General Biology

Introduction to biology Cell transport

i
Branches of biology passive transport
Evolution of life active transport
Theories related Tissues
Organic and inorganic chemistry
Cell structural and functional
Different types of cell
Mitosis & Meiosis

Biology Branches of biology

Is a natural science concerned with the study of Botany The study of plants
life and Living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, evolution, Mycology Ethnobotany

:
distribution, identification and taxonomy. Paleobotany Agronomy
Unifying themes in biology Horticulture Bryology
Cell theory as a description of living systems. Zoology The study of animals
Continuity of life is explained by the molecular Entomology Herpetology

is
basis for inheritance.
Ichthyology Anatomy
Function and structure are interdependent.
Evolution change prompts diversity of life.
Ornithology Physiology
Emergent properties arise from the organization Microbiology The study of microorganisms
of life.
Bacteriology Physiology
Characteristics of living organisms Mycology Hematology
Living things are made up of cell L protozoology > Immunology

Living things reproduce

Living things grow and develop

Living things obtain and use energy

Living things respond to their environment

Levels of biological organization

Atom
Molecule
Organelles
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Individual organism
 Evolution explains how living things are changing today
Evolution of life
#
and how modern living things have descended from
ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth. As
living things evolve, they generally become better
suited for their environment. This is because they
evolve adaptations. An adaptation is a trait that helps
an organism survive and reproduce in a given
environment.
Lamarck’s Theory of inheritance of

a
Acquired Characters
This theory of evolution was published in the book
‘Philosphic Zoologique’ by French scientist Jean
Lamarck. His theory was based on the study of
& The diversity of life on earth today is the result
fossils of the organisms of the past with their
of evolution. Life began on earth at least 3.5 to
present relatives including the homologous,
4 billion years ago, and it has been evolving ever
analogous and vestigial organs. He believed that an
since. At first, all living things on earth were
organ or structure got modified in the current
simple, single-celled organisms. Much later, the
animal from its ancestor due to the change in the
first multicellular organisms evolved, increase. environment and the utility of that particular
organ. His theory also said that the organs or
What is evolution E structures modified themselves to suit the new
& The basic idea of biological evolution is needs of the organism.
that populations and species or organisms
change overtime. Today, when we think of Example: The giraffe originally did not have its
evolution, we are likely to link this idea long neck. But, the trees were very tall and it
with one specific person: the naturalist could not feed on the minimal number of short
Charles Darwin. trees. So, as an adaptive measure to be able to
eat leaves on the tall trees, the giraffe’s neck
Are dinosaurs evidence of past life started growing longer. This was a way of
adaptive mechanism due to new needs.
forms? i
*
Evolution can be described as a change is
species over time. Dinosaur fossils are
Is
Lamarck’s theory of evolution was disproved
significant evidence of evolution and of past
by scientists like Weismann and Mendel by
life on earth.
carrying out their own experiments which
④ Evolution is a change in the characteristics were not consistent with Lamarck’s
of living things over time. As described by postulates.
Darwin, evolution occurs by a process called
natural selection. In natural selection, some
members of a species, being better adapted
or suited to their environment, produce more
offspring than others, so they pass
"advantageous traits" to their offspring.
Over many generations, this can lead to
major changes in the characteristics of the
species.
 Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin along with Wallace postulated this
theory of evolution. Darwin believed that life
thrives and multiplies by the principle of natural
selection. The theory of natural selection had the
following postulates:
⑳ Increased reproduction- He said that each
and every organism or species tend to
reproduce to the maximum to let its species
live and multiply. He said that populations of
all organisms multiply geometrically.

- The arithmetic growth of food and

availability of space- Darwin says that
though the organism and their species
multiply geometrically, food multiplies only
arithmetically and the space available
remains a constant. With both these
restrictions to the growing population of
different species puts a tab on the
population growth.

- Struggle- with a rapidly multiplying

population, there is an increased demand for
both space and food. But, due to the
restricted space and slowly growing food,
there arises a competition between the
members of a species and between species
for the food and space. The organism or
species that is able to fight its own species
or the other species or the environment
itself lives.

↳ Variations- Due to this struggle for food and

space, each organism or species tend to get
an advantage over the other. In order to do
so, they tend to develop certain features or
structures that give them that added
advantage to succeed in the struggle of life.
So, this struggle brings about variations.

& Survival of the fittest- Darwin’s theory of

natural selection thus believes that those
who can survive till the end are the ones
that nature selects.
 -
The pure branch of biology include the following:
What is biology?
•Science (from the Latin word sc/ent/a, meaning Morphology Ecology
"knowledge") Anatomy Embryology
•It is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes Histology Genetics
knowledge in the form of testable explanations and Cytology Paleontology
predictions about the universe Cell biology Taxonomy
•Or, science is an organized form of knowledge or Molecular biology Evolution
systematic knowledge Physiology Pathology
•That is, knowledge through process

•The Word Biology is the combination of two Greek • Morphology

words (bios — life, logos — study) It is the study of external form, size, shape,
• Biology is the branch of science which deals with the color, external structure and relative position of
study of living objects and their life processes living organisms
•It covers all aspect of the study of living creatures like
growth, structure, occurrence, classification, ecology, • Anatomy
economics importance, external form, organization, It is the study of internal structure which can be
internal structure, nutrition among others observed with unaided eye after dissection

• Being broad - based and multidisplinary, the term • Physiology

biolo gy is often replaced by the term "life science It is the study of different types of body functions
or biological science." and processes or the functional activities of a living
•The term biology was coined by Jean-Baptiste organism
Lamarck • Cytology
•Aristotle is know as the "Father of Biology" It is the study of form and structure as well as the function
of cells including the behavior of nucleus and other oganeMes
Branches of biology • Histology
It is the study of tissue organization and
structure as observed through light microscope
BOTANY • Embryology
It is the study of fertilization, growth, division and
•Botany is the branch of biology which deals with the
differentiation of the zygote into embryo or early
scientific study of different aspects of plants and
development of living beings before the attainment of
plant-like organisms which include algae, fungi,
structure and size of the offspring
lichens, mosses, ferns, conifer, and flowering plants
•The ancient Greek Theophrastus (371-286 B.C.E.) is
•Taxonomy
known as the “Father/Founder of Botany” lt is the science of identification, nomenclature and
classification of organisms
•Genetics
It is the study of inheritance of characters or
Microbiology heredity
• Microbiology is the branch of biology and variations. Heredity is the study of expression and
that deals wit h the scientific study of transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
all living organisms that are too small to • Ecology
be visible to the naked eye. It is the study of living organisms is relation to other
•These organisms include: bacteria, archaea, viruses, organism and their environment
fungi, prions, protozoa, and algae, collectively known as
‘Microbes’ •Evolution
• Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek is known as the It studies the origin of life as well as new types of
"Father of Microbiology” organism from the previous ones by modifications
involving genetic changes and adaptations.
•Paleontology
It deals with the study of fossils or remains and
impressions of past organisms present in the rocks of
different ages.
•Cell Biology •Anthropology •Bacteriology
It is the study of morphological, organizational, biochemic Study of apes and man Study of bacteria
al, physiological, genetic, developmental, pathological and •Apiculture •Batrachology
evolutionary aspects of cell and its components. Study of Bee keeping Study of frog
•Molecular Biology •Araneology
It is the, study of the nature, physicochemical organization, Study of spiders
synthesis working and interaction of biomolecules that bring •Arthrology
about and control various activities of the protoplasm Study of joints
•Pathology
It is a branch of biology that studies diseases in plant and •Biochemistry
animals and their treatment Branch of science which deals with the study of
chemical reactions inrelations to life activities
•The applied branch of biology is divided into two main
streams: •Biometrics
key role in natural resource
Statistical analysis of different results of biological experiments
~increasing management .

•Biotechnology
•Applied Botany -

scientific study of plants

•Applied Zoology -

uses the knowledge and methods Us of biological organisms in commercial processes for
of
zoology to solve real-world problems . producing fine chemicals such as drugs, vaccines and
•Some important branches of applied botany are; hormones etc.. On a large scale and at reasonable
1.Agriculture -art and science of cultivating soil .

cost
2.Horticulture -art practice
and
garden cultivation
of and and
•Bryology
I
3.Pharmacognosy knowledg
managemenconcerned with medical drugs
-

Study of Bryophytes
4.Forestry... -science practice of planting managing
of ,
,

•Biophysics
Fo fores
•Some important branches of applied zoology caring Study of physical aspects of living organisms
are;
•Carcinology •Cnidology
1.Sericulture
Study of crab and Study of Coelenterata
2.Apiculture
crustaceans •Conchology
3.Lacculture
•Cardiology Study of shells
4.Poultry
Study of the heart •Craniology
5.Pisciculture
•Chondriology Study of skull
6.Animal husbandry
Study of cartilage •Cytogenetics
•Chromatology Study of cytological basis of inheritance
Some different branches Study of pigments
of science, biology •Dendrology
specifically, has become
Study of shrubs and trees
very importance in this
millennium •Dermatology
Study of skin
A-Z •Ecobiology
Study of problems of existence of life in outer space
•Acariology •Ecology
Study of ticks and mites Study of relationship between organisms and their environment
•Actinobiology •Embryology
The branch of science which deals with the study of Study of embryo i.e developmental stages after fertilization or
radiation effects on organisms birth of young ones
•Aerobiology •Endocrinology
Study of flying organisms Study of endocrine glands and their secretions
•Agroforestry •Entomology
This branch deals with forms of land used on which Study of insects
herbaceous crops and trees crops are cultivated • Enzymology •Ethology
•Agronomy Study of enzymes Study of conditions of animals or
Science which deals with the crop plants •Ethnology behavior of animals, in a natural
•Agrostology Study of mankind contest
Study of grasses •Etiology
•Anthology Study of diseases
Study of flowers
 •Eugenics •Mammalogy
Study of improvement of human race by applying laws of heredity. Study of mammals
It applied before birth. Eugenics is related with future generation •Mastology
•Euphenics Study of breasts
Study of improvement of human race by drug treatment or gene •Melanology
engineering i.e medical engineering of genetic disorder Study of pigmentsb
•Euthenics •Molecular biology
Study of improvement of human race by improving envir onment. Study of Iife science on molecular level
It applied after birth and is related with present generation (i.e.RNA and DNA level)
•Mycology
•Evolution
Study of fungi
The branch of science which deals with the study of origin of
•Myrmecology
new from old i.e origin, variation, inter-relations hip between
Study of ants
organisms of past and present days
•Exobiology •Neonatology
Space biology is also known as exobiology Study of the new-born up to one month of age
•Floriculture •Nephrology
Study of flower yielding plants Study of kidney
•Neurology
•Genetics •Haematology Study of the nervous system
Study of heredity and variations Study of blood •Nidology
•Gerontology •Helminthology Study of nests of birds
Study of growing old Study of helminthes •Nosology
•Gynaecology •Hepatology Medical science dealing with the classification of
Study of female reproductive organs Study of liver diseases
•Herpetology •Odontology
Study of lizards and other reptiles Study of teeth and gums
• Hypnology •Olericulture
Study which deals with sleep Study of vegetable yielding plants
•Histochemistry •Oncology
Study of chemical nature of tissues Study of cancer
•Horticulture •Oneirology
Study of flowering and fruit plants Study of dreams
•Ichnology •Ontogeny
Study of fossil footprints Study of embryonic history
•Ichthyology •Oology
Study of fish and it's culture Study of egg of birds
•Immunology •Ophthalmology
Study of resistance of organisms against infection Study of eyes
•Kalology •Organocology
Study of sensory values, sometimes called Study of development of organs under
judgement of sentiment and taste embryology
•Karyology •Organology
Study of nucleus Study of organs
•Kinesiology •Ornithology
Study of muscle movements Study of birds
•Lepidopterology •Osteology
Study of moths and butterflies Study of bones
•Lichenology •Otorhinolaryngology
Study of|chens Study of ear, nose, and throat
•Limnology •Paedology
Study of fresh water lakes, ponds, and streams Study of larva stages
in relation with plants and animals •Paleozoology
•Malacology Study of fossils of animals and their distribution in time
Study of mollusks •Paleobotany
Study of the distribution and characteristics of fossils
•Parasitology •Serology
Study of parasites Study of serum; interaction of antigens and antibodies in the blood
•Pathology •Sepentology
Study of various diseases in human beings Study of snakes
•Parazoology •Silvibulture
Study of porifera/sponges Study of the development of forest
•Pedology •Sitology
Study of soils Study of dietetics
•Pharmacognosy •Speciology
Branch of science dealing with medicinal plants Study of species
•Pharmacology •Spermology
Study of synthesis and effect of medicines on organisms Study of seeds
•Phenology •Splanchnology
Study of organisms as affected by seasonal climates Study of visceral organs
e.g. of bird migration, opening of flowers etc. •Somatology
•Phrenology Study of forget including buccal cavity and stomach
Study of mental faculties of brain including feelings •Syndesmology
•Phycology (algology) Study of bony joints and ligaments
Study of algae •Taxonomy
The branch of science which deals with the study of
•Phylogeny
classification of organism
Study of evolutionary history
•Teratology
•Physiology
Study of fetal malformations
Study of functions of various parts within the
•Toxicology
organisms
Study of narcotics and the influence of narcotics on
•Pisciculture
various organisms
Study of rearing of fishes
•Traumatology
•Platyhelminthology Study of wounds and turnover
Study of flat worms •Trichology
•Pomology Study of hair
Study of fruits •Tropholopy
•Poultry Study of nutrition
Study which deals with keepings of foul •Urobiology
•Proctology Study which deals with preservation of deals deals
Study of hind gut including rectum and anus bodies in liquids by chemicals
•Protistology •Urology
Study of protests, field of study overlaps with more Study od wine including diseases and the abnormalities of urinary
traditional disciplines of algology, mycology and and urino-genital tract
protozoology •Virology
•Psychobiology Study of virus
Study of the behavioral aspects of animals •Zoogeography
•Reridology The branch of science which deals with the study of the
Study of Pteridophyte distribution of animals on earth
•Rainology •Zoophytology
Study of nose and olfactory organs Study of drifting microorganism such as diatoms

•Saurology
Study of lizards
•Sarcology
Study of muscles
•Sericulture
Silk industry concerned with culture of silk moth and
pupa
 Branches of Biology on The

Er
Basis of Medical Sciences Unifying themes of life
•Gynecology
Gynecology normally means treating women who aren't THEMES OF LIFE
pregnant, while obstetrics deals with pregnant women basic ideas that apply to all organisms
and their unborn children, but there is lots of connects many things in the exploration of life
crossover between the two 1. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
•Orthopedics • SYSTEM
Branch of medical science which is devoted to the - has properties/ functions based on the arrangement and
diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and rehabilitation of interactions of its parts together, the parts of our body
injuries, disorders and diseases of the body's enables us to move
musculoskeletal syst em. This system includes Example: Organ System
bones, joints, ligaments, muscle s, nerves and • contraction of muscle
tendons attached to bones causes
movement
•Ophthalmology
• blood vessels then supply
Branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy,
these parts With oxygen and
physiology, and diseases of the eyeball and orbit
food
•Dentistry
Branch of medicine that consists of the study, BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases, • Interaction of organisms with each other and with the
disorders and conditions of the oral cavity nonliving environment put the system in ecosystem
•Oncology *The biological systems theme applies to all levels of life
Branch of medicine that researchers, identifies and treats from the biosphere all the way down to the molecules in
cancer cells
•Cardiology
Branch of medicine that is concern with the diseases 2. THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
and disorders of the heart, which may range from • All organisms are made of cells
congenital defects through to acquired heart disease • Levels of organization:
⑰ • cell • system

-
such as coronary artery disease and congestive heart
failure ② • tissue • organisms
•Urology ⑤ • organ

Surgical specialty that deals with the treatment of

conditions involving the male and female urinary tract
and the reproductive organs THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
•Nephrology • Most multicellular organisms have cells that are
Branch of medical science that deals with diseases of specialized for different functions Muscle cells
the kidneys
Nerve cells
•Pediatrics Contract and enable us to move Transmit impulses that
Branch of medicine dealing with the health and control our muscles
medical care of infants, children, and adolescents
from birth up to the age of 18

•Dermatology
Branch of medicine dealing with diagnosing and
treating skin diseases affecting the skin, hair and
nails
•Physiotherapy
Branch of medicine which uses a treatment
method that focuses on the science of THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
movements and help people to restore, maintain • A multicellular organism's development and survival are based
and maximize their physical strength, function, on the functions and interactions of its many cells
motion and overall weU being by addressing the * The cellular basis of life is a theme you will encounter often
underlying physical as you explore the living world
3. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE
• The relationship between structure and function is apparent in • Each cell in the body contains a copy of all DNA
the entire organism and the physiological systems that serve that were inherited from our mother and father
them whatdo t
e ?

- what does tade o

wha

↓
• The structure determines function, function reflects structure
W

- When a cell divides, it

- Technically, they are inseparable Lungs structure
-

3 lobses
copies its DNA and
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION -

has tube connects the lungs

passes this genetic
The aerodynamic shape of the bird's wing To Thebat Meet the information on to each
of
-

of the two cells it

Elliptical Wings Fung vert to
Birds that must maneuver in
oxygen produces
energy
forested habitats have elliptical
wings. REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE
Elliptical wings are slotted • In humans, an egg cell from the mother fuses with a
between primary feathers to sperm cell from the father
prevent stalling at low speeds - This results in a fertilized cell containing a combination of
The small chickadee can change DNA from both parents
its course within 0.03 seconds. - The inherited DNA directs the transformation of the
fertilized egg into a person with his/her own eye color,
High-Aspect Ratio facial features and other characteristics
Birds that feed on the wing or make long • *The inherited information in the form of DNA enables
migrations have high-speed wings. organisms to produce their own kind
These wings sweep back and taper to a
slender tip; this reduces turbulence. 5. ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS
They are flat in section and lack wing tip • No organism is completely isolated from its surroundings
slotting. • As part of an ecosystem, each organism interacts
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION continuously with its environment
• The structure of the bird's bones contributes to the - The plants obtain water and nutrients from the soil,
bird's ability to fly carbon dioxide from the air and energy from sunlight

ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS
Inside the bones, an open, honeycomb-like structure • The transfer of chemicals between organisms and their
provides great strength with little weight environments is a key process in any ecosystem
- Breathing air, drinking water, eating food and getting rid
Birds have long extensions of nerve cells that control of wastes are chemical exchanges with the environment
their flight muscles
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS
These fibers make it possible for the bird's brain to • There is a constant sensing and responding to changes in
coordinate flying movements the environment

-The specialized leaf

of the Venus flytrap
senses the light
footsteps of a soon-
to-be-digested fly

4. REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE -The plant responses

• "Like begets like" by rapidly folding the
- The offspring inherits units of leaf together
information called genes from
their parents
• Genes:
- Responsible for family
resemblance
- Made up of information-rich
molecules called DNA
ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS REGULATION
• There is a constant sensing and responding to changes in • The ability of mammals and birds to
the environment another regulate body temperature is another example of
homeostasis or "steady-state"
-The sun may cause • Different mechanisms enable organisms to regulate their
organism to squint internal environment despite changes in their external
-The bark of an environment
approaching dog
causes you to turn 8. EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY
your head quickly • Explains changes in organisms over long periods of time
- Adaptation allows life forms to acquire new characteristics in
6. ENERGY AND LIFE response to their environment through the process of natural
• Moving, growing, reproducing and other activities of life selection
require energy
• Energy is obtained from chemical reactions Some animals make
their coats lightened to
- Sugars, fats and
facilitate hiding from
other "fuel-like"
predators
molecules in the
food produce energy
EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY
• The study of evolution is helping health professionals
understand how disease causing bacteria
bacteria become resistant to antibiotic drugs
6. ENERGY AND LIFE • Environmental issues such as water and air pollution are
• Energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight changing how people think about their relationship with the
biosphere
-Plants are producers that convert light energy to chemical
• The population then evolves with its need for survival
energy stored in food
-Animals and other consumers obtain their energy in
chemical form by eating
EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY
-Energy exist in the ecosystem as heat, which all organisms
Darker beetles are more likely to survive longer and reproduce,
generate as they perform work
passing their genes on to more offsprings

ENERGY AND LIFE

• Because all organisms lose energy in the form of heat, an
ecosystem cannot recycle energy
*Life on Earth depends on a continuous supply of energy EVOLUTION AND DIVERSITY
from the sun • Great diversity exists among the three domains of
7. REGULATION living things:
• Organisms have the ability to regulate their internal conditions - Bacteria, Archea and Eukarya
• Evolution explains this diversity
-The thermostat of the brain reacts Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
whenever your body -temperature - Worked on the idea of evolution by natural selection
varies slightly from 37°C
It then sends signals to the skin to
produce sweat. Sweating helps cool
the body
-Panting is another example of
cooling mechanism. It causes
moisture from the surface of the
lungs to evaporate
9. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
• Involves asking questions about nature and then
using observations or experiments to find possible
answers to those questions

-By fitting a radio

transmitter onto an
Atlantic turtle,
researchers can monitor its
movement
-This can help researchers
determine how large a
nature preserve must be
to support a population

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
• Modern biology is changing humans' everyday lives
- New findings about the DNA affect medicine and
agriculture
- Research on the nervous system is improving the
treatment of certain mental illnesses
-The result of stem cell research, animal cloning,
environmental issues, genetically modified crops or new
ways to treat diseases show the impact of biology
10. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
• Technology applies scientific knowledge in new ways
-In 2013, Australia developers created a prototype for a
bionic eye.
-It sends an image to a microchip in the brain, allowing
the user to "see" the image

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

• Through science, humans learn about the solution to
various problems
• The scientific method is able to give direction and
pace for every inquiry
• Technology produced machinery to lengthen the life of
perishable goods
 Stage – This is the section in which the specimen is placed for
viewing. They have stage clips that hold the specimen slides in place.
The most common stage is the mechanical stage, which allows the
control of the slides by moving the slides using the mechanical
knobs on the stage instead of moving them manually.
Aperture – This is a hole on the microscope stage, through which
the transmitted light from the source reaches the stage.
Microscopic illuminator – This is the microscopes light source,
located at the base. It is used instead of a mirror. It captures light
from an external source of a low voltage of about 100v.
Condenser – These are lenses that are used to collect and focus
light from the illuminator into the specimen. They are found under
the stage next to the diaphragm of the microscope. They play a
major role in ensuring clear sharp images are produced with a high
magnification of 400X and above. The higher the magnification of
the condenser, the more the image clarity. More sophisticated
microscopes come with an Abbe condenser that has a high
magnification of about 1000X.
Diaphragm – it’s also known as the iris. Its found under the stage
Head - also known as Body. Carries the optical parts in the of the microscope and its primary role is to control the amount of
upper part of the microscope light that reaches the specimen. It’s an adjustable apparatus, hence
Base - acts as microscope support. It also carries controlling the light intensity and the size of the beam of light that
microscopic illuminators. gets to the specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the diaphragm
Arms - this is the part connecting the base and to the comes attached with an Abbe condenser and combined they are able
head and the eyepiece tube to the base of microscope. It to control the light focus and light intensity that reaches the
gives support to the head of the microscope and it is also specimen.
used when carrying the microscope. Condenser focus knob – this is a knob that moves the condenser up
Eyepiece - also known as the ocular. This is the part Used or down thus controlling the focus of light on the specimen.
to look through the microscope. It's found at the top of Abbe Condenser – this is a condenser specially designed for high-
the microscope. It's Standard magnification is 10x with an quality microscopes, which makes the condenser to be movable and
optical eyepiece Having magnification from 5x to 30x allows very high magnification of above 400X. High-quality
Eye piece tube - It's the eyepiece holder.it carries the microscopes normally have a high numerical aperture than
eyepiece just above The objective lens. objective lenses.
Objective lens -These are the major lenses used for The rack stop – It controls how far the stages should go preventing
specimen visualization. They have a Magnification power of the objective lens from getting too close to the specimen slide
40X-100X. There are about 1-4 objective lenses Placed on which may damage the specimen. It is responsible for preventing
one microscope, in that some are rare facing and others the specimen slide from coming too far up and hitting the objective
face forwards. Each Lens its has own magnification power. lens.
4x scanning objective lens -
10x lower Power objective lens
40x high Power objective lens
100x oil immersion objective lens
Nose piece - Also known as revolving turret. It holds the
objective lenses. It is movable hence it can revolve the
objective lenses depending on the magnification power of
the lens.
The adjustment knobs- these are knobs that are used to
focus the microscope. There are two types of adjustments
knobthey have stage s ie fine adjustments knobs and
coarse adjustment knobs.