duplex Duplex
Compa Mode
Mode Mode
rison

Bi-
Bi-
Directi direction
direction
on of al, but
One-way al,
Transm not
simultan
ission simultan
eous
eous

Simulta
Not Not
neous
applicabl applicabl Possible
Transm
e e
ission

Faster
Speed Slow than Fastest
Simplex

Efficie Moderat
Low High
ncy e

Utilizat It The It either

ion of consume entire uses two
Bandwi s the bandwid simplex

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 Basis
Half Full
of Simplex
Duplex Duplex
Compa Mode
Mode Mode
rison

bandwid
th
commun
ication
th of the
channels
commun
or
entire ication
divides
bandwidt channel
the
h of the is
dth entire
communi utilized
bandwid
cation in only
th
channel. one
channel
direction
into two
at a time.
parts for
data
transmis
sion.

Commun
ication
between Telepho
Exampl a Walkie- ne
e computer talkie conversa
and a tion
keyboard
.

Network devices
1.Repeater

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A repeater is an electronic device that works at the physical layer of the OSI
model to amplify a received signal. It receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level or higher power. As a result, the signal covers longer distances,
sometimes more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables.

Repeaters are useful for anyone working in a large facility where the Wi-Fi
might be spotty in the outer reaches of the space. Large office buildings,
warehouses, laboratories and campuses are all locations that can benefit from
repeaters.

2.Hub

A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming

from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to
all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out
the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub

 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both
as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the
maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to
extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to
network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

3.Bridge

A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source
and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the
same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2
port device.

Types of Bridges

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  Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are
completely unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a
bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the
stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e.
bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is
performed by the source station and the frame specifies which route to
follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame
called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network
using all possible paths to the destination.

4.Routers

A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally
connect LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based
on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides
the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it

Analog and digital signal

An electrical or electromagnetic quantity (current, voltage, radio wave, micro
wave, etc.) that carries data or information from one system (or network) to

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another is called a signal. Two basic types of signals are used for carrying data,
viz. analog signal and digital signal.
Analog and digital signals are different from each other in many aspects. One
major difference between the two signals is that an analog signal is a
continuous function of time, whereas a digital signal is a discrete function of
time.

This article explains all the significant differences between analog and digital
signals along with a brief description of analog signal and digital signal.
Analog Signal
A signal which is a continuous function of time and used to carry the
information is known as an analog signal. An analog signal represents a
quantity analogous to another, for example, in case of an analog audio signal,
the instantaneous value of signal voltage represents the pressure of the sound
wave.
Analog signals utilize the properties of medium to convey the information. All
the natural signals are the examples of analog signals. However, the analog
signals are more susceptible to the electronic noise and distortion which can
degrade the quality of the signal.
Digital Signal
A signal that is discrete function of time, i.e. which is not a continuous signal,
is known as a digital signal. The digital signals are represented in the binary
form and consist of different values of voltage at discrete instants of time.
Basically, a digital signal represents the data and information as a sequence of
separate values at any given time. The digital signal can only take on one of a
finite number of values.
Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

Definition A signal for conveying A signal which is a discrete

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 Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

information which is a function of time, i.e. non-

continuous function of time continuous signal, is known
is known as analog signal. as digital signal.

An analog signal is typically The typical representation of

represented by a sine wave a signal is given by a square
Typical
function. There are many wave function.
representation
more representations for the
analog signals also.

Analog signals use a Digital signals use discrete

continuous range of values to values (or discontinuous
Signal values represent the data and values), i.e. discrete 0 and 1,
information. to represent the data and
information.

Signal The bandwidth of an analog The bandwidth of a digital

bandwidth signal is low. signal is relatively high.

The analog signals are more The digital signals are

suitable for transmission of suitable for computing and
Suitability audio, video and other digital electronic operations
information through the such as data storage, etc.
communication channels.

Analog signals get affected The digital signals are more

Effect of
by the electronic noise stable and less susceptible to
electronic noise
easily. noise than the analog signals.

Accuracy Due to more susceptibility to The digital signals have high

the noise, the accuracy of accuracy because they are

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 Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

analog signals is less. immune from the noise.

Analog signals use more Digital signals use less

Power power for data transmission. power than analog signals
consumption for conveying the same
amount of information.

Analog signals are processed Digital circuits are required

by analog circuits whose for processing of digital
Circuit
major components are signals whose main circuit
components
resistors, capacitors, components are transistors,
inductors, etc. logic gates, ICs, etc.

Observational The analog signals give The digital signals do not

errors observational errors. given observational errors.

The common examples of The common example of

analog signals are digital signal is the data store
Examples temperature, current, in a computer memory.
voltage, voice, pressure,
speed, etc.

The analog signals are used The digital signals are used
in land line phones, in computers, keyboards,
Applicatio thermometer, electric fan, digital watches,
ns volume knob of a radio, etc. smartphones, etc.

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Ques 4. Define network topologyalso discuss its types with the
help of proper diagrams. Also mention two merits and demerits of
each topology.
Topology is derived from two Greek words topo and logy, where topo means
'place' and logy means 'study'. In computer networks, a topology is used to
explain how a network is physically connected and the logical flow of
information in the network. A topology mainly describes how devices are
connected and interact with each other using communication links.

In computer networks, there are mainly two types of topologies, they are:
Physical Topology: A physical topology describes the way in which the
computers or nodes are connected with each other in a computer network. It is
the arrangement of various elements(link, nodes, etc.), including the device
location and code installation of a computer network. In other words, we can
say that it is the physical layout of nodes, workstations, and cables in the
network.
Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the way, data flow from one
computer to another. It is bound to a network protocol and defines how data is
moved throughout the network and which path it takes. In other words, it is the
way in which the devices communicate internally.
Network topology defines the layout, virtual shape, or structure of the network,
not only physically but also logically. A network can have one physical
topology and multiple logical topologies at the same time.
In a computer network, there are mainly six types of physical topology, they
are:
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology
Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or
channel is used for communication in the network. The bus is connected to

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various taps and droplines. Taps are the connectors, while droplines are the
cables connecting the bus with the computer. In other words, there is only a
single transmission line for all nodes.
When a sender sends a message, all other computers can hear it, but only the
receiver accepts it(verifying the mac address attached with the data frame) and
others reject it. Bus technology is mainly suited for small networks like LAN,
etc.

In this topology, the bus acts as the backbone of the network, which joins
every computer and peripherals in the network. Both ends of the shared
channel have line terminators. The data is sent only in one direction and as
soon as it reaches the end, the terminator removes the data from the
communication line(to prevent signal bounce and data flow disruption).

In a bus topology, each computer communicates to another computer on the

network independently. Every computer can share the network's total bus
capabilities. The devices share the responsibility for the flow of data from one
point to the other in the network.

For Example Ethernet cable, etc.

Advantages

1. Simple to use and install.

2. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
3. Less cabling is required.
4. Cost-efficient to implement.
Disadvantages

1. Efficiency is less when nodes are more(strength of signal decreases).

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 2. If the bus fails, the network will fail.
3. A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to limited bus
length.

Ring Topology
Ring topology is a topology in which each computer is connected to
exactly two other computers to form the ring. The message passing is
unidirectional and circular in nature.

This network topology is deterministic in nature, i.e., each computer is given

access for transmission at a fixed time interval. All the nodes are connected in
a closed-loop. This topology mainly works on a token-based system and the
token travels in a loop in one specific direction.

In a ring topology, if a token is free then the node can capture the token and
attach the data and destination address to the token, and then leaves the token
for communication. When this token reaches the destination node, the data is
removed by the receiver and the token is made free to carry the next data.

For Example, Token Ring, etc.

Advantages

1. Easy Installation.
2. Less Cabling Required.
3. Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).

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 4. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not pass the token).
5. Each node gets the same access time.

Disadvantages

1. If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

2. Slow data transmission speed(each message has to go through the ring
path).
3. Difficult to reconfigure(we have to break the ring)

Star Topology

Star topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
connected to a centralized hub. The hub or switch acts as a middleware
between the nodes. Any node requesting for service or providing service, first
contact the hub for communication.
The central device(hub or switch) has point to point communicationlink(the
dedicated link between the devices which can not be accessed by some other
computer) with the devices. The central device then broadcast or unicast the
message based on the central device used. The hub broadcasts the message,
while the switch unicasts the messages by maintaining a switch table.
Broadcasting increases unnecessary data traffic in the network.

In a star topology, hub and switch act as a server, and the other connected
devices act as clients. Only one input-output port and one cable are required to

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connect a node to the central device. This topology is better in terms of
security because the data does not pass through every node.

For Example High-Speed LAN, etc.

Advantages

1. Centralized control.
2. Less Expensive.
3. Easy to troubleshoot(the faulty node does not give response).
4. Good fault tolerance due to centralized control on nodes.
5. Easy to scale(nodes can be added or removed to the network easily).
6. If a node fails, it will not affect other nodes.
7. Easy to reconfigure and upgrade(configured using a central device).

Disadvantages

1. If the central device fails, the network will fail.

2. The number of devices in the network is limited(due to limited input-
output port in a central device).

Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a computer network topology in which nodes are
interconnected with each other. In other words, direct
communicationtakesplace between the nodes in the network.

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There are mainly two types of Mesh:

1. Full Mesh: In which each node is connected to every other node in the
network.
2. Partial Mesh: In which, some nodes are not connected to every node in
the network.
In a fully connected mesh topology, each device has a point to point link with
every other device in the network. If there are 'n' devices in the network, then
each device has exactly '(n-1)' input-output ports and communication links.
These links are simplex links, i.e., the data moves only in one direction. A
duplex link(in which data can travel in both the directions simultaneously) can
replace two simplex links.

If we are using simplex links, then the number of communication links will
be 'n(n-1)' for 'n' devices, while it is 'n(n-1)/2' if we are using duplex links in
the mesh topology.

For Example, the Internet(WAN), etc.

Advantages

1. Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

2. No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
3. Good Fault tolerance due to the dedicated path for each node.
4. Very fast communication.
5. Maintains privacy and security due to a separate channel for
communication.
6. If a node fails, other alternatives are present in the network.

Disadvantages

1. Very high cabling required.

2. Cost inefficient to implement.
3. Complex to implement and takes large space to install the network.
4. Installation and maintenance are very difficult.

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 Tree Topology
Tree topology is a computer network topology in which all the nodes are
directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Tree topology is a

combination of Bus and Star topology.

In a tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments, which can be
easily managed and maintained. There is a main hub and all the other sub-hubs
are connected to each other in this topology.

Advantages

1. Large distance network coverage.

2. Fault finding is easy by checking each hierarchy.
3. Least or no data loss.
4. A Large number of nodes can be connected directly or indirectly.
5. Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them fails.

Disadvantages

1. Cabling and hardware cost is high.

2. Complex to implement.
3. Hub cabling is also required.
4. A large network using tree topology is hard to manage.
5. It requires very high maintenance.
6. If the main bus fails, the network will fail.

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 Hybrid Topology
A Hybrid topology is a computer topology which is a combination of two
or more topologies. In practical use, they are the most widely used.

In this topology, all topologies are interconnected according to the needs to

form a hybrid. All the features of each topology can be used to make an
efficient hybrid topology.
Advantages
1. It can handle a large volume of nodes.
2. It provides flexibility to modify the network according to our needs.
3. Very Reliable(if one node fails it will not affect the whole network).
Disadvantages
1. Complex design.
2. Expensive to implement.
3. Multi-Station Access Unit(MSAL) required.
Ques 5 Describe OSI model and TCP/IP model in detail with diagram.
OSI MODEL
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

28
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
Characteristics

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is
closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with
the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another
layer.
The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical

29
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
the physical medium.
7 layers

 Physical Layer
 Data-Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

bits from one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

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 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
Data-Link Layer

 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network
layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Transport Layer
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in
the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
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 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller
units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-
point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.
Session Layer
 It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.
Presentation Layer
 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Application Layer
 An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application
layer functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
TCP/IP MODEL
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.

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 o Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by
two or more lower-level protocols.
CHARACTERISTICS
o Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture
o Adding more system to a network is easy.
o In TCP IP protocols suite, the network remains intact until the source, and
destination machines were functioning properly.
o TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
o TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence
should put back into order.
o TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a
receiver with data.
Layers
Network Access Layer
A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.
Internet Layer
An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
Transport Layer

33
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction
of data which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
Application Layer
An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot
be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the
communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models

OSI Model TCP/IP model

It is developed by ISO (International It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced

Standard Organization) Research Project Agency Network).
OSI model provides a clear distinction TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing
between interfaces, services, and points between services, interfaces, and
protocols. protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
Interconnection.
OSI uses the network layer to define
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
routing standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
OSI model use two separate layers
physical and data link to define the TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
functionality of the bottom layers.

34
 OSI Model TCP/IP model

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.
In the OSI model, the data link layer In TCP, physical and data link are both
and physical are separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.
Session and presentation layers are not There is no session and presentation layer in
a part of the TCP model. TCP model.
It is defined after the advent of the
It is defined before the advent of the internet.
Internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is
Minimum header size is 20 bytes
5 bytes.
Ques 6. What are analog and digital signals. Explain their concept
with proper diagrams and examples.
Signals
A Signal is an electromagnetic wave that is used to communicate system-to-
system by sending data from one network to another network is basically known
as “Signal”.
In a computer network there are mainly two types of signals are:
o Analog signal
o Digital Signal
Analog Signal
An Analog signal is a signal which is continuous and has a time-varying feature.
It is a representation of time-varying quantity. For example, the Human voice
can be considered an analog signal because the signal of the human voice flows
in a continuous manner.
In other words, we can say that the analog signal is represented by the
continuous variable which transmits the information/data as a response to
physical phenomenon. It is known as an “Analog Signal”
Examples of digital signals are Temperature, Pressure, Flow Measurement, etc.
Digital Signal
35
As the word suggests “Digital” which means it describes the electronic
technology that generates signals. It is a phy

Difference between Analog and Digital Signal

Basis AnalogSignal DigitalSignal

1) In an Analog, signals are 1) In a Digital, Signals are

Signal
continuous. discrete.

2) In analog systems 2) In Digital Signals, the

Transformatio electronic circuits are transformation
n used for the transformation of is done using the logic
signals. circuit.

3) Data transmission is not of 3) Data transmission has

Transmission
high quality. high quality.

4) In an Analog signal, their 4) In Digital signals, their

Flexibility
hardware is not flexible. hardware is not flexible.

5) Digital signals are

5) Analog signals are more
discrete time signals that
Noise likely to get affected and
are generated by digital
result in reduced accuracy.
modulation.

6) Digital signals use less

Power 6) Analog signals use more
power compared to
Consumptions power.
analog.

7) It is denoted by the sine 7) It is denoted by the

Waves
waves. square form.

8) Human Voice, Tape 8) Mp3 players, Digital

Example
recorder, Temperature, etc. phones, computers, etc.

36
 PRACTICAL-3
QUES 7 What is flow control in computer networks? Discuss its types with
suitable diagram.
In data communications, flow control is the process of managing the rate of
data transmission between two nodes to prevent a fast sender from
overwhelming a slow receiver. Flow control should be distinguished
from congestion control, which is used for controlling the flow of data when
congestion has actually occurred. Flow control mechanisms can be classified by
whether or not the receiving node sends feedback to the sending node.
Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to
transmit information at a faster rate than the destination computer can receive
and process it. This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy traffic
load in comparison to the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has
less processing power than the sending computer.

Types of flow control

1.Stop-and-wait
Stop-and-wait flow control is the simplest form of flow control. In this method
the message is broken into multiple frames, and the receiver indicates its
readiness to receive a frame of data. The sender waits for a receipt
acknowledgement (ACK) after every frame for a specified time (called a time
out). The receiver sends the ACK to let the sender know that the frame of data
was received correctly. The sender will then send the next frame only after the
ACK.
Operations

1. Sender: Transmits a single frame at a time.

2. Sender waits to receive ACK within time out.
3. Receiver: Transmits acknowledgement (ACK) as it receives a frame.
4. Go to step 1 when ACK is received, or time out is hit.
Pros
The only advantage of this method of flow control is its simplicity.
Cons
The sender needs to wait for the ACK after every frame it transmits. This is a
source of inefficiency, and is particularly bad when the propagation delay is
much longer than the transmission delay.

37
Stop and wait can also create inefficiencies when sending longer
transmissions.When longer transmissions are sent there is more likely chance
for error in this protocol. If the messages are short the errors are more likely to
be detected early. More inefficiency is created when single messages are broken
into separate frames because it makes the transmission longer.

2.Sliding window
A method of flow control in which a receiver gives a transmitter permission to
transmit data until a window is full. When the window is full, the transmitter
must stop transmitting until the receiver advertises a larger window.[5]
Sliding-window flow control is best utilized when the buffer size is limited and
pre-established. During a typical communication between a sender and a
receiver the receiver allocates buffer space for n frames (n is the buffer size in
frames). The sender can send and the receiver can accept n frames without
having to wait for an acknowledgement. A sequence number is assigned to
frames in order to help keep track of those frames which did receive an
acknowledgement. The receiver acknowledges a frame by sending an
acknowledgement that includes the sequence number of the next frame
expected. This acknowledgement announces that the receiver is ready to receive
n frames, beginning with the number specified. Both the sender and receiver
maintain what is called a window. The size of the window is less than or equal
to the buffer size.
Sliding window flow control has far better performance than stop-and-wait flow
control. For example, in a wireless environment if data rates are low and noise
level is very high, waiting for an acknowledgement for every packet that is
transferred is not very feasible. Therefore, transferring data as a bulk would
yield a better performance in terms of higher throughput.
Sliding window flow control is a point to point protocol assuming that no other
entity tries to communicate until the current data transfer is complete. The
window maintained by the sender indicates which frames it can send. The
sender sends all the frames in the window and waits for an acknowledgement
(as opposed to acknowledging after every frame). The sender then shifts the
window to the corresponding sequence number, thus indicating that frames
within the window starting from the current sequence number can be sent.
3.SOFTWARE FLOW CONTROL
Conversely, XON/XOFF is usually referred to as software flow control.
4.CLOSED LOOP FLOW CONTROL

38
The closed-loop flow control mechanism is characterized by the ability of the network to
report pending network congestion back to the transmitter. This information is then used by
the transmitter in various ways to adapt its activity to existing network conditions. Closed-
loop flow control is used by ABR (see traffic contract and congestion control).[1] Transmit
flow control described above is a form of closed-loop flow control.

QUES 8 What is cryptography? Discuss its various types and also explain the process of
cryptography with diagram.

Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications

through use of codes so that only those person for whom the information is
intended can understand it and process it. Thus preventing unauthorized
access to information. The prefix “crypt” means “hidden” and suffix “graphy”
means “writing”. In Cryptography the techniques which are use to protect
information are obtained from mathematical concepts and a set of rule
based calculations known as algorithms to convert messages in ways that
make it hard to decode it. These algorithms are used for cryptographic key
generation, digital signing, verification to protect data privacy, web
browsing on internet and to protect confidential transactions such as credit
card and debit card transactions.
Types of cryptography
 Secret or private key cryptography
 Public key cryptography
1. Secret or private key cryptography

Secret Key Cryptography, or symmetric cryptography, uses a single key to

encrypt data. Both encryption and decryption in symmetric cryptography use
the same key, making this the easiest form of cryptography. The cryptographic
algorithm utilizes the key in a cipher to encrypt the data, and when the data
must be accessed again, a person entrusted with the secret key can decrypt the
data. Secret Key Cryptography can be used on both in-transit and at-rest data,

39
but is commonly only used on at-rest data, as sending the secret to the recipient
of the message can lead to compromise.

Examples:

 AES
 DES
 Caesar Cipher

2. Public key Cryptography

Public Key Cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, uses two keys to encrypt data. One is
used for encryption, while the other key can decrypts the message. Unlike symmetric
cryptography, if one key is used to encrypt, that same key cannot decrypt the message,
rather the other key shall be used.

One key is kept private, and is called the “private key”, while the other is shared
publicly and can be used by anyone, hence it is known as the “public key”. The
mathematical relation of the keys is such that the private key cannot be derived
from the public key, but the public key can be derived from the private. The
private key should not be distributed and should remain with the owner only.
The public key can be given to any other entity.

Examples:

 ECC
 Diffie-Hellman
 DSS
PROCESS

40
Plaintext: You start with your regular message, which is called "plaintext." This is the information you
want to protect.

Encryption: You use a mathematical algorithm and a secret key to transform the plaintext into a
scrambled and unreadable form called "ciphertext." This step is like putting your message in a locked
box.

Transmission: You send or store the ciphertext securely, knowing that even if it's intercepted, it's
nearly impossible for anyone without the right key to understand it.

Decryption: When the intended recipient receives the ciphertext, they use the same secret key to
reverse the process. They turn the ciphertext back into the original plaintext, making it readable
again.

Ques 9 Define internet. Explain the application of internet and also discuss the merits
and demerits of internet.
The Internet is a technology that is considered to be a global system of interconnected computer networks. The
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) enables communication among devices and networks. One can connect with
anyone worldwide and access any information through the internet

Application

1. World Wide Web: A global collection of documents, applications, and other resources interlinked
through hyperlinks and referenced with URLs. The main access protocol of WWW is HTTP. Through
HTTP, communication between software systems for information transfer, sharing, and exchanging
business data is possible. Currently, Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 are the three versions of WWW.
2. Connectivity: There are several ways of communicating through the internet with anyone worldwide.
To connect with anyone worldwide, users can connect through email, social media, and video
conferencing applications.
3. Data transfer: One of the most important applications of the internet is Data transfer. You can share
unlimited data with anyone worldwide through the internet. File sharing is a way to share data across
the internet.

4. Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have

made our life easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and
Myntra are providing very spectacular services with just one click and
this is a great use of the Internet.

5. Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are

offering services to their customers to pay the bills of the products
online via various digital payment apps like Paytm, Google Pay, etc.
UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital payment
industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because of the
INTERNET.

6. Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of

educational material to everyone through any server across the web.
Those who are unable to attend physical classes can choose any
course from the internet and can have point-to-point knowledge of it

41
 just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching online on
digital platforms and providing quality education to students with the
help of the Internet.

7. Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps

is to connect people all over the world. With the help of social
networking sites, we can talk, and share videos, and images with our
loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create
groups for discussion or for meetings.

8. Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There

are numerous entertainment options available on the internet like
watching movies, playing games, listening to music, etc. You can
also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from the
internet.

9. Online Food Order

10. Grocery Store
11. Educational Online Classes
12. Online Banking or Net Banking
13. Cashless Transactions
14. Social Network
15. Hospital Registration and Bill Receipts
16. Online Train or Flight Bookings
ADVANTAGES

 Connectivity − As we know we are connected to the internet to stay connected with our
family, friends, colleagues, services, etc.
 Information − We can search and get many search results for our questions and the
information can increase knowledge.
 Online Payment − Using payment modes such as Paytm, GPay, and Bhim UPI are many
payment methods to pay online.
 Digital Marketing − We are making our websites and making business online.
 Net Banking Services − Banking services such as payment, debit, credit, changing our
details, and scheduling payment are an integral part of secure payment.
 Productive Collaboration − As we experienced, after the Covid pandemic, we have
worked from home and made things work better than ever before by connecting through
video conferencing and saving mobility.
DISADVANTAGES

42
  Wastage of time − Considering today’s lifestyle, one prominent advantage of the Internet
is addiction. People are getting addicted to the internet, watching videos and reels without
realizing they are wasting so much of their time.
 Cybercrime − It is increasing rapidly as more information is shared and getting leaked.
 Accessibility of pornographic content − It is accessible to even children since there is
complex information shared every day and it is hard to figure out the source of these
images and videos. This is a big concern regarding children and their minds, parental
security is necessary on mobile phones being used by children.
 Identity theft − It is one major concern on a bigger level such as higher organizations,
government, and private sectors.
 Increase in cyber attacks in the banking sector and corporate sector − Information is
getting leaked, shared, and misused for harm, theft, privacy violation, and harassment.
 Fake Information or Misleading − People nowadays can easily manipulate any
information and reclaim it to be true this could mislead people and their reliability
towards information shared.
QUES 10. What is a search engine? Discuss its working, process and components along
with suitable diagram.

A search engine is an online answering machine, which is used to search,

understand, and organize content's result in its database based on the search query
(keywords) inserted by the end-users (internet user). To display search results, all
search engines first find the valuable result from their database, sort them to make
an ordered list based on the search algorithm, and display in front of end-users. The
process of organizing content in the form of a list is commonly known as a Search
Engine Results Page (SERP).

Google, Yahoo!, Bing, YouTube, and DuckDuckGo are some popular examples of
search engines.

COMPONENTS

1. Web Crawler
Web Crawler is also known as a search engine bot, web robot, or web spider. It
plays an essential role in search engine optimization (SEO) strategy. It is mainly a
software component that traverses on the web, then downloads and collects all the
information over the Internet.

There are the following web crawler features that can affect the search results -

o Included Pages
o Excluded Pages

43
 o Document Types
o Frequency of Crawling

2. Database
The search engine database is a type of Non-relational database. It is the place
where all the web information is stored. It has a large number of web resources.
Some most popular search engine databases are Amazon Elastic Search
Service and Splunk.

There are the following two database variable features that can affect the search
results:

o Size of the database

o The freshness of the database

3. Search Interfaces
Search Interface is one of the most important components of Search Engine. It is an
interface between the user and the database. It basically helps users to search for
queries using the database.

There are the following features Search Interfaces that affect the search results -

o Operators
o Phrase Searching
o Truncation

4. Ranking Algorithms
The ranking algorithm is used by Google to rank web pages according to the Google
search algorithm.

There are the following ranking features that affect the search results -

o Location and frequency

o Link Analysis
o Clickthrough measurement

WORKINGS

44
There are the following tasks done by every search engines -

1. Crawling
Crawling is the first stage in which a search engine uses web crawlers to find, visit,
and download the web pages on the WWW (World Wide Web). Crawling is
performed by software robots, known as "spiders" or "crawlers." These robots are
used to review the website content.

2. Indexing
Indexing is an online library of websites, which is used to sort, store, and organize the
content that we found during the crawling. Once a page is indexed, it appears as a
result of the most valuable and most relevant query.

3. Ranking and Retrieval

The ranking is the last stage of the search engine. It is used to provide a piece of
content that will be the best answer based on the user's query. It displays the best
content at the top rank of the website.

PROCESS

There are following two major Search Engine processing functions -

1. Indexing process
Indexing is the process of building a structure that enables searching.

Indexing process contains the following three blocks -

i. Text acquisition

It is used to identify and store documents for indexing.

ii. Text transformation

It is the process of transform documents into index or features.

iii. Index creation

Index creation takes the output from text transformation and creates the indexes or
data searches that enable fast searching.

45
2. Query process
The query is the process of producing the list of documents based on a user's search
query.

There are the following three tasks of the Query process -

i. User interaction

User interaction provides an interface between the users who search the content and
the search engine.

ii. Ranking

The ranking is the core component of the search engine. It takes query data from the
user interaction and generates a ranked list of data based on the retrieval model.

iii. Evaluation

Evaluation is used to measure and monitor the effectiveness and efficiency. The
evaluation result helps us to improve the ranking of the search engine.

46
 Practical-4
QUES 11 Write short note on:-
(a)Uniform resource labour:- A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique
identifier used to locate a resource on the Internet. It is also referred to as a web
address. URLs consist of multiple parts -- including a protocol and domain
name -- that tell a web browser how and where to retrieve a resource.
End users use URLs by typing them directly into the address bar of a browser or
by clicking a hyperlink found on a webpage, bookmark list, in an email or from
another application.

(b) Dial up internet:- Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that
uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish
a connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) by dialing a telephone number
on a conventional telephone line.

(c) key design issue of a computer network:-

Reliability Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in

loss of bits while data transfer.

Scalability Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually

increasing leading to congestion.

Addressing At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred

between large numbers of computers.
Error Control Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data
streams that are communicated.
Security A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats
like eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages

(d) Domain name system:- A Domain Name System (DNS) turns domain
names into IP addresses, which allow browsers to get to websites and other
internet resources. Every device on the internet has an IP address, which other
devices can use to locate the device. Instead of memorizing a long list of IP
addresses, people can simply enter the name of the website, and the DNS gets
the IP address for them.

47
(e) firewalls:-A Firewall is a network security device that monitors and filters
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on an organization’s previously
established security policies. At its most basic, a firewall is essentially the
barrier that sits between a private internal network and the public Internet. A
firewall’s main purpose is to allow non-threatening traffic in and to keep
dangerous traffic out.
(f) world wide web:-The World Wide Web is basically a system that allows us
to access and share information through the internet. It's made up of websites,
which are like digital pages that contain text, images, videos, and other cool
stuff. You can think of it as a huge web of interconnected pages, where you can
click on links to navigate from one page to another. So when you use a web
browser, like Chrome or Safari, you're able to explore this vast network of
information and connect with people from all over the world.
(g) audio on internet:- Audio on the internet refers to any sound or music that
is transmitted or streamed over the internet. It includes things like music
streaming services, podcasts, online radio, and even voice and video calls. It's a
way to listen to or communicate with others using sound through internet-
connected devices.
(h) internet service provider:- An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a
company that provides you with access to the internet. They connect your
devices to the internet through various technologies like DSL, cable, or fiber
optic. ISPs offer different plans with varying speeds and data limits. They play a
crucial role in ensuring you have a reliable and fast internet connection.
QUES 12 Discuss the following in detail
(a)Hypertext transfer protocol:- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the
foundation of any data exchange on the web. It's an application layer protocol
that facilitates the transfer of hypertext, typically in the form of HTML
documents. HTTP operates over a client-server model, where a client (like a
web browser) requests resources, and a server responds with the requested
data.
The communication is stateless, meaning each request from a client to a server
is independent and not reliant on previous requests. HTTP functions through a
set of methods, such as GET for retrieving data, POST for submitting data to be
processed, and others.
HTTP operates on top of a reliable transport layer protocol, usually
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It uses Uniform Resource Identifiers

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(URIs) to identify resources and is often seen in URLs. The protocol has
evolved over time, with HTTP/1.1 being widely used and the more recent
HTTP/2 introducing improvements in performance.
Security considerations led to the development of HTTPS (HTTP Secure), an
extension of HTTP that uses encryption protocols like TLS to provide a secure
communication channel. This is crucial for protecting sensitive data during
transit, such as login credentials or financial information.
In summary, HTTP is the backbone of communication on the World Wide Web,
enabling the seamless exchange of hypertext and other resources between
clients and servers.
(b)user datagram protocol:- User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is another
transport protocol like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) that operates on
the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. UDP is a simple, connectionless protocol that
provides a way to send datagrams (packets) over an IP network.
Unlike TCP, UDP does not establish a connection before sending data. It is a
"fire and forget" protocol, meaning that it sends packets without any guarantee
of delivery or order. This makes UDP faster and more efficient for certain types
of applications where speed is prioritized over reliability.
UDP is often used for real-time applications like video streaming, online
gaming, and VoIP (Voice over IP) services. These applications can tolerate
some packet loss or delay, and the speed of UDP makes them more responsive.
However, since UDP does not have built-in error checking or flow control
mechanisms like TCP, it is the responsibility of the application layer to handle
these aspects. This means that the application using UDP needs to implement its
own error detection and recovery mechanisms if necessary.
In summary, UDP is a lightweight and fast protocol that is suitable for
applications where speed is crucial and some loss or delay can be tolerated. It's
a valuable tool for real-time communication and streaming applications on the
internet.
(c) file transfer protocol:-File Transfer Protocol (FTP)! FTP is a standard
network protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server on a
computer network. It provides a simple and reliable way to upload and
download files.
With FTP, you can connect to a remote server, browse its directory structure,
and transfer files back and forth. You can upload files from your local computer
to the server or download files from the server to your computer.
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FTP operates on the client-server model, where the client initiates the
connection and sends commands to the server. The server responds to these
commands and performs the requested actions, such as listing directories or
transferring files.
FTP supports two modes of data transfer: active and passive. In active mode,
the client opens a port for data transfer, while in passive mode, the server opens
a port. The choice of mode depends on the network configuration and firewall
settings.
While FTP is widely used, it has some security concerns. The data transferred
through FTP is not encrypted, which means that usernames, passwords, and
files can be intercepted. To address this, secure alternatives like FTPS (FTP
over SSL/TLS) and SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) have been developed.
Overall, FTP is a versatile protocol for file transfer, but it's important to
consider security measures when using it.
(d) simple mail transfer protocol:- Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is the standard protocol used for sending and receiving emails over the
internet.
SMTP works on a client-server model, similar to FTP. When you send an email,
your email client acts as the client and connects to the server responsible for
handling outgoing mail. The client then communicates with the server using
SMTP commands to send the email.
SMTP is responsible for the reliable delivery of emails. It ensures that the email
is properly formatted, addresses are valid, and the message is transmitted to the
recipient's mail server. The recipient's mail server then uses SMTP to deliver the
email to the recipient's inbox.
SMTP operates on port 25, but there are also secure alternatives like SMTPS
(SMTP over SSL/TLS) that use encryption to protect the email's content during
transmission.
It's important to note that SMTP is used for sending emails and not for
retrieving them. To retrieve emails, you would typically use protocols like
POP3 or IMAP.
Overall, SMTP is a crucial protocol for email communication, allowing us to
send messages across the internet reliably.
(e) Transmission Control Protocol:-TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, is
a fundamental protocol in computer networking. It provides a reliable and

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ordered delivery of data between devices connected over the internet. Imagine
TCP as a trustworthy courier service that ensures your messages reach their
destination intact.
When two devices want to communicate, TCP establishes a connection through
a three-way handshake. It's like a virtual introduction, where both devices agree
to start exchanging data. Once the connection is established, TCP breaks the
data into smaller packets and sends them across the network.
TCP is responsible for making sure these packets arrive in the correct order and
without errors. It uses sequence numbers and acknowledgments to keep track of
the packets. If a packet gets lost or damaged during transmission, TCP will
request retransmission to ensure data integrity.
TCP also incorporates flow control mechanisms to prevent overwhelming the
receiver with too much data. It adjusts the transmission rate based on the
receiver's capacity, ensuring a smooth and efficient data transfer.
Furthermore, TCP includes congestion control mechanisms to prevent network
congestion. It monitors the network's condition and adjusts the transmission rate
accordingly, preventing data loss and maintaining network stability.
Overall, TCP plays a crucial role in reliable data transmission over the internet.
It guarantees the integrity, order, and efficient delivery of data packets, making
it an essential protocol for various applications and services we use every day.
(f) internet protocol:-Internet Protocol (IP) IP is the foundation of
communication on the internet. It's like the language that devices use to
communicate with each other.
IP assigns a unique address to each device connected to a network, called an IP
address. This allows devices to send and receive data packets across the
internet. IP addresses come in two versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 addresses are
made up of four sets of numbers, while IPv6 addresses are longer and more
complex.
IP also defines how data packets are routed from the source device to the
destination device. When you send a request to a website, for example, the data
packets containing your request are broken down into smaller pieces and travel
through various routers on the internet until they reach the destination.
IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that each data packet is treated
independently and can take different routes to reach its destination. This makes
IP flexible and efficient for transmitting data across networks.

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In addition to IP, there are other protocols like TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) that work together with IP to ensure reliable and ordered delivery of
data packets.
Overall, IP is the backbone of the internet, enabling devices to communicate
and exchange data globally.
QUES 13 Define newsgroup. how do you read newsgroups. Discuss how
our news groups different from mailing list?
It is an Internet based discussion around an individual entity, organisation or
our topic.
It enables remotely connected users to share, discuss and learn about their topic
of interest and by exchanging text messages, images, videos and other form of
digital content.
Users can subscribe for free by submitting an e-mail address and the group
generally consist of several topics all categories based around us particular
theme.
10 key points to read newsgroups:
1. Find a newsreader application or web-based platform that suits your needs.
2. Create an account or sign in to access newsgroups.
3. Browse through different categories or topics to find newsgroups of interest.
4. Subscribe to the newsgroups you want to follow regularly.
5. Read through the posts and discussions to stay updated on the latest
information.
6. Use search features to find specific topics or keywords within newsgroups.
7. Engage in discussions by replying to posts or starting your own threads.
8. Be respectful and follow the rules and guidelines of the newsgroup
community.
9. Take advantage of the knowledge and expertise shared by other participants.
10. Stay active and contribute regularly to build connections and expand your
network.
Newsgroups and mailing lists are different in several ways:

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1. Access: Newsgroups are accessed through newsreader applications or web-
based platforms, while mailing lists involve subscribing to an email-based
discussion group.
2. Organization: Newsgroups are organized into categories or topics called
newsgroups, whereas mailing lists consist of centralized email addresses where
messages are distributed to subscribers.
3. Message Storage: Newsgroup posts are stored on servers and can be accessed
even after they were originally posted. On the other hand, mailing list messages
are not centrally stored and are only visible to subscribers.
4. Communication Style: Newsgroups allow for asynchronous communication,
as participants can read and respond to posts at different times. Mailing lists, on
the other hand, involve synchronous communication, as messages are sent and
received in real-time.
5. Visibility: Newsgroup posts can be read by anyone who has access to the
newsgroup, while mailing list messages are only visible to subscribers of the
mailing list.
6. Moderation: Newsgroups may have moderation and filtering options
depending on the platform, while mailing lists often have moderators who
oversee discussions and enforce rules.
7. Threaded Discussions: Newsgroups enable participants to engage in threaded
discussions by replying to specific posts, while replies to mailing list messages
are typically sent to the entire mailing list.
8. Popularity: Newsgroups were more common in the early days of the internet
but are less prevalent today. Mailing lists, on the other hand, remain widely
used in various communities and organizations.
Ques 14 What do you understand by the term intranet. Differentiate
between internet and intranet in a tabular form. Also discuss its
architecture in detail.

An intranet is a computer network that’s only accessible to an organization and

its employees. It is a dedicated and exclusive hub where staff can safely
communicate and share data. You can compare it to a private club with special
services and privileges that are not open to the public.
An intranet uses a local area network (LAN), a computer network that
interconnects the computers of the different members of the intranet, where they

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hold office. In contrast, a company may also set up an extranet, a private
network for exchanging information securely through the Internet with a select
group of clients, suppliers, and customers

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Intranet architecture refers to the structure and components that make up an
organization's private internal network. It is designed to facilitate
communication, collaboration, and information sharing among employees
within the organization.

The architecture of an intranet typically includes the following components:

1. Network Infrastructure: This includes the physical network devices such as

routers, switches, and firewalls that connect the various parts of the intranet
together.

2. Servers: Intranets typically have multiple servers that host different services
and applications. These servers can include web servers, file servers, email
servers, and database servers.

3. Client Devices: These are the devices used by employees to access the
intranet, such as desktop computers, laptops, tablets, or smartphones.

4. Intranet Portal: The intranet portal serves as the main entry point for
employees to access information and resources. It provides a centralized hub for
news, announcements, employee directories, and other important company
information.

5. Content Management System (CMS): A CMS is often used to manage and

organize the content on the intranet. It allows administrators to create, edit, and
publish content, and enables employees to easily find and access relevant
information.

6. Collaboration Tools: Intranets often include collaboration tools such as

shared calendars, document management systems, project management tools,

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and instant messaging platforms. These tools facilitate teamwork and improve
productivity within the organization.

7. Security Measures: Intranets require robust security measures to protect

sensitive company information. This can include firewalls, secure login
systems, encryption, access controls, and regular security audits.

8. Integration with Other Systems: Intranets may need to integrate with other
internal systems such as HR systems, CRM systems, or enterprise resource
planning (ERP) systems. This integration allows for seamless data sharing and
improved efficiency.

Overall, the architecture of an intranet is designed to create a secure and

efficient internal network that enables employees to access information,
collaborate, and perform their work effectively within the organization.

Ques 15 Define network security threats. Explain various categories of

threats.
Network security threats refer to various risks and vulnerabilities that can
compromise the security of computer networks. These threats can include
malware, such as viruses and ransomware, network attacks like DDoS attacks,
and social engineering techniques like phishing. The goal of these threats is to
gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, disrupt network
operations, or cause harm to individuals or organizations. It's important to
implement security measures like firewalls, strong passwords, and regular
software updates to protect against these threats. Stay vigilant and keep your
network secure.
Various categories of threats are:-
Malware
Malware, or malicious software, is software designed to damage target systems.
Malware is an umbrella term for several sub-varieties of cyber threats, and can
have various effects. Some versions cause system slowdown. Others freeze
systems, while some malware facilitates data exfiltration.
1. Keyloggers

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Keyloggers log the keystrokes of infected devices. Generally created to steal
login credentials and personal information, they usually spread via email
attachments or downloadable files on malicious websites.
2. Trojans
Trojans take their name from the "Trojan Horse" which enabled ancient Greek
soldiers to conquer Troy while the residents slept.

Trojan agents are engineered to appear legitimate, just like the horse. Trojan
victims download apps as usual. When opened, infected apps automatically seed
malware, leading to various worrying consequences.

3. Ransomware
Ransomware holds users to ransom, freezing devices or apps and demanding a
specific action before restoring system functionality. The ransom tends to
involve payment in standard currency or crypto-currency.

4. Adware
Adware forces victims to see pop-up ads whether they want to or not. Relatively
harmless compared to other threats, Adware can still be a considerable drain on
system resources and a sign that systems are insecure.

5. Spyware
Unlike ransomware, spyware leaves few traces. It keeps a low profile, hiding
from anti-malware scanners while gathering potentially useful information.

This information could include device profiles, location data, keystrokes,

emails, camera images, contacts, or financial data. Sometimes, information
gathered feeds back to adware networks, determining which pop-ups appear. In
others, data feeds straight to criminals for sale on the Dark Web or use in
phishing attacks.

6. Logic bombs
Logic bombs trigger at a specific time or when a target has been met. This target
could be something completely arbitrary such as sending 500 emails. Or it could
be targeted at business operations.

When the trigger point arrives, the logic bomb "explodes". The result could be
the release of a worm or virus, with unpredictable consequences

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7. Viruses
Viruses are similar to malware, but with one difference: they are created
specifically to propagate and spread as widely as possible.

Viruses are the most common form of digital threat and can spread in numerous
ways. Infected emails, messaging services, website downloads, and even
infected USB sticks are all potential vectors.

Most computer viruses require a host file to spread. Unfortunately, this

commonly targets popular formats like .doc, .exe, or .xml files – all formats that
can appear legitimate when disguised by skilled attackers.

8. Worms
Worms are similar to computer viruses but do not require a host file to replicate
themselves. They can often infiltrate devices without being detected, and when
worms infest networks, they are difficult to remove.

Worms generally also spread more quickly than viruses. For instance, they may
be designed to exploit a specific security vulnerability in a Windows release. In
that case, the worm could replicate automatically from system to system if that
vulnerability is present.

9. Botnets
Botnets are groups of devices infected with malicious agents. These devices are
linked together, allowing attackers to control them remotely. Affected devices
may not show any noticeable changes. But when used in tandem, thousands of
bots can cause havoc on internal networks and the wider internet.

Most importantly, botnets are responsible for crippling Distributed Denial of

Service (DDoS) attacks. Controllers often sell their services to attackers via
DDoS-for-hire websites. These criminals then mount DDoS attacks, flooding
targeted websites with data and potentially destroying their ability to function.

Botnets are closely associated with IoT devices that are often poorly configured,
leaving them wide open for attackers.

10. Phishing and social engineering

Phishing involves sending fraudulent emails that persuade recipients to click on

embedded links or file attachments. When recipients click them, these links
redirect to malicious content. This content could be anything from malware
downloads to fake eCommerce portals.

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11. SQL injection attacks

In SQL injection attacks, criminals target poorly configured search boxes on

otherwise legitimate websites. By entering malicious code, attackers can harvest
information entered into those search fields, providing valuable data for social
engineering assaults.

12. Physical sabotage and surveillance

Network security strategies also need to take into account physical threats. For
instance, attackers could employ "shoulder-surfing" techniques, looking over
the shoulder of employees in public wifi locations to glean valuable
information.

There have also been examples of tailgating, where attackers gain access to
offices and server hubs by following credentialed staff through security gates.
Dumpster diving to obtain personal information is even a possibility.

Any information could be valuable to phishers mounting social engineering

attacks. Companies should shred documents and use professional waste
management partners to minimize the risk of data breaches.

13. Man-in-the-Middle attacks

MITM attacks occur when attackers hijack connections between network
devices or between a network and external devices. By doing so, attackers can
eavesdrop on traffic, extracting data transfers and information that can be used
in social engineering attacks or sold to third-parties.

14. Blended threats

The list of network threats above is highly simplified. In reality, many network
security threats involve multiple attack methods to achieve their aims.

Ques 16 Explain intranet security policy. How can u establish effective

intranet security measures.

A network security policy is a set of rules and guidelines that help protect your
network from unauthorized access and potential threats. It outlines the measures
and procedures that need to be followed to ensure the security of your network
and data. It's like a playbook that helps keep your network safe and secure.

Measures

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  Be sure the server is physically securefrom theft and damage.Servers are
usually kept in locked room all cabinets after all people should even need
access to the server itself.

 To keeping the server in a physically secure area, you may want to keep it
on a separate network with restricted access to enhance the server’s
security.

 Use power conditioning devices such as line conditioners, to clean the

electrical power coming into the server or a UPS to keep the network
running long enough so an orderly shutdown can be performed.

 Take advantage of RAID and choose the level that makes most sense for
your operations.

 Implement fault tolerance services on your server, Such as disk mirroring

or diskduplexing available in windows NT server. Fault tolerance is a
system design method that includes a certain number of redundant
components the insured or network continues to operate even in the event
off individual failures.

Ques 17 Discuss the followings

(a) Intranet as a business tool:-

The Internet is the single most powerful tool at the disposal of a company which
can drive competitive advantage.

Today Internet are the central part of any organisation stop cannot do anything
without linking through it. The Internet is now too important.

The Internet is simply the best communication tool of a company. if used

correctly the Internet will and hence performance, zoa job satisfaction,
communication add knowledge transfer between teams.

The Internet is exploited properly by the business organisations have the

following benefits

1. General communication

1) internal communication and coordination

2) Extended enterprise partnership

i) improved channel communication and coordination

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 ii) improved supplier communication and coordination

3) purpose driven, adaptive organisation

1. Better central communication of objectives, guidelines and best

practises

2. Enhanced quality

2.Productivity

1. Faster, easier, more flexible and open communication

i. Rapid transmission nd feedback

ii. easy to use, Powerful

2. more productive collaborations

i) ability to collaborate in multiple media

3) better learning and knowledge management

i) better collection and sharing of market intelligence

3. Effectiveness

1) faster time to market

i) improved coordination

ii) better communication

2) better, faster feedback, adaptation and correction

i) empowerment of feedback

ii) faster gathering and response to feedback

4. Cost reduction

1) Meeting, travel and telephone time reduction

i) powerful collaboration abilities

ii) Better focused use of traditional meetings and telephone

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2) Training, corporate, administrative And operational communication cost
savings

i) reduced cost of printing

ii) powerful information retrieval abilities

5. Low cost development and delivery

1) Use of existing, standard, flexible infrastructure

i) easy to use

ii) immediate

2) reduce need for training

i) standard user interface

ii) standard tools and software

3) reduced cost of development

i) short cycle using standard tools and components

ii) shift to business content focused self development

6. Company benefits

 increase involvement ineffective business processes throughout the

company

 reduced risk of losing customers

 easier access to latest an accurate information and content 24 into 7

 improved communication with staff, agents, partners and customers

 increased productivity resulting from employ faster access 2 ascential

information and documents

(b) Technical infrastructure requirements of intranets:

to set up an intranet, you'll need a few things:

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1. Server: This is where all the intranet content and files are stored. It can be a
physical server or a cloud-based server.

2. Network: You'll need a reliable network infrastructure to connect all the

devices within your company to the intranet.

3. Security: It's important to have measures in place to protect your intranet

from unauthorized access. This can include firewalls, encryption, and user
authentication.

4. Software: You'll need intranet software that allows you to create and manage
the content, as well as provide features like document sharing, communication
tools, and collaboration capabilities.

5. Maintenance: Regular maintenance and updates are necessary to ensure the

smooth functioning and security of your intranet.

These are just some of the key technical requirements, but the specific needs
may vary depending on the size and requirements of your company.

Ques 18 Define html( hypertext markup language). explain any 10 tags

established with html

Hypertext Markup Language, commonly known as HTML, is the standard

language used for creating and structuring web pages. It uses tags to define the
elements and content of a webpage, such as headings, paragraphs, links, images,
and more. HTML is the backbone of the World Wide Web, allowing browsers
to interpret and display web content. It's like the building blocks that give
structure and meaning to a webpage.

Tags established with html are:-

1. `<h1>` - Heading tag for the main heading of a webpage.

2. `<p>` - Paragraph tag for defining paragraphs of text.

3. `<a>` - Anchor tag for creating hyperlinks to other webpages.

4. `<img>` - Image tag for embedding images in a webpage.

5. `<ul>` - Unordered list tag for creating bulleted lists.

6. `<li>` - List item tag used within `<ul>` or `<ol>` to define individual list
items.

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7. `<div>` - Division tag used to group and style sections of a webpage.

8. `<span>` - Inline tag used to apply styles or manipulate specific parts of text.

9. `<table>` - Table tag for creating structured data in rows and columns.

10. `<form>` - Form tag for creating interactive input fields and submitting data.

These are just a few examples, but there are many more HTML tags to explore!

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