Physics Redefined

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PHYSICS REDEFINED

A STUDENT’S GUIDE TO ‘O’ LEVEL/IGCSE


PHYSICS

First EDITION

Takunda Mandebvu
Samson Mutapure

GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF BUSINESS


Global Institute of Business (Pvt) Ltd
No. 21 Stephanie Avenue
Marlborough
Harare

+263779677777; +263734460412; +263731491323

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© Global Institute of Business (Pvt) Ltd 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a


retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior written permission of
the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in Zimbabwe by the Ministry
of Justice and Legal Affairs, Government Composite Building Corner 4th
Street/SamoraMachel Avenue, Harare.

The Publishers like to acknowledge the Cambridge International Examinations (CIE)


for the past exam questions used in this text book.

Printed in Harare by Global Institute of Business Press


Introduction
“I keep six honest serving-men,
(They taught me all I knew)
their names are
What and Why and When and How and Where and Who”
– Rudyard Kipling (The Elephants Child)

Science, in Latin, simply means knowledge. Rather than being confined to a particular
subject or syllabus, science is about instilling the most important element of human
existence – the hunger to know and the endeavour to find out. 1500 years ago it was a ‘fact’
that the world was flat. 500 years ago it was a ‘fact’ that the Earth was the centre of the
universe. Now we know those ‘facts’ and many others were not true. How? Someone,
somewhere, somehow decided not to accept ‘facts’ as they were. That is the purpose of this
book. It is my desire to instil in science students, the hunger to ask What, Why, When?
Where, How and Who? This guide encourages students to go beyond merely remembering
abstract facts and instead exhort them to do more asking and thinking than remembering.
Students should seek to find solutions to unanswered questions and challenge
unquestioned answers; to exceed the theoretical framework of facts, figures and definitions
and enter the realm of practicality of science and physics to industry and in our everyday
lives.

On one hand, a triangle is the strongest shape in plane geometry. A love triangle, on the
other hand, is very fragile. In my several years as a secondary school teacher, I have come
across numerous textbooks and sources, and just like the triangle is not universally stable –
there is no one –size – fits – all text. This book is no different. However, in trying to
accomplish some form of perfect text, I have used a less formal approach and examples that
students can relate to. To emphasize the need of not just communicating but connecting the
students with the subject matter, I have given a thorough theoretical framework, detailed
explanations on how to read and answer questions and an extensive look at past exam
questions for revision.

We hope you will find this textbook and the study tips included of great help as you
undertake ‘O’ Level or IGCSE Physics.

We would like to acknowledge Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) for the past
exam questions used in this study guide. Responsibility for the answers to these questions is
the authors’ alone.

Takunda Mandebvu
Samson Mutapure
Global Institute of Business
How to use this book

This book follows a logical approach to the ‘O’ Level and IGCSE Physics syllabi. This includes
rearranging the topics so that they are incremental in nature and are not necessarily in the
order given in the respective syllabi. The topics have been grouped in sections that require
similar devices and concepts.

The terminology used is simplified for easy understanding, with important terms highlighted
and defined. At the end of each section within a topic are checkpoint exercises which test
the students’ grasp of the immediate topical concepts. Once the theory of the whole
chapter has been fully studied there is an extensive collection of topic – specific past exam
questions which will need the application of all the concepts learnt in the chapter.

An answer is like a miniskirt – short enough to be interesting but long enough to keep it that
way. As such, to assist students with the techniques of answering the questions, each set of
questions has a worked example that illustrates how to read, understand and answer the
questions. Further explanation of answers is used to equip students with the information of
not just what the answer is but why as well. An answer must be accurate (true, factual) and
precise (straight to the point).

In using this guide it is important also for students to know how and why they study.

1. First, don’t just work hard, work smart. Studying should not be a long boring
marathon, but rather a short exciting sprint. A 30 minute intense look at the
definitions of terms may prove to be more fruitful than a four hour ‘study’ of a whole
syllabus section that leaves the student tired and sadly frustrated because in trying
to grasp everything, they haven’t grasped anything at all. Working SMART means
studying must be

1. Specific – there must be a clear objective of what must be achieved at the end of
each study session.
2. Measurable – the objectives must be quantitative, that is remembering and using
formulae or defining and applying terms, not a whole topic. Every study session must
be accompanied by questions on the studied material to ensure grasping of
concepts.
3. Achievable – the target should be simple enough to be done in a short period of
time. It must not be excessive (doing a whole topic in one day) or panic – based (if
there is a test tomorrow, I must do everything today)
4. Realistic – it is counterproductive to set yourself a task that you will not be able to
achieve, for example studying for 6 hours straight or going through the whole
syllabus in one night. Just like eating a loaf of bread is done one slice at a time,
studying must be broken down into small realistic targets.
5. Time – related – the time set for completion of a section or topic must be specified.
A timetable will help you check up on how the task is going from time to time.

6. Secondly, most students do a lot of aimless book looking and tomorrow – is – a – test
panic ‘studying’. Both these techniques are temporary solutions that result in
permanent problems. To get the best out of the studying experience, I encourage
students to use the SQR3 method:

1. Scan – a student must peruse the subject matter so that they become acquainted
with the requirements of the topic. This gives an overview of what one is expected to
know, usually with the aid of the subject syllabus.
2. Question – one can only question what he or she has scanned; this means that
students are encouraged not to just remember facts, figures and definitions but also
to ask why things are the way they are.
3. Read – this is the most important part of the study time. We read to answer a
question we ask. Examiners do not ask generic data but specific questions that apply
to explicit concepts. Reading must therefore not be generalised but targeted.
4. Recite – this is important for remembering facts long – term. Rather than just
cramming facts, reciting involves putting your work material into small logical groups
than can be studied ‘on the go’. Repetition is the father of learning and so rather
than try and remember everything at once, notes and facts can be expressed in point
form and written on cards to form pocket notes that can be glanced at, over and
over again, at any time. It also means working out acronyms, sentences and even
songs to remember a list of factors, terms or other quantitative aspects of a topic.
5. Review – the first four steps in this exercise can be done at an individual level.
Reviewing study needs the aid of a study partner. After having completed a section
or a topic, students can meet to revise together. A student must have at least one
consistent study partner who will help out in pointing areas of strength and
weakness during the revision process which includes ‘teaching’ each other what they
have studied and answering questions and discussing answers.

“The great heights reached by men and kept were not attained by sudden flight
But they, while their companions slept, were toiling upward through the night”
– Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... i
How to use this book .........................................................................................................................ii
Chapter One: Measurement Techniques .............................................................................................1
Physical Quantities and Units ............................................................................................................. 1
Base and Derived Quantities........................................................................................................... 1
Prefixes............................................................................................................................................ 4
Length and the metre ..................................................................................................................... 4
Time and the second ..................................................................................................................... 12
Mass and the kilogram .................................................................................................................. 13
Measurement Techniques ................................................................................................................ 14
Errors ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Uncertainty, Precision and Accuracy ............................................................................................ 15
Revision Questions on Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement .......................................... 17
Scalars and Vectors ........................................................................................................................... 20
Revision Questions on Scalars and Vectors .................................................................................. 26
Chapter Two: Kinematics ................................................................................................................. 30
Speed, velocity and acceleration ...................................................................................................... 30
Graphical Analysis of Motion ............................................................................................................ 31
Distance/Displacement – Time Graphs......................................................................................... 32
Speed/Velocity – Time Graphs ...................................................................................................... 34
Newton’s Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion .................................................................... 36
Motion under Gravity ................................................................................................................... 41
Revision Questions on Kinematics ................................................................................................ 46
Chapter Three: Dynamics and Forces ............................................................................................... 58
Newton’s Laws of Motion ................................................................................................................. 59
Forces ............................................................................................................................................ 62
Moment of a Force ........................................................................................................................... 67
Equilibrium .................................................................................................................................... 69
Centre of Mass .................................................................................................................................. 69
Revision Questions on Dynamics and Forces ................................................................................ 72
Chapter Four: Energy, Work and Power ............................................................................................ 99
Energy ........................................................................................................................................... 99
Work............................................................................................................................................ 103
Efficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 104
Power .......................................................................................................................................... 104
Revision Questions on Work, Energy and Power........................................................................ 105
Chapter Five: Density, Mass and Volume ........................................................................................ 122
Density ............................................................................................................................................ 122
Pressure .......................................................................................................................................... 122
Gas Laws...................................................................................................................................... 124
Revision Questions on Density, Mass and Volume ..................................................................... 131
Chapter Six: Thermal Physics .......................................................................................................... 146
The Kinetic Theory of Matter .......................................................................................................... 146
Temperature ................................................................................................................................... 150
Thermal Energy and Temperature .............................................................................................. 151
Heat ............................................................................................................................................ 151
Temperature Scales .................................................................................................................... 152
Thermometric Properties and Thermometers............................................................................ 152
Revision Questions on Temperature .......................................................................................... 156
Thermal Properties of Materials ..................................................................................................... 164
Thermal Expansion ...................................................................................................................... 164
Heat Capacity .............................................................................................................................. 166
Latent Heat.................................................................................................................................. 168
Worked Examples on the Kinetic Theory .................................................................................... 175
Revision Questions on Thermal Properties................................................................................. 177
Thermal Transfer ......................................................................................................................... 193
Revision Questions on Thermal Transfer .................................................................................... 198
Chapter Seven: Waves and Oscillations .......................................................................................... 206
General Properties of Waves .......................................................................................................... 206
Classification of Waves ............................................................................................................... 206
Revision Questions on Waves ..................................................................................................... 214
Light................................................................................................................................................. 223
Reflection .................................................................................................................................... 223
Refraction.................................................................................................................................... 227
Revision Questions on Light ........................................................................................................ 234
Lenses.............................................................................................................................................. 251
Converging and Diverging Lenses ............................................................................................... 251
Ray Diagrams............................................................................................................................... 252
Dispersion of Light ...................................................................................................................... 258
The Colours of Visible Light ......................................................................................................... 259
Revision Questions on Dispersion of light .................................................................................. 261
Revision Questions on Lenses ..................................................................................................... 264
The Electromagnetic Spectrum ....................................................................................................... 269
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves .................................................................................................. 270
Revision Questions on the Electromagnetic Spectrum............................................................... 273
Sound .............................................................................................................................................. 279
Propagation of sound: Compression and Rarefaction ................................................................ 279
Types of Sound Waves ................................................................................................................ 281
Properties of Sound .................................................................................................................... 284
Revision Questions on Sound...................................................................................................... 289
Chapter Eight: Electricity and Magnetism ....................................................................................... 297
Static Electricity and Electric Fields ................................................................................................. 297
Revision Questions on Electrostatics .......................................................................................... 305
Current of Electricity ....................................................................................................................... 312
Electron flow and Conventional Current .................................................................................... 312
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.), 𝜺 ................................................................................................... 313
Potential Difference (p.d.) .......................................................................................................... 314
Resistance ................................................................................................................................... 314
Electrical Power........................................................................................................................... 316
Electrical Energy .......................................................................................................................... 317
Electricity in the home ................................................................................................................ 317
Revision Questions on Practical Electricity ................................................................................. 322
Revision Questions on Current of Electricity .............................................................................. 327
Electric Circuits................................................................................................................................ 335
1. Series Circuits ...................................................................................................................... 337
2. Parallel Circuits.................................................................................................................... 338
Potential divider .......................................................................................................................... 341
Revision Question on Electric Circuits......................................................................................... 345
Magnetism ...................................................................................................................................... 362
Properties of Magnets ................................................................................................................ 362
Magnetic Fields ........................................................................................................................... 367
Electromagnetism ........................................................................................................................... 370
Magnetic Field Patterns produced by an Electric Current .......................................................... 370
Current, Field and Force: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.................................................................... 373
Applications of the magnetic effect of a current ........................................................................ 374
D.C. Motor................................................................................................................................... 381
Revision Questions on Electromagnetism .................................................................................. 382
Electromagnetic Induction .............................................................................................................. 393
Principles of Electromagnetic Induction ..................................................................................... 393
A.C. Generator ............................................................................................................................ 396
Transformer ................................................................................................................................ 397
Rectification ................................................................................................................................ 400
Revision Questions on Electromagnetic Induction ..................................................................... 403
Chapter Nine: Digital Electronics .................................................................................................... 413
Transistors ....................................................................................................................................... 414
Relays .............................................................................................................................................. 416
Logic Gates ...................................................................................................................................... 417
Revision Questions on Digital Electronics ................................................................................... 422
Cathode Rays .................................................................................................................................. 435
The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) .......................................................................................... 437
Revision Questions on Cathode Rays .......................................................................................... 441
Chapter Ten: Atomic Physics.......................................................................................................... 452
Radioactivity.................................................................................................................................... 452
Half-life, 𝒕𝟏⁄ ............................................................................................................................... 459
𝟐

Revision Questions on Radioactivity ........................................................................................... 463


The Nuclear Atom ........................................................................................................................... 484
The Geiger – Marsden Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment..................................................... 485
Isotopes ....................................................................................................................................... 487
Radioactive Dating ...................................................................................................................... 489
Revision Questions on the Nuclear Atom ................................................................................... 490
Answers to Revision Exercises ........................................................................................................ 495
Answers to Revision Questions....................................................................................................... 497
Chapter One: Measurement Techniques ........................................................................................ 497
Chapter Two: Kinematics ................................................................................................................ 498
Chapter Three: Dynamics and Forces ............................................................................................. 501
Chapter Four: Work, Energy and Power ......................................................................................... 508
Chapter Five: Density, Mass and Volume ....................................................................................... 510
Chapter Six: Thermal Physics .......................................................................................................... 514
Chapter Seven: Waves and Oscillations .......................................................................................... 524
Chapter Eight: Electricity and Magnetism ...................................................................................... 543
Chapter Nine: Digital Electronics .................................................................................................... 559
Chapter Ten: Atomic Physics........................................................................................................... 566
Chapter One: Measurement Techniques
“God created everything by number, weight and measure”

– Sir Isaac Newton

Physical Quantities and Units


A physical quantity consists of a numerical magnitude and an appropriate unit. There are
two types of physical quantities: base quantities and derived quantities.

Base and Derived Quantities

Fig.
1.1 – Classification of physical quantities

A base quantity is a physical quantity that is independent of any other quantity for its
measurement or derivation. A base unit is a unit of the base quantity that does not rely on
other units for its derivation.

There are seven base (or fundamental) quantities in physics: length, mass, time,
thermodynamic temperature, electric current, amount of substance and luminous intensity.
These quantities and their units are summarised in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 – The Base Quantities


Base quantity S.I. Unit (Abbreviation)
Length Metre (m)
Mass Kilogram (kg)
Time Second (s)
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin (K)
Electric current Ampere (A)
Amount of substance Mole (mol)
Luminous intensity Candela (cd)

All other physical quantities are derived quantities. A derived quantity is one which is
dependent on other (base) quantities for its measurement and derivation. They are
products and/or quotients of base quantities. Likewise, derived units are products and/or
quotients of base units, depending on them for their derivation.

For example the volume of a rectangular prism is given by:

volume = length × width × height

volume = length × length × length

unit of volume = metre × metre × metre

𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 = 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞𝟑 (𝐦𝟑 ) This is read as ‘cubic metre’

Similarly speed is given by the equation,

distance
speed =
time

𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞/𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 (𝐦/𝐬)𝐨𝐫(𝐦𝐬−𝟏 ) This is read as ‘metre per second’

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. Hence,

momentum = mass × velocity

distance
momentum = mass ×
time
metre
unit of momentum = kilogram ×
second
𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐤𝐢𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦 ∙ 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐞/𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝 (𝐤𝐠𝐦/𝐬) 𝐨𝐫 (𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐬−𝟏 ) This is read
as ‘kilogram metre per second’

There are some base and derived units that are given special names, usually in honour of a
scientist who pioneered or was influential in that field of study.

Special Base Units:


The unit for electric current the Ampere – The unit of thermodynamic temperature,
named after André-Marie Ampère (1775 – the Kelvin was named after Lord Kelvin
1836), French physicist who is credited (1824 – 1907), a British physicist who
with the discovery of electromagnetism – proposed the absolute temperature scale
the relationship between electric currents and established the second law of
and magnetic fields. thermodynamics.

Special Derived Units

There are many derived units that are named after great scientists. We will look at
numerous scientists as we progress through the different topics in the syllabus. Below are a
few:

The Newton named after Sir Isaac Newton is the unit for force. It is defined by the equation

𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Using this equation the Newton can be expressed in base units as the ‘kilogram metre per
square second’

1N = 1kgm/s2 or 1kgms −2

The Joule named after James Prescott Joule is the unit of energy and work done.

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

One Joule is the equivalent of one ‘kilogram square metre per square second’

1J = 1kgm2 /s 2 or 1kgm2 s −2

Table 1.2 – Some Derived Quantities and their Specially Named Units
Quantity Name ofS.I. unit (abbreviation)
Force Newton (N)
Energy Joule (J)
Power Watt (W)
Pressure Pascal (Pa)
Electric potential Volt (V)
Resistance Ohm (Ω)
Capacitance Farad (F)
Charge Coulomb (C)
Radioactivity Becquerel (Bq)/ Curie (Ci)
Magnetic flux density Tesla (T)
Frequency Hertz (Hz)
Inductance Henry (H)
Magnetic flux Weber (Wb)
Conductance Siemen (S)

Prefixes

Prefixes are stated before units to indicate the magnitude or order of the quantity as a
power of ten. For example, kilo – means 103 so 1 kilogram = 1 000 grams.

Table 1.3 – Powers of Ten and their Prefixes


𝟏𝟎𝒏 Prefix Symbol 𝟏𝟎𝒏 Prefix Symbol
–12 pico– p 1 deka– da
–9 nano– n 2 hecto– h
–6 micro– 𝜇 3 kilo– k
–3 milli– M 6 Mega– M
–2 centi– C 9 Giga– G
–1 deci– D 12 Tera– T
*The use of prefixes or standard form is encouraged to increase thepresentability of data,
especially when working with very large or minute values.

Let us now take a look at the first three base quantities in detail.

Length and the metre

Length is defined as the amount of space between any two objects. It can take several other
names, for example distance, displacement, height, radius, and circumference among many
others.

Interesting fact: Length has many different units and scales by which it is measured.
Common units include the mile, yard, pace, cubit, span and inch. All these units were at
some point used as the standard but would constantly change. For example, the yard was in
the 12th century defined as the distance between the nose and outstretched thumb of King
Henry I of England but when he died his heir had a different length for the yard. What this
meant was total chaos in the measurement of length as the standard constantly changed.
The metric unit (SI unit) for length, the metre, has been defined differently since 1799.

1. 1799 – one ten millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole.
2. 1960 – the distance between two lines on a specific bar of platinum-iridium alloy
stored under controlled conditions.
3. 1960 – 1 650 763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light emitted by a krypton – 86 lamp
4. October 1983 – distance travelled by light in a time interval of 1/299 792 458
second. This latest definition established the speed of light as 299 792 458 metres
per second!

Measuring Length

Length is measured using four principal apparatus in the laboratory:

1. Metre rule (to the nearest 10mm)


2. Ruler (to the nearest 1mm)
3. Vernier Callipers (to the nearest 0.1mm)
4. Micrometre Screw Gauge (to the nearest 0.01mm)*

*All readings are ‘to the nearest’, look at Accuracy and Precision (page 15).

More accurate readings can be done by use of microscopes for microscopic readings, for
example, the diameter of a cell.

The Vernier Callipers

Fig. 1.2 – TheVernier Callipers


The Vernier callipers has two parts: the fixedlinear scale and the movableVernier scale. It
has two pairs of ‘jaws’ that are used to grip objects while measuring. It is used to measure:

1. The internal and external diameters of a cylinderusing the internal jaws and external
jaws respectively.
2. Very small extensions, for example in wires

The linear scale uses the normal metric reading, that is, 1 cm = ten 1mm divisions. The
Vernier scale however is a bit different; it has ten divisions over 0.9 cm, this means that the
gap between each division is 0.01cm (0.1 mm).

How to use a Vernier callipers

When reading a Vernier callipers:

1. Take the linear scale reading before the Vernier scale zero;
2. Look for a point where the linear scale and Vernier scale graduations are aligned,
that is,where they coincide.Count the number of Vernier scale graduations up to and
including the graduation of coincidence;
3. Add it to the linear scale reading.

Example: What is the thickness of the wooden block?

Fig. 1.3 – Reading a VernierCallipers

Solution:

Using our three steps

1. Linear scale reading before Vernier scale zero is 3.0 mm;


2. The scales have markings that coincide at the 5thVernier graduation (0.1 × 5 = 0.5
mm);
3. Final reading is 𝟑. 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟑. 𝟓 mm.
The Micrometre Screw Gauge

Fig. 1.4 – The Micrometre Screw Gauge

The micrometre has seven parts:

1. Frame – the main body


2. Anvil – minor jaw
3. Spindle – longer jaw
4. Jaws – anvil and spindle, used to clamp the object
5. Thimble – a screw with 50 graduations each of size 0.01mm
6. Barrel – has the linear scale
7. Ratchet – clicks when the necessary pressure on the closing jaws is exceeded

It is used to measure:

1. Thickness of very thin materials, for example wires, strings or 100 sheets of paper.
2. Diameters of a tiny cylindrical object or a circular cross section.

How to use a Micrometre Screw Gauge

When using a Micrometre Screw Gauge:

1. Take the linear scale reading from the barrel before the thimble. The linear scale has
whole millimetres on one side and 0.5 millimetre graduations on the other;
2. Take down the reading on the thimble that coincides with the horizontal scale on the
linear scale;
3. Add this reading to the sleeve reading.
Example: What reading is on this micrometre?

Fig. 1.5 – Reading a Micrometre Screw Gauge

Solution:

Using our three steps

1. Barrel reading is 1.00 mm;


2. Thimble reading that coincides with horizontal axis is 28, that is, 28 × 0.01 = 0.28
mm;
3. Final reading is 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 mm.

Exercise 1A

Questions onVernierCallipers

1. Read the following Vernier caliper measurements.


2. What are the readings of the following Verniercallipers?

3. What are the readings shown by the Verniercallipers below

10

4. The diagrams below show the scale of a pair of Vernier callipers. The one on the left
shows a zero error reading when the jaws are closed. The one on the right shows the
reading of the length of an object. What is the actual length of the object?
Questions on Micrometre Screw Gauge
1. Read the following micrometre readings

2. What are the readings on the following micrometre screw gauges:


a) b)
3. The diagrams below show readings of a micrometre screw gauge. The one on the left
shows the zero error reading when the screw gauge was closed, the one on the right
show the reading when the screw gauge is being used to measure the diameter of a
ball bearing.

What is the diameter of the ball bearing?

General Questions on Measurement of Length

1. What would you use to measure


1. Thickness of your science textbook : ____________________
2. Diameter of a beaker : ____________________
3. Length of the table : ____________________
4. Length of a pen : ____________________
2. A length of copper pipe, of uniform cross section and several metres long, carries
water to a tap. What two instruments are used to take measurements to calculate
accurately the volume of copper in the pipe?
3. The diameter of a ball bearing was measured as accurately as possible using the
following instruments: metre rule, Verniercallipers and micrometre. The table below
shows the readings obtained. Complete the table to show which instrument
produced each reading

4. Give the name of the instrument most suitable for measuring


1. The diameter of a wire
2. The volume of a small stone
3. The diameter of a soft drinks can
Time and the second

Time is defined as the interval between any two events. It is basically duration of a period.

Interesting fact: There are many different scales to measure time: the day, hour, decade
and century are some examples. Since the average solar day has 24 × 60 × 60 seconds, the
SI unit of time, the second, was in 1900 defined as the 1/86 400 of the average solar day. In
1967 it was redefined as 9 192 631 700 times the period of oscillation of radiation from the
caesium atom. This exact definition is based on the atomic clock (see below).

Fig. 1.6 – The atomic clock; this ‘reference’ clock is so accurate it


will neither gain nor lose a second in 20 million years!

Measuring Time

The S.I. unit of time is the second.

In ancient times, time was measured using many different devices including the sundial and
hourglass. In school laboratories, time can be measure by two principal apparatus:

1. Digital stopwatch (to the nearest 0.01s);


2. Analogue clock (to the nearest 1s).

We can use these apparatus to measure a wide range of intervals, from the duration of a
test to the period of a swinging pendulum
Mass and the kilogram

Mass is defined as the amount of matter in a material.

Interesting fact: The kilogram is defined as the mass of a specific platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measure in Sevrès, France. This is
not much of a definition is it? This is because while we can define mass as the amount of
matter in a material, scientists have been trying to answer the question, “what gives matter
its matter”. In 1963, Peter Higgs forwarded the theory of a subatomic particle henceforth
called the Higg’s boson which acted like glue and combined elementary particles to form
mass immediately after the Big Bang. The Higg’s boson (commonly called the ‘God particle’)
was identified in 2012 at CERN in Switzerland. Its discovery may mean one day we will be
able to fully explain what matter is and in turn, explain the making of something from
nothing, that is, understand creation.

Measuring Mass
Mass can be measure by 3 principal apparatus in the laboratory:
1. Triple beam balance (to the nearest 0.01g);
2. Modern electronic balance (to the nearest 0.001g);
3. Modern analytical balance (to the nearest 0.0001g).

Fig. 1.7 – The triple beam balance Fig. 1.8 – The modern electronic balance

Fig. 1.9 – The modern analytical balance


Measurement Techniques

Errors

Whenever a measurement is taken there is a chance of making an error. An error may arise
from the instrument and/or experimental procedure used (called systematic errors) or from
the experimenter (called random errors).

Fig.

1.10 – Types of errors

Systematic Errors

These are errors in readings and calculations that result from:


22
1. Incorrect assumption – for example assuming 𝜋 = 4 instead of or g = 10 instead
7
of 9.81 will give an incorrect answer when calculating;
2. Instrumental malfunction – the most common of these is the zero error; this is when
an instrument has a reading even before a measurement has been taken. In other
words, the pointer of a balance is not on zero before the measurement is made.
Other examples of this error are an oversensitive thermometer and a fast stopwatch;
3. Erroneous experimental procedure – if we omit a step or rearrange a series of steps
in an experiment, the result may be different from the expected;
4. Wrong method of assembly of apparatus – the misplacement or omission of a piece
of apparatus may give faulty measurements. For example, fractional distillation
without the fractionating column will not produce pure liquids.

Systematic errors are constant. They cannot be correct by repeating the experiment. This
means that the final result will miss the actual answer by the same value each time the
experiment is carried out. They can only resolved by:

1. Recalibrating the instrument – this means getting the instruments fixed (particularly
in the event of a fast stopwatch or oversensitive thermometer) so that the
instrument measures correctly;
2. Changing the instrument;
3. Taking the error into consideration during final recordings and calculations (zero
error).
Random Errors

Measurements can be faulty due to:

1. Parallax error – this is the most common random error; it is introduced into a
measurement when the experimenter takes readings at an angle to the meniscus or
level of the reading rather than in line with it. This means that the readings taken at
an angle will give a false recording;
2. Fluctuations in external physical conditions – changes in wind speed and direction,
humidity, atmospheric pressure, temperature and light intensity may affect the
results of an experiment;
3. Limitations experienced by the experimenter/observer – the student may experience
a delayed reaction time, lack of sensitivity, colour blindness and even experimental
approach.

Random errors change constantly throughout the experiment and can be minimised by
repeating the experiment and determining theaverage.

Uncertainty, Precision and Accuracy

As you will have noticed by now, all measurements are estimated “to the nearest”. This is
because regardless of how well a measurement is taken, a degree of uncertainty remains
due to the instrument used. For example, in measuring the thickness of a book, using a
metre rule would bring a large uncertainty into the reading. This is because the metre rule
has a low precision. A student will be more comfortable measuring the thickness of a book
using a Verniercallipers or micrometre screw gauge. Why? We are more likely to get a
measurement that is not scattered if we use instruments with smaller graduations than if
we used those with large readings.

The uncertainty of a measurement is simply the doubt that arises from the reading. The
more precise an instrument, the smaller the uncertainty in the measurement. The
uncertainty corresponds to the smallest graduation (calibration) on the instrument, for
example an analytical balance gives a reading that is at most ±0.0001g from the actual
value.

Precision is the measure of the size of the smallest measurement that can be made by an
instrument. The smaller the possible measurement the more precise a reading is. For
example using the instruments of length stated earlier, a reading may have the following
measurements:
Table 1.4 – Readings from different instruments of length for the same object
Instruments Reading
Rule 170mm
Ruler 173mm
Verniercallipers 173.4mm
Micrometre screw gauge 173.39mm

This shows that while the readings of the other instruments are not incorrect, they are not
as precise as the micrometre. Precise readings are not scattered but rather are close to each
other and this depends primarily on the instrument.

Measurements are considered accurate if their average (arithmetic mean) coincides with
the true value; accuracy of a measurement principally lies with the experimenter and the
method of measurement.

Measurements can therefore be classified as one of four categories, as summarised in Fig.


1.11:

Fig.
1.11 – Types of uncertainties in measurements
Revision Questions on Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2009 qp.31)

Solution

To ensure accuracy, we must first check the instrument for zero error. To start the readings
we can slightly displace the piston to a recognisable point (for example, amplitude) and take
multiple readings for ten or fifteen cycles, calculate the average and find period of one up-
and-down cycle of the piston by dividing by the average by the number of cycles used.

November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2009 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2009 qp.32 (IGCSE)


Scalars and Vectors

Scalar Quantities
A scalar is a physical quantity with magnitude only. Magnitude means size. Scalars do not
need the reference to a direction or plane to be fully described. Examples include distance,
length, speed, mass, time, work done, power, energy and volume.

Vector Quantities
A physical quantity with both magnitude and direction is called a vector. Strictly speaking, it
is incorrect to state the value of a vector without stating its direction or the angle it forms
with a plane. Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, momentum and impulse.

How to determine if a quantity is a Scalar or Vector

There are a few equations we can employ to determine if a physical quantity is a vector or a
scalar. It is important to note that for these equations to work we must know the equation
that defines the physical quantity. The equation must have quantities that we already know
to be scalars or vectors.

For scalar quantities:

𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 × 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 = 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫

for example, distance = speed × time

𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 ÷ 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 = 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫

work done
for example, power =
time
𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 × 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫

for example, power = force × velocity

𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 ÷ 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫

weight (a force)
for example, mass =
acceleration due to gravity
For vector quantities:

𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 × 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 = 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫

for example, force = mass × acceleration

𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 ÷ 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 = 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫


mass
for example, velocity =
momentum
𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 ÷ 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫 = 𝐯𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫

velocity
for example, acceleration =
time

Table 1.5 – Comparing scalar and vector quantities

Quantity Scalar Vector


Magnitude 1. 2.
Direction × 1.

Graphical Representation of Vectors

Vectors can be expressed graphically. All vector diagrams must have the following:

1. A pair of axes, perpendicular to each other, for example the Cartesian plane. The
angle that the vector makes with the axes in this plane will be considered the
direction of the vector;
2. The direction of the vector is denoted by an arrow (→) with the arrowhead pointing
in the direction the vector acts. A change in direction results in a change in the sign
of the vector, that is, positive becomes negative and vice versa;
3. A scale – this scale is used to represent the magnitude of the vector accurately.

Resultant Vector

A single vector that has the same effect as all the vectors present is known as the resultant
vector. It is the sum or difference, depending on whether direction is the same direction or
opposite, of all the vectors acting at a point. If two forces act at a point then the resultant
vector is the third side of a vector triangle.

This third side also forms thediagonal of the parallelogram formed when equal and parallel
lines to the two vectors are produced. The resultant vector tail must start at the tail of the
first vector and its head must end at the head of the last vector.
If we consider two vectors ⃗A and ⃗B acting at a point, the resultant vector ⃗R can be expressed
diagrammatically as:

Fig. 1.12 – Addition of vectors

The resultant vector is the same regardless of the order in which vectors are added, as long
as their direction is correct. Hence: ⃗A + ⃗B = ⃗B + ⃗A.

If the vectors are in different directions then the resultant R ⃗ −B


⃗ =A ⃗ as shown:

Fig. 1.13 – Subtraction of vectors

We can obtain the magnitude and direction of the result of two vectors using two methods:

1. Resolution of vectors – this involves the expressing of vectors as components in two


perpendicular planes, for example the Cartesian 𝑥 and 𝑦 planes. The resultant is
calculated as the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle formed and the angle can
be calculated usingtrigonometrical ratios (sin, cos or tan). We will not look at this
method in detail in this syllabus;
2. Scale diagrams – this is the easier of the two methods as it requires no mathematical
brilliance. Scale diagrams are constructions that are employed to diagrammatically
determine the resultant vector. In these diagrams:

1. The length of a line of is the magnitude of the vector according to the given scale.
2. The angle a line makes with the vertical axis or horizontal axis is the direction of that
vector.
Example: Two forces of magnitude 6.0 N and 8.0 N acting at an angle of 40 o to each other
are shown below. Calculate the magnitude and determine the direction of the resultant two
forces.

Fig. 1.14 – Determining the resultant vector

Solution:First, we must establish a scale, for example 1cm: 1N. If we modify the diagram so
that lines parallel to the forces are drawn, the diagonal represents the resultant force R and
the angle it forms 𝑥° with the horizontal plane is its direction as shown:

Fig.1.15 – A ‘parallelogram’ of vectors, the diagonal is the resultant

Using the scale, we measure R using a ruler and measure 𝑥 using a protractor.

Results: 𝐑 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐 𝐍 and 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕° to the horizontal axis (or 𝟕𝟑° to the vertical axis).

Example: The helicopter view below shows two people pulling a stubborn mule.

Find
1. The single force equivalent to the two forces shown.
2. The force that a third person would have to exert to make the net force equal to
zero.
Solution: Modifying the diagram so that it suits our scale diagram, the resultant R and angle
𝑥° to the horizontal are given:

Fig. 1.16 – Using parallelogram of vectors

1. 𝐑 = 𝟏𝟖𝟓 𝐍 and 𝒙 = 𝟕𝟖° to the horizontal axis (or 𝟏𝟐° to the vertical axis).
2. 185 N in the along the line and opposite in direction to the resultant.

Example: A traffic light weighing 100 N hangs from a vertical cable tied to two other cables
that are fastened to a support as shown. The upper cables make angles of 37 o and 53o with
the horizontal. Find the tension in each of the three cables.

Solution: Tension is a force (and therefore a vector). Tension in each cable acts away from
the point where the cables are joined. If we consider the horizontal as the 𝑥 axis and the
vertical as the 𝑦 axis then:
Fig. 1.17 – The forces acting at a point

Since the cable 3 is vertical in the opposite direction of the weight, its tension T 3 is 100 N.

There is no resultant force acting and so the polygon must be closed so that there is no way
of introducing the resultant.This means that the forces are in a state of equilibrium (that is,
balance). Drawing the triangle of vectors:

Fig. 1.18 – The triangle of forces

Results: 𝐓𝟏 = 𝟔𝟎 𝐍, 𝐓𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎 𝐍 and 𝐓𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐍.

NB:
1. A system of vectors is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant vector is zero;
2. A system in equilibrium has a closed shape on its scale diagram;
3. The vector that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant is
called the equilibrant.
Revision Questions on Scalars and Vectors
Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2011 qp.32)

Solution
1.

Physical quantity Scalar or vector


Speed Scalar
Velocity Vector
Distance Scalar
Force Vector
Kinetic energy Scalar
distance 18m
2. (i) speed = = = 𝟏𝟓 𝐦/𝐬
time 1.2s
distance 21m
(ii) time = = 15m/s = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝐬
speed
(iii) Due to friction or air resistance (forces that resist motion, causing a decrease
in speed)
(iv) Velocity is a vector quantity; since the directions are different the average
velocities are also different.

June 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)

November 2001 qp.2 (O Level)


Chapter Two: Kinematics
“There is more to life than simply increasing its speed”

– Mahatma Gandhi

Speed, velocity and acceleration


Kinematics is the mathematics of bodies in motion. This is the study of the relationships
between distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. To fully understand the
relationships between these quantities let us first define them:

Distance – the space covered between two points. It is measured in metres (m).

Displacement – the space covered between two points in a specific direction. Since
displacement considers direction from the starting point to the end, it is distance travelled
in a given direction. It is also measured in metres (m).

Distance is a scalar quantity and displacement is a vector quantity. Since both are lengths
they are measured in metres (m).

Speed – the rate of change of distance. Speed can also be defined by the equation:

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

Velocity – the rate of change of displacement. Velocity can also be defined as the rate of
change of distance in a specific direction or by the equation:

𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity is a vector. Both quantities are measures in metres
per second (m/s). Rate is the change of a quantity with respect to time.

Acceleration – the rate of change of velocity. It can also be defined by the equation:

𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

Acceleration is a vector quantity. It is measured in metres per square second (m/s2). Despite
the definition of accelerating including change in velocity, acceleration is related to change
in speed as well. This is because a ‘change in speed’ can mean one or both of the following:
1. Change in the magnitude of speed – this means that when the speed of a body
increases its velocity changes and the body accelerates;
2. Change in direction – since velocity is a vector, a change in direction means that the
vector changes as well. This means that even when the speed of a body is constant,
if it changes its direction, its velocity changes and therefore the body is said to be
accelerating. A body going round a bend at constant speed is therefore considered
to be accelerating. When we look at dynamics, we will explain this further.

Kinematics and dynamics are the basis of Newtonian mechanics.

When dealing with bodies in motion, it is important to note that there are two types of
motion: linear motion and non-linear motion

Fig.2.1 – The branches of kinematics


In this syllabus we will concentrate more on linear motion in which a body undergoes
uniform acceleration. Notwithstanding, references to non-linear motion will be made at
appropriate times.

Graphical Analysis of Motion

The motion of a body can be expressed as a graph. The shape and gradient (slope) of each
graph are very important to our analysis of the body’s motion as we shall see. There are two
types of graphs that we will encounter:

1. Distance – time graphs/displacement – time graphs;


2. Speed – time graphs/velocity – time graphs.

Distance/Displacement – Time Graphs

change in distance
1. The gradient( )of a distance – time graph gives the speed of the
change in time
body;
change in displacement
2. The gradient( )of a displacement – time graph gives the velocity;
change in time
3. The gradient at any exact time is called the instantaneous speed or velocity.

1. The gradient is zero. Since there is no change in distance with time, the body is
stationary/ at rest

Fig. 2.2 – A body at rest

2. The gradient is uniform. The body is moving with uniform speed or velocity.

Fig. 2.3 – A body moving with uniform speed or velocity


3. The gradient is increasing. The body is moving with increasing speed or velocity.
This means the body is accelerating.

Fig. 2.4 – A body moving with increasing speed or velocity

4. The gradient is decreasing. The body is moving with decreasing speed or velocity.
The body is decelerating.

Fig. 2.5 – A body moving with decreasing speed or velocity

NB:Displacement is a vector. This means that a change in direction also means a change in
sign. It is therefore possible to obtain a negative displacement and have values below the
time axis.To determine the instantaneous speed or velocity in graphs 3 and 4, a tangent
must be drawn at that time and the gradient of the tangent determined, that is, gradient of
tangent = gradient of curve.
Speed/Velocity – Time Graphs

change in speed or velocity


1. The gradient( ) of a speed – time or velocity – time graph
change in time
gives the acceleration of the body. When the gradient is negative, the body is said to
be undergoing deceleration or retardation;

2. The gradient at any exact time is called the instantaneous acceleration (or
deceleration /retardation if gradient is negative);

3. The area under a speed – time graph gives the distance travelled by the body

4. The area under a velocity – time graph gives the displacement travelled by the body

1. The gradient is zero. The body is moving with constant speed or velocity.

Fig. 2.6 – A body moving with constant speed or velocity

2. The gradient is uniform. The body is moving with uniform acceleration.

Fig. 2.7 – A body moving with uniform acceleration


3. The gradient is increasing. The body is moving with increasing acceleration.

Fig. 2.8 – A body moving with increasing acceleration

4. The gradient is decreasing. The body is moving with decreasing acceleration.

Fig. 2.9 – A body moving with decreasing acceleration

It is important to note that since velocity is a vector quantity, a change in direction is


denoted by a change in sign. This means velocity can be negative, this does not mean the
body is decelerating but rather it is moving in the opposite direction. It is important that we
distinguish between decreasing acceleration and deceleration.A body is undergoing
decreasing acceleration if its positive gradient is decreasing but it is undergoing deceleration
if its gradient is negative.
Newton’s Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

These equations can be used as substitutes for graphical analysis if there is no need to draw
a graph. Students are however encouraged to use graphical analysis as much as possible
and resort to the equations of motion only when necessary. If the question involves a graph,
then the equations of motion must not be used. We will use the following symbols:

Initial velocity – 𝑢 Distance – 𝑠 Acceleration – 𝑎

Final velocity – 𝑣 Time – 𝑡

Equation 1:

change in velocity
from the formula: acceleration =
time
final velocity − initial velocity
acceleration =
time
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑢

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

Equation 2:

since, total distance = average speed × total time

final velocity + initial velocity


distance = ( ) × time
2

𝒗+𝒖
𝒔=( )𝒕
𝟐

Equation 3:

from the equation: total distance = average speed × total time

final velocity + initial velocity


distance = ( ) × time
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝑠=( )𝑡
2
𝑣−𝑢
but from Equation 1 𝑡 =
𝑎
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
substituting 𝑡: 𝑠 = ( )( )
2 𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑠=( )
2𝑎

2𝑎𝑠 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Equation 4:

total distance = average speed × total time

final velocity + initial velocity


distance = ( ) × time
2
𝑣+𝑢
𝑠=( )𝑡
2

but from Equation 1 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

(𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡) + 𝑢
substituting 𝑣: 𝑠 = ( )𝑡
2

2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠=( )𝑡
2
2𝑢 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 = ( )𝑡 + ( )𝑡
2 2

𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

Questions on Kinematics

Example:A truck on a straight road starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 2 m/s 2 until
it reaches a speed of 20 m/s. The truck travels for 20s at constant speed then the brakes are
applied, stopping the truck in a uniform manner after an additional 5s.

1. How long is the truck in motion?

2. What is the average velocity of the truck during the motion described?
Solution:Since the question has not asked us specifically to use a graph as part of our
answer, we can use either method to tackle this challenge.

Using graphical analysis:

We must first come up with a correct speed time graph that describes the motion of the
truck over the three stages:

Fig. 2.10

1. we know that acceleration is the gradient of the graph so


20 − 0
acceleration = 2 =
𝑡−0
𝑡 = 10s
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑𝟓𝐬

2. total distance = area under graph (trapezium)


1
total distance = (20 + 35)(20)
2
total distance = 550m
total distance
avearge speed =
total time
550
average speed =
35
𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝐦/𝐬

Using Newton’s equations:

1. Our journey is divided into three parts: we have been given the time for the last two
but we must find the time for the first part:
𝑣−𝑢
from Equation 1: 𝑡 =
𝑎
20 − 0
𝑡=
2
𝑡 = 10s
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟑𝟓𝐬

2. We must find distance for each stage.


1
First stage: s1 = 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑢 = 0)
2
1
𝑠1 = (2)(10)2
2
𝑠1 = 100m
Second stage: s2 = 𝑢𝑡 (𝑎 = 0)
𝑠2 = 20 × 20
𝑠2 = 400m
Third stage: we must first find the deceleration of the truck
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
0 − 20
𝑎=
5
𝑎 = −4 m/s 2
1
s3 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑠3 = (20)(5) + (−4)(5)2
2
𝑠3 = 50m
Total distance = 100 + 400 + 50 = 550m
total distance
Average speed =
total time
550
Average speed =
35
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝐦/𝐬

Example:A jet plane lands with a speed of 100m/s and decelerates at a rate of 5m/s 2 as it
comes to rest.

1. From the instant the plane touches the runway, what is the minimum time needed
before it can come to rest?

2. Can this plane land on a small tropical island airport where the runway is 0.8 km
long?

Using graphical analysis:


Fig. 2.11

1. we know that acceleration is the gradient of the graph so


0 − 100
acceleration = −5 =
𝑡−0
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝐬

2. total distance = area under graph (triangle)


1
total distance = (100)(20)
2
total distance = 1000m = 1 km
total distance > 0.8 𝑘𝑚
∴ 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐭 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐬 𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡

Using Newton’s equations:

1. 𝑢 = 100; 𝑎 = −5 (deceleration); 𝑣 = 0 (comes to rest)


𝑣−𝑢
𝑡=
𝑎
0 − 100
𝑡=
−5
𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎𝐬

1
2. 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2
1
𝑠 = (100)(20) + (−5)(20)2
2
𝑠 = 1000m = 1 km
total distance > 0.8 𝑘𝑚
∴ 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐢𝐭 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐬 𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
Exercise 3A

Use graphical analysis and the equations of motion to answer the following questions

1. A steam catapult launches a jet aircraft from an aircraft carrier, giving it a speed of
280 km/h in 2.5s.
1. Find the average acceleration of the plane.
2. Assuming that the acceleration is constant, find the distance the plane moves.

3. A drag racer starts her car from rest and accelerates at 10 m/s 2 for a distance of
400m.
1. How long did it take the car to travel this distance?
2. What is the average speed of the car during the motion described?
3. A certain car is capable of accelerating at 0.6m/s2. How long does it take for this car
from 88 km/h to 96 km/h?

Hint: Work with SI units only. Change km/h into m/s by the equation

1000
𝑥 m/s = 𝑦 km/h ×
3600

Motion under Gravity

Free Fall

When an object near the surface of the Earth falls it is said to be in ‘free fall’. This means it
accelerates due to the action of its weight in the Earth’s gravitational field. This acceleration,
called the acceleration of free fall or the acceleration due to gravity is constant for motion
close to the Earth. It is given a symbol, g, and has a numerical magnitude of approximately
10 m/s2.

Terminal Velocity

More often than not the acceleration of a body is not constant as it falls in a uniform
gravitational field. This is because unlike in an ideal situation (a body falling in a vacuum or
space where only the weight acts on the body), real scenarios involve a body falling through
a fluid, for example air and there are other forces that act on the body.

These forces areupthrustand air resistance. As we shall see in Chapter 5, Density, Mass and
Volume, the upthrust is due to the fluid displaced by the body as it falls. The air resistance
(also called viscous drag) increases with speed. Think of it this way, the faster an object
moves in air the more ‘wind’ it experiences. This ‘wind’ is air resistance.
Initially, as a body falls in air, it accelerates at 10 m/s2; this is because only the weight acts.
However, as it falls it also experiences an upthrust and air resistance in the opposite
direction. This decreases the resultant acceleration and since air resistance increases with
speed, the faster the body moves, the greater the resistive force it experiences. Eventually
the upward resistive forces become equal to the downward force (weight). This causes the
body to be in equilibrium and there is no resultant force. This causes the body to move at a
constant maximum velocity called the terminal velocity. The three stages can be
summarised as follows:

weight > 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 + 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 The body accelerates uniformly


at 𝐠

weight ≈ upthrust + air resistance The acceleration of the decreases, a < 𝐠

weight = upthrust + air resistance The acceleration becomes zero and the
body moves at terminal velocity, a = 0

This can also be demonstrated on a speed – time graph:

Fig. 2.12 – Terminal Velocity

When dealing with questions that involve motion under gravity, it is important that we
remember that the acceleration due to gravity acts vertically downward. This means that a
body that is moving up is going against gravity and experiences a negative acceleration, that
is, deceleration equal to minus g (– 10 m/s2).

Terminal velocity is a constant velocity attained by a falling object which occurs when the
force due to gravity is equal to the force due to air resistance. Under these conditions there
is no resultant force and hence no resultant acceleration.
Questions on Motion under Gravity

Example: A ball is thrown vertically upward with a speed of 25 m/s

1. How high does it rise?


2. How long does it take to reach its highest point?
3. What is its velocity when it reaches to the level from which it started?
4. For this motion draw the:
1. Distance – time graph
2. Displacement – time graph
3. Speed – time graph
4. Velocity – time

Solution: Just as in linear motion, we can and will employ both methods to tackle these
challenges

Using graphical analysis:

Fig. 2.13

1. we know that accleration is − 10m/s 2


25 − 0
gradient = −10 =
0−𝑡
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝐬

2. height reached = area under first part of graph (triangle)


1
height = (2.5)(25)
2
𝐡𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝐦
3. since the object returns to its original position, the displacement = 0.
This means that:
area of first part of graph − area of second part of graph𝑠 = 0.
Since time to go up = time to return:
1
31.25 − (2.5) × 𝑣 = 0
2
𝑣 = 25
∴ 𝒗 = −𝟐𝟓𝐦/𝐬

Using Newton’s equations:

1. 𝑢 = 25; 𝑎 = −10 (deceleration); 𝑣 = 0 (comes to rest at maximum height)


𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑠=
2𝑎
(0)2 − (25)2
𝑠=
2(−10)
−625
𝑠=
−20
𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝐦

𝑣−𝑢
2. 𝑡= 𝑎
0 − 25
𝑡=
−20
𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝐬

3. since the object is now falling down we have a new set of values for 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢:
𝑢 = 0; 𝑎 = +10; 𝑠 = 31.25
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑣 2 = (0)2 + 2(10)(31.25)
𝑣 = 25
since the speed in the opposite direction, the velocity changes sign
∴ 𝒗 = −𝟐𝟓𝐦/𝐬
Revision Questions on Kinematics

Questions on Distance/Displacement – Time Graphs

Worked Example: IGSCE (June 2012 qp.31)


Solution

1. (i) Increasing speed (acceleration)


(ii) Uniform speed
(iii) Decreasing speed (deceleration or retardation)
total distance 400m
2. (i) average speed = = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝐦/𝐬
total time 60s

350−70
(ii) max speed = greatest slope = grad BC = = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦/𝐬
45−15

June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)


Questions on Speed/Velocity – Time Graphs

Worked Example: O Level (June 2008 qp.2)


Solution

1. Kinetic energy is changed to heat and sound

2. (i) thinking distance = 30 × 1 = 30m (constant speed while thinking)


1
(ii) braking distance = area under graph during braking = 2 × 4 × 30 = 𝟔𝟎𝐦
0−30 30
(iii) deceleration = =− = 7.5m/s2 (deceleration is already negative)
5−1 4
(iv) F = ma = 800 × 7.5 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐍

3. (i) Greater tractive force (friction), larger deceleration and therefore shorter
braking distance

(ii) Less friction, smaller deceleration and consequently bigger braking distance

(iii) Less deceleration therefore larger braking distance


June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2009 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)


Chapter Three: Dynamics and Forces
“Don’t fight with forces, use them.”
– R. Buckminster Fuller

Dynamics is the study of the motion of bodies and the forces that cause this motion. The
study of kinematics and dynamics is generically called Newtonian Mechanics – thus named
after Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) who pioneered this field of physics.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law: The Law of Inertia

A body remains in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to
act otherwise by an external resultant force.

This law introduces us to a concept that we are all familiar with but as of yet may not fully
understand – inertia.

Greek: inertia: lazy/reluctant

Inertia is the tendency of a mass to resist changes to its motion. A moving body will resists
stopping while a stationary body will resist starting to move. From the law, a body will
remain in its state of

1. Rest, that is, it remainsstationary or


2. Uniform motion in a straight line, that is, constant velocity

unless a resultant force acts on it. As we noted in the previous chapter, when a body
changes direction it is said to accelerate. This means that even when the speed remains the
same, a change in direction causes a change in the velocity and this can only be done if a
resultant force acts on the body.

Inertia is the measure of a body’s mass. That is why mass can be defined as a measure of
inertia

𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐚 ∝ 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

This means the bigger the mass, the greater the inertia, for example it is very difficult to
push-start a haulage truck or to stop a train. Small masses however can easily be moved or
stopped.

Closely related to inertia is another property of a moving object: momentum. Momentum is


defined by the equation
𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲

It is important to note that if a moving body has a large momentum; it also has a large
inertia. Take the example of a bullet – even though it has a small mass, the velocity is high,
usually about 300 m/s and this makes it difficult to stop and can go through walls and doors
with minimal change to its speed.

Inertia therefore is not just a measure of a body’s mass but also its momentum.

Newton’s Second Law: The Definition of a Force

When a force is applied to a body, the body will gain an acceleration which is directly
proportional to the force applied on the body and takes place in the direction of the force.

This law defines the resultant force.

Force = rate of change of momentum

change in momentum
=
time
final momentum − initial momentum
=
time
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐹=
𝑡
𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
=
𝑡
(𝑣 − 𝑢)
but = 𝑎 (Newton′ s 1st equation)
𝑡

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

This law states that a force will change a body’s momentum. This can be done in two ways:

1. Change in the magnitude of the speed – this change in speed over a given period is
acceleration. If a force causes the speed of a body to decrease, then the force is
called a retarding or decelerating force. A common example is friction.
2. A change in the direction of the body – since a change in direction causes a change in
the velocity of the body; it also causes acceleration, even when speed is constant.
The body moves in the direction in which the force is applied.For example, when a
car goes round a bend or when planets orbit around the sun, they both experience a
force that causes the body to maintain a circular motion, or elliptical path in the case
of planets, around the fixed centre of rotation. This force that acts towards the
centre of rotation of all bodies moving in circular paths is called the centripetal
force.

From the first two laws of motion we obtain the three definitions of a force, we will state
them now and look at them in detail at a later stage in this chapter:

Definitions of Force:

1. A force is that which changes a body’s state of motion (from 1 st law)


2. A force is the rate of change of momentum of a body (from 2 nd law)
3. A force is the product of mass and acceleration (from 2nd law)

Newton’s Third Law: Equilibrium

Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

This law gives us an ideal state of equilibrium of forces. Let us use an example to illustrate
this law further: if one body B1 exerts a force F1 on a second body B2, then B2 exerts an equal
and opposite F2 on the first body.

Fig. 3.1 – Action and reaction are equal and


opposite

From the law we obtain the equations

F1 = F2

F1 − F2 = 0

Notice that the two forces act on two different bodies. F1 acts on B2 and F2 acts on B1.
Usually this law seems implausible (unbelievable) and even at times, irrational. This is
because there are other factors that are at play in different circumstances.
Fig. 3.2 – Weight and normal reaction are equal and opposite

Let us look at a few examples where this law seems ‘wrong’ yet is in fact in application

Table 3.1 – Examples of the Application of Newton’s Third Law


Example Explanation
Kicking a ball makes it fly but the The kicker has a larger mass and therefore a larger
kicker remains standing inertia. If the mass of the kicker and the ball were the
same the kicker would ‘fly’ in the opposite direction too!
A gun shoots According to this law, the force acting on the gun and
the bullet must be equal and opposite. This is true; as
the bullet flies forward, the gun recoils in the opposite
direction. If not handled carefully, a gun can sprain or
even break the shooters wrist contrary to the Hollywood
shooting sprees on TV
Punching a wall This causes pain; humans are made of flesh and bone
and the nerves are sensitive. Its mass, material and
density will make it seem otherwise, but if we had hands
of concrete, then the walls would ‘feel’ the impact too
A book resting on a table The weight of the book that acts on the table is
countered by an equal and upward force called the
normal reaction that acts on the book
Every male action There is an equal and opposite female overreaction!

Forces

There are two types of forces:

1. Contact forces
2. Field forces
Fig.
3.3 – Types of forces
A contact force is a force that results from physical contact between two surfaces.
Examples: friction, normal reaction and tensioncontact forces are generally non-
conservative

Field force: a force that 'acts-at-a-distance'. There is an invisible influence exerted


throughout the space between objectsexamples: gravitational, magnetic, electrostatic,
centripetal and centrifugal forcesnon-contact forces are generally conservative

Conservative forces: Weight

A gravitational field is a region of force in which a mass experiences a force due to


gravitational attraction of every other mass in the field. This means that every mass is
attracted to every other mass even for people who do not like each other! The Earth, like
most planets, exerts its own gravitational force of attraction on masses near it. The effect of
a gravitational field on a mass is called its weight. Since weight is a force;

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

If a mass 𝑚kg experiences a gravitational acceleration g, then its weight 𝑊 is given by:

𝑾 = 𝒎𝐠

It isimportant to note that while the weight of an object may change depending on the
strength of the gravitational field the object is in, its mass is always constant! The table
shows the differences between mass and weight

Table 3.2 – Differences between mass and weight


Mass Weight
The amount s matter in a substance The force of gravity acting on a substance
Measured in kilograms (kg) Measured in Newtons (N)
Measured using a beam balance Measured suing a forcemeter
Remains constant Changes from place to place depending on
the force of gravity
A scalar quantity A vector quantity
Non-conservative forces: Friction
Friction is a force that opposes motion. There are two types of friction: solid and fluid.

Solid friction – this occurs between surfaces in the solid state. It either slows down a moving
object (called kinetic friction) or prevents a body from starting to move (called static
friction).

Friction has several effects on the motion of a body:

1. It either slows down a moving object body or prevents a body from starting to move
which is called static friction. Friction has several effects on the motion of a body.
During rain, the oils and water on road surfaces form a layer that reduces the
contact between tyres and the road. This decreases friction, increases braking
distances and skidding so that the total stopping distances greatly increases. This
means drivers must drive at lower speeds in wet conditions.
2. Helps us walk by not only keeping us steady but sturdy – it explains why when we
walk on tiled floors wearing socks only, it is difficult to balance or walk straight. This
is why cats cannot move on polished floors, their padded feet have no ‘grip’.
3. It causes wearing down of surfaces – shoe soles and machinery parts are common
examples of surfaces that erode due to excessive friction. It can be reduces by using
lubrication in the form or air, oil or graphite.

Factors Affecting Friction

1. Normal reaction – the weight of the body is proportional to the friction it


experiences. The greater the mass, the greater its weight and hence the greater the
frictional force it experiences.
2. Coefficient of friction – the nature of the surfaces in contact. Rough surfaces
experience great frictional forces while smooth surfaces are almost frictionless.

Friction is independent of surface area of contact – this means that if two bodies have
equal weight are placed on a rough surface such that the area in contact is different, they
will still experience the same frictional force!

Fluid friction – this is friction that acts on a body moving in a liquid or gas. Fluid friction is
specifically viscous drag but may also be used to describe air resistance. It is dependent on
the viscosity of the fluid – this is why we can run in air but not in water. It is also affected by
the area of contact, that is why fast moving cars have streamlined bodies so that most of the
‘wind’ does not ‘hit’ the vehicle directly. A look at fluid friction and fluids in general will be
made in the kinetic theory.

Effects of a Force
When a force acts on a body it may have several effects. These include changing the

1. Speed
2. Direction
3. Length
4. Shape
5. Size

of an object.

Effect on Speed: The Case of Linear Motion

From Newton’s second law, a resultant force will cause a change in the momentum of a
body. This can be a change in the magnitude of the speed. If the force is in the same
direction as the motion of the body, the body accelerates and its speed increases. If the
force opposes the motion, the body undergoes deceleration or retardation and its speed
decreases.

Effect on Direction: The Case of Centripetal Motion

Acceleration can also be a change in the direction of a body. According to Newton’s second
law, the rate of change of momentum takes place in the direction of the force. Simply put,
the body moves in the direction in which the resultant force acts. The case of centripetal
force is a unique example. When a body moves in a circular path, the centripetal force
causes the body to maintain the circular path about a fixed centre of rotation. The
centripetal force is always directed towards the centre of rotation. Examples in which
centripetal force is acting are a car going round a bend, planets orbiting the sun, the moon
and other satellites orbiting the Earth, the movement of electrons around the nucleus of an
atom, the whirling a mass attached to a length of string and the angle of banking of cars as
they go around a bend are all examples in which centripetal force acts. Centripetal force is
peculiar in that acceleration acts towards the centre of rotation, velocity is at right angles to
the curved path:

Fig. 3.4 – Centripetal Motion

Effect on Length: The Case of Young’s Modulus and Hooke’s Law


As people we live with many forces acting all around us. These forces cause stresses on us
and stresses can lead to strains on our relationships and health. The same happens to
materials: when a load is exerted on a wire tensile stresses are applied to the ends of a
wire, it undergoes an extension, and this produces a tensile strain.

The force is directly proportional to the extension produced if the proportionality limit is not
exceeded. This is called Hooke’s law.

𝐹∝𝑥

𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙

Where 𝐹 is the load, 𝑥 is the extension produced and 𝑘 is Hooke’s constant which is also
called the spring constant.

This relationship can be expressed on a force – extension graph:

Fig. 3.5 – Force-extension graph (Hooke’s Law)

This relationship is true up to the limit of proportionality. This is the point at which the
extension of the wire or spring is no longer proportional to the load. Beyond this point, a
small force will produce a very large extension. This occurs up to the elastic limit. This is the
point beyond which a material will undergo permanent deformation. If a material is
extended to the elastic limit it will retain its shape when unloaded. If this limit is exceeded it
is deformed permanently (plastic deformation).

Effect on Shape: The Shear Stress

When the shape of a body is changed by the action of a force, the force is said to be a shear
(twist) force.
Fig. 3.6 – The action of a shear force

Effect on Size: The Bulk Stress

The volume (size) of a body can be changed by the action of a force.

When a force changes the volume of a body, it is called a bulk stress:

Fig. 3.7 – The action of a bulk force

So far, the action of a force has been limited to linear (translational) motion or change in a
physical property (length, size and shape). A resultant force (or pair of forces) can also cause
rotational motion. This leads us to two very important and practical effects: the moment of
a force and torque of a couple.

Moment of a Force

This is the turning effect of a force. The moment of a force is defined by the equation

𝐌𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐩𝐢𝐯𝐨𝐭

If there is a resultant moment, the system undergoes rotational motion, that is, it turns
about the pivot (Fig. 3.8).
Fig. 3.8 – The ‘turning effect’ of a force is called its moment

We encounter this effect on many occasions in our everyday lives; opening a door, rocking a
chair and pushing a wheel barrow. Our bodies are machines that use this effect as well; the
hinge joints at the elbow and knee and the socket joints of the shoulder, pelvis and ankle all
act as pivots. When there is no resultant moment that acts on a system, we say it is in
equilibrium.

Principle of Moments

For an object in equilibrium: the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the
sum of the anti-clockwise moments about that point.

𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 = 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

Fig. 3.9 – A system in equilibrium

In equilibrium:

𝑚1 g × 𝑥1 = 𝑚2 g × 𝑥2

Torque of a Couple

A couple is a pair of equal forces acting in opposite directions that are separated by a fixed
distance. They cause rotational motion about the centre of the distance between them. This
is called the torque of the couple.

Torque – the turning effect of a couple. It is defined by the equation:


𝐓𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬

This effect is of great importance in the motor and mechanics fields because it effective
shows the power of an engine.

Equilibrium

For a body or system to be in equilibrium (or balance) there are three conditions that must
be achieved:

1. Resultant force in any plane must be equal to zero


2. Resultant moment or torque in any plane must be equal to zero

Centre of Mass

If you wanted to drag a toddler across a room, would you pull their finger? Would you lift a
25 kg sack of rice by the end? Would you push a table across a room by using a corner? I am
pretty sure the response to all three (quite silly) questions was no. Despite appearing
simple, the questions point out something we take for granted: even though every part of
an object has a mass, there is a section that the mass seems to be ‘concentrated’. This is
called the centre of mass and is defined as the point at which the entire mass of a body may
be considered to act. It is also the point at which an applied force produces acceleration
without rotation.

The centre of gravity is the point at which the entire weight of a body can be considered to
act. Usually the centre of mass and centre of gravity coincide. While this means they may
occur at the same point the terms refer to two different physical quantities (mass and
weight) and many students make the wrong assumption that they may be used
interchangeably.

The centre of gravity (c.g.) of a uniform regular shape or object can be easily determined
using geometric construction and mathematical calculations, for example, the centre of
gravity of a rectangle is the point of intersection of its two diagonals. Similarly, the centre of
gravity of a cube is the geometric centre of the object. In some cases however, the c.g. is not
as easily determined as shown below:

Determining the Centre of Mass (or Gravity) of a Plane Lamina

A lamina is a uniform flat object. To determine the centre of mass we use the following
steps:
1. Drill three holes close to the edges of the lamina at about 120° angles to each other.
2. Suspend the lamina from each hole using an optical pin. Use a plumbline to
determine a straight vertical line from the hole. Draw this line.
3. Repeat step 2 using the two remaining holes
4. The point of coincidence (intersection) of the lines is the centre of mass (or gravity)

Using a triangular lamina with vertices A, B and C:

Hanging the lamina at A Hanging the lamina at B

Fig. 3.10(a)
Fig. 3.10(b)

Hanging the lamina at C The centre of gravity is the point at which


all three lines intersect:

Fig. 3.10(c)

Fig. 3.10(d)
Stability

A body is considered unstable if its centre of mass acts outside its base. This means that
there is a net moment and the body topples. An object will position itself in such a way that
it is most stable. This is achieved primarily by two means:

1. Low centre of mass (or centre of gravity)


2. Wide base area

1. Low centre of mass – this means that most of the mass (and therefore its weight) of
the object is positioned near the ground. The object is therefore unlikely to fall over
if it is slightly displaced by pulling or pushing.

Common examples:
1. Double-decker buses are made of two halves; the lower half is made of steel and the
top is made of aluminium which has a considerably lower density. This means that
the centre of mass of the whole bus is near the base because steel is the heavier
material. The passengers on the upper deck do not stand – this lowers the centre of
mass of each passenger and consequently the bus is more stable.
2. Racing cars are very low – this allows them to have a very low centre of mass and
these cars rarely overturn even at high speeds (sometimes about 250 km/h!) while it
is easy for large vehicles to overturn and roll over.
3. The foundation and lower sections of a skyscraper (very tall building) is made of
materials with a higher density than the material used to make the upper sections.
4. In contact sports such as rugby and American football, when a player gets into a ‘hit’
they crouch; this lowers their c.g. and makes them less likely to fall over in contact.

5. Wide base area – this does two things:


1. Distributes the mass (and weight) of the object at a low height above the ground,
that is, ‘lowers’ the centre of mass.
2. A wide base area means that even when an object is displaced by a pull or push, it is
unlikely that the centre of mass acts outside the base and so it will return to its
original position when the force is removed.

Common examples:
1. Racing cars have wide tyres; this increases the base area of the car and so the c.g.
rarely acts outside the bas and the cars rarely overturn. On the other hand
professional cyclist use bicycles with very thin tyres and can easy fall over is pushed
or pulled.
2. As we walk, we set our feet a certain distance apart. This allows us not to be just
steady but sturdy. This improves our balance and enhances stability hence walking in
a perfect straight line with one step directly in front of the other, for example, on a
tightrope proves to be a very difficult task.

A triangle is a plane shape which best illustrates the concept of stability:

1. When it rests on one of its sides it is stable: this is because it sits on a wide base and
has a low centre of gravity. If it is slightly displaced it returns to its original position
as long at the line of weight acts inside the base.

Fig. 3.11 – When the centre of gravity acts within the base, the object returns to its
original position
2. If the displacement is such that the triangle sits on one of its vertices, it becomes
unstable. This is because the centre of gravity is high and the shape has a very small
base area. Any push or pull causes the weight to act outside the ‘base’ and the body
topples.

Fig 3.12 – If the centre of gravity acts outside the base, the body falls over

A unique example is of an object that is neither stable nor unstable. Such a state is called
neutral equilibrium. Using a sphere as an example,

1. The centre of mass is the same height above the ground at all times
2. The weight always acts through the base

These facts mean a sphere, or a cylinder lying on its side cannot topple over and is always in
equilibrium.

Revision Questions on Dynamics and Forces


General Questions on Forces and Weight

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2008 qp.32)

Solution
1. The force acting down the slope is equal to the frictional force acting up the slope
hence there is no net force (forces are in equilibrium).
2. (i) Accelerating force acting down the slope is greater than friction (forces are
unbalanced)
(ii) F = ma
(iii) F = ma = 12 × 2 = 24N

3. (i) New resultant force F = 24 + 14 = 38N


F 38
Acceleration a = m = 12 = 3.17 m/s2
38
(ii) v = u + at = 0 + (12) (1.2) = 7.92 m/s
(iii) Gently accelerates down the slope

June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2007 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2005 qp.2 (O Level)

Question on Centripetal Motion

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2009 qp.32)


Solution

1.

2. (i) W = mg = 0.05 × 10 = 0.5N


(ii) total force = W + T = 0.5 + 3.6 = 4.1N
November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)

Questions on Hooke’s Law


Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.32)
Solution

1. (i) Student B

(ii) For loads beyond 2.5 N the load is no longer proportional to the extension.
Unlike in the first three differences in which the extension is constant, in the
4th and 5th readings the load is producing a much greater extension.

2. (i) extension = 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 = 7.7 − 6.7 = 1.0 cm

(ii) original length = 𝑙0.5 − 1 cm = 6.7 − 1.0 = 5.7 cm

1 1
3. extension of each = 2 (extension after load of 2.5 N) = 2 × 5 = 2.5 cm
new length = original length + extension = 5.7 + 2.5 = 8.2 cm
November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)

Questions on Moments and Torque

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2011 qp.31)


k

Solution

1. 1. No resultant force
2. No resultant moment/torque
2. (i) sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments
F × 2 = (20 × 15) + (120 × 33)
1
F = (4260)
2
F = 2130 N
3. sum of forces = 0
2130 + (−20) + (−120) + P = 0
P = −1990
P = 1990 N downwards (same direction as the the 20N and 120N forces)
June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.21 (O Level)
November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)

November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)


June 2008 qp.2 (O Level)

November 2006 qp.2 (O Level)


Chapter Four: Energy, Work and Power
“What is a man without energy? Nothing – nothing at all.”

– Mark Twain

Energy

Lisa gets a marked sheet with a score or 90% and instead of getting the ‘Good!’ she was
expecting, the teachers comment reads ‘has the potential to do better’. Another student,
John, gets 85% and the comment is ‘Can do better, if he studies harder’. These comments
appear harsh don’t they? They are however quite true. The teacher sees that both Lisa and
John are in a position to excel even further than their good marks if they work to their full
potential.

Energy is defined as the ability (or capacity) to do work. It is measured in Joules (J).

Forms of Energy

We have already looked at two major forms in which energy exists. A full list of the forms of
energy we will deal with during this course is stated below:

1. Potential
1. Gravitational
2. Elastic (Strain)
3. Chemical
4. Kinetic
5. Nuclear
6. Internal
7. Electrical
8. Light
9. Sound

Potential Energy

Sometimes this energy possessed by a body due to its position, condition or composition.
This is called potential energy. This dormant ability is sometimes referred to as ‘stored’
energy and it is this type of energy that the teacher refers to when she says can do better,
or has the potential to do better.
There are three types of potential energy:

1. Gravitational Potential Energy


2. Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy)
3. Chemical Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy

Since we have already defined potential energy as being energy possessed by a body due to
its position, the logical question should be “position where?”. Gravitational potential energy
is energy possessed by a body as a consequence of its position in a gravitational field. By
definition
change in potential energy = work done = force × displacement

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑠

Since in a gravitational field, the force that acts on a body is its weight,

𝑎 = g, the acceleration due to gravity

𝑠 = ℎ, the change in vertical height

𝑬𝒑 = 𝒎𝐠𝒉

Elastic Potential Energy – this is energy stored within a stretched (or compressed) material.
The displaced atoms possess energy that allows them to return to their original positions,
provided no permanent damage is made to the material. We looked at this type of energy in
chapter 4.

Chemical Potential Energy is energy stored in a chemical form for use. For example, sunlight
energy is converted and stored as chemical energy by chlorophyll; muscles store chemical
energy in the form of glucose which can be used during respiration for muscle contraction,
movement and thermal energy and batteries store chemical energy which can be changed
into electrical energy in an electrical circuit.

Kinetic Energy

Energy possessed by a body as a consequence of its motion. Using the relationship between
energy and work:
change in kinetic energy = work done = force × displacement

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠
Using Newton’s equations of motion:

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎𝑠 =
2

𝑣2
𝑎𝑠 = (if 𝑢 = 0)
2
𝑣2
𝑊 = 𝑚( )
2
𝟏
𝑬𝒌 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐

Energy Conversion and Energy Conservation

Energy can be changed from one form to another. This is called energy conversion. It
involves transfer and transformation between the different forms. All energy conversions
are due to the action of a force. Let us look at a few examples:

Table 4.1 – Energy conversion and conservation


Example Force Energy conversion
A car braking and stopping Friction Kinetic → internal, thermal
and sound
A vibrating ruler Air resistance and viscous Kinetic → sound
drag
A falling object Weight Gravitational potential →
kinetic
A motor Electromagnetic induction Electrical → kinetic

In all the cases above, all the energy that exists before the force acts is converted to other
forms, for example when a car brakes and stops, all the kinetic energy is converted to the
internal energy of the car and the thermal energy (heat) and sound produced as the tyres
and road surface rub against each other. This is called energy conservation.

All energy conversions must be accompanied by energy conservation. Some forces are
conservative; this means that they do not cause any energy loses. Common examples
include gravitational, magnetic, electrical and other field forces. Non-conservative forces,
for example friction, air resistance and other contact forces dissipate energy, that is, they
change it from one form to another. In both cases, total energy of a system remains
constant.
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be transformed from one form to another. This means that even
when there are energy loses the overall energy of a system remains the same, that is, no
energy is created or destroyed but rather the energy we consider to have been ‘lost’ has in
actual fact been converted to other forms, mainly heat energy.

Energy Resources

We use energy in every part of our lives; from the fuel for transport using cars, trains, planes
and ships; electricity in industries, schools, hospitals and homes and use of energy in
agriculture, research and manufacturing. The demand for energy makes sources of energy
very important. The importance of conserving energy resources and reducing the impact of
our energy consumption on the environment is also a major factor in how we choose and
use our energy.

There are two types of energy resources; renewable and non-renewable as shown in Figure
4.1

Fig.
4.1 – Resources of energy
Let us look at each in greater detail

Renewable Resources

1. Water – water is used in two main ways:


1. Hydroelectric dams: when the floodgates in a dam are opened, the water that
initially possesses gravitational potential energy falls and the GPE is changed to
kinetic energy; this causes rotation of turbines which generates electricity.
2. Tidal waves – energy from waves from the sea or ocean can be harnessed as energy.
Buoys are placed near the beach and the motion produced by the waves is
converted into mechanical energy and then electricity. While the development of
the technology may be costly in the short-term, the operation does not need much
input, is more reliable than other renewable sources and has little effect on the
environment.
3. Wind – windmills harness the wind’s rotational kinetic energy and change it into
electricity using generators. This method is expensive in its development, cheap to
run but is not reliable as wind is not a constant source of energy.
4. Solar – heat and light from the Sun can be harnessed by solar (photovoltaic) cells and
panels. While the energy absorbed increases with light intensity, solar power does
not necessarily depend on it being bright.
5. Biofuels – since carbonaceous fuels are predominantly fossil fuels, for example coal,
petroleum and natural gas, which are finite, a replacement for these non-renewable
fuels using ethanol from fermentation of sugar cane, biofuel from fermentation of
maize and from vegetable oils or hydrogen gas can now be used. These fuels can be
reproduced using easily and produce less pollution.

Non-renewable Resources

1. Fossil fuels – the combustion of fossil fuels, for example coal, petroleum and natural
gas produces energy used in engines for cars, aircraft, ships and trains and in
generating electricity. Petroleum is a mixture of petrol, diesel, kerosene and other
oils. This however produces a lot of pollution and damages the environment.
2. Geothermal – this involves burning of coal and using the energy to boil water which
turns turbines and generates electricity. This method is cheap but very harmful to
the environment because of the pollution it produces.
3. Nuclear – the use of fission reactors and more recently the development of fusion
reactors harnesses nuclear energy that generates electricity. Despite being very
reliable, this method is very expensive to develop, operate and maintain has long
term problems of pollution it is difficult and dangerous to store radioactive waste
whose toxicity takes thousands of years to diminish. Note that, unlike fossil fuels,
nuclear fuel does not produce heat energy through combustion to release carbon
dioxide.

Work

Work done is the product of force and the displacement travelled in the direction of the
force. It can also be defined by the equation.
work done = force × displacement
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅

Work is measured in Joules (J).


It is very important for us to take note of the fact that unless a force causes a body to move
through a certain displacement, there is no work done. For example if a group of O level
students decide the best way to spend their break is to try pushing a wall, then unless the
wall moves, they have done no work despite using up energy. Similarly if a school gardener
pushes a wheelbarrow full of soil around the 400m lap and returns to his original position is
zero. This means the work done is also zero even though he would have used up energy.
These two examples may seem arbitrary but they prove use of energy is not always
accompanied by useful work.

Efficiency

The second law of thermodynamics states that

No heat engine operating in a cycle can absorb energy from a reservoir and use it entirely
for the performance of an equal amount of work.” In short, no machine is 100% efficient.

Efficiency is defined by the equation

𝐮𝐬𝐞𝐟𝐮𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭


𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭

Efficiency is a ratio and therefore has no units.

An ideal machine is 100% efficient. This means that all the power input is converted to
power output without any energy loss. However, this is not possible in practice because
some of the energy is lost as heat to overcome friction. Other machines also lose energy in
the form of sound.

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done. It can also be defined by the equation:

𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐝𝐨𝐧𝐞
𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

Power is measured in Watts (W). Usually examiners give power in kilowatts, in which has
the student has to convert such units to Watts during calculations.

If we manipulate the equation of definition:


work done force × displacement
power = =
time time
displacement
= force ×
time
𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲

This modified equation is applied only when the body moves at constant velocity.

Revision Questions on Work, Energy and Power

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2010 qp.32)


Solution

1. E𝑘 = mgh = 0.15 × 10 × 0.3 = 0.45J


2. (i) max E𝑘 is at the lowest point
gain E𝑘 = loss in E𝑝
loss in E𝑝 = mg∆h
loss in E𝑝 = 0.15 × 10 × 0.1
E𝑘 = 0.15J
1
(ii) E𝑘 = 2 mv 2 = 0.15

2 × 0.15
v=√
0.15
v = 1.41 m/s

(iii) 0.3 m

(iv)
Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2009 qp.31)

Solution
1 1
1. (i) E𝑘 = 2 mv 2 = 2 (7500)(122 ) = 540 000 J
(ii) power = 10% of E𝑘 per second = 0.1 × 540 000 = 54 000W
1 1
2. (i) new mass = × initial mass = × 7500 = 3750 kg
2 2
1
power output of second day 10%× (3750)(62 ) 1
(ii) ratio = = 2
= 8 ≡ 0.125
power output of first day 54000

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.32)


Solution

1. E𝑝 = mgh = 0.6 × 10 × 0.9 = 5.4J


2. applying the conservation of energy: energy given + loss in E𝑝 = final E𝑘
1
Final E𝑘 = (0.6)(72 ) = 14.7J
2
Energy given = 14.7 − 5.4 = 9.3J
3. (i) Energy lost by friction between the ball and the floor, energy is
changedto sound. The hysteresis of the rubber may also prevent total energy
conversion back to kinetic energy.

(ii) using the ratios of E𝑝′ s new height = 78% of initial height
new height = 0.78 × 4 = 3.12 m
(iii) Energy transferred to heat.

June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)
June 2011 qp.21 (O Level)
Chapter Five: Density, Mass and Volume

“The density of your destiny is the product of the mass of your visions and the volume your
impacts occupy!”
– IsraelmoreAyivor

Density

Density is the mass per unit volume. It is a measure of the degree of compactness of a
material. It can also defined by the equation

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐲 =
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞

A material that has a high density has a very closely packed and regular structure, for
example, most solids. The difference between the relative densities of solids, liquids and
gases and the implications will be outlined in the kinetic theory.

Pressure

The pressure exerted by a force is defined by the equation

𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

It is measured in Pascals (Pa).

Trying to pop a balloon using the length of a needle is nearly impossible; this is because
while the force exerted may be large, the area in contact is large enough that the pressure is
not sufficient to penetrate the balloon skin. Using the sharp point of the needle however
immediately pops the balloon because the very small area means that the pressure exerted
in large even for a small force.

With this in mind a person can lie on a bed of nails without being hurt because his weight is
distributed over a large area, decreasing the pressure! Hydraulic systems (using
incompressible liquids) can be used to in brakes and lifting heavy objects by simply applying
a force over a very small area producing a large pressure which can be used to lift a heavy
load placed on a large area.
All states of matter exert a force and therefore a pressure on the surfaces they are in
contact with. Fluid pressure (applying to liquids and gases) will be outlined later in this book.

Pressure in solids

Pressure is calculate using the formula

𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 =
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚

The bigger the area, the smaller the pressure and the smaller the area of surfaces in contact,
the bigger the pressure.

Pressure in liquids

force (weight)
pressure =
area
weight = mass × acceleration due to gravity

mass × acceleration due to gravity


pressure =
area
but mass of fluid = density × volume

density × acceleration due to gravity × volume


pressure =
area
volume
but = height
area
pressure = density × acceleration due to gravity × height

When calculating the pressure of a fluid, the height of the liquid or gas column is used.
Often this height may also be referred to as the depth of the liquid.

Therefore pressure is calculated using the formula

𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Where

1. 𝜌 is the density of the liquid,


2. 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity ,
3. ℎ is the depth of the liquid from the surface.
When calculating total pressure in liquids, it is important to add atmospheric pressure.
Therefore

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 + 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

Pressure in Gases

According to the kinetic theory, gas particles (molecules or atoms) are in constant random
motion at high speeds in all directions. If a gas is confined in a container, the particles
collide between themselves and with the walls of the container. When the particles collide
with the walls of the container, they experience a change in momentum and therefore they
exert a force on the container: by these means, a gas exerts a pressure on the walls of the
container that it is kept.

Since the pressure exerted by a gas depends on the motion of the particles, it is important
for us to state, describe and explain the factors that affect this motion and the
corresponding changes in the gas pressure. A gas exerts a pressure caused by the collision of
gas molecules with each other and with the wall of the container. Increasing the
temperature will cause the gas particles to move faster and collide harder with the walls,
thereby increasing the pressure. Decreasing the volume of the gas increases the frequency
of collision of the gas molecules with the walls of the container and again, increases the gas
pressure. Therefore factors that change the pressure of a gas are:

1. changing the temperature


2. changing the volume

This can be better understood by looking at the gas laws.

Gas Laws

It is important for us to note that even though the names of the laws or their explicit
definitions will not be tested on, we will state them to fully understand them. They outline
the relationships between pressure, temperature and volume of the gas.

Boyle’s Law

The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume if the thermodynamic


temperature is constant.
𝟏
𝐁𝐨𝐲𝐥𝐞′ 𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐰: 𝐏 ∝ ⇒ 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐕

The formula for calculating pressure in gases is

𝑷 𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷 𝟐 𝑽𝟐

This can be shown on a graph:

Fig. 5.1 – Increasing pressure of a system decreases the volume of gas

If temperature is constant:

1. An increase in external pressure decreases the volume of the gas: the external
pressure exceeds the gas pressure and the molecules get closer to each other and
the spaces between particles decrease.
2. A decrease in external pressure increases the volume of the gas: the gas molecules
exert a bigger force than the external pressure; this allows them to move more
freely, increasing the spaces between them.

Charles’s Law

The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the thermodynamic temperature if the


pressure is constant.

𝑽
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐞𝐬′𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐰: 𝐕 ∝ 𝐓 ⇒ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑻

This can be shown on a graph:


Fig. 5.2 – Increasing the temperature causes expansion (increase in volume)

If pressure is constant:

3. An increase in temperature increases the volume of the gas: the particles gain kinetic
energy and move faster and more randomly, the spaces between them increase and
the gas expands.
4. A decrease in temperature decreases the volume of the gas: the particles have less
energy and move at slow speed and less randomly. They come closer, decreasing the
spaces between them and the gas contracts-decreasing its volume.

Gay-Lussac’s Law

The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature if the volume is constant.

𝑷
𝐆𝐮𝐲 − 𝐋𝐮𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐜 ′ 𝐬 𝐋𝐚𝐰: 𝐏 ∝ 𝐓 ⇒ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑻

This can be shown on a graph:

Fig. 5.3 – Increasing temperature of a gas increases the pressure it exerts


If volume is constant:

5. An increase in temperature increases the pressure of the gas: the particles gain
energy, move faster and more randomly and collide with the walls of the container
at higher speeds and higher frequency. This increases the force and therefore the
pressure of the gas exerts on the container.
6. A decrease in temperature decreases the pressure of the gas: the particles have less
energy and move at slow speed and less randomly. They collide amongst themselves
and with the walls of the container less frequently and exert a smaller pressure on
the containers’ walls.

These gas laws are combined to form the universal gas law. It can be expressed as an
equation of state of an ideal gas:

𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 × 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

𝐏𝐕
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐓
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure due to the air in the atmosphere. At sea level the
pressure is 1.0 × 105 Pa, and it becomes smaller as the height increases. Atmospheric
pressure is measured using a mercury barometer.

The U-tube Manometer

It is usually used to measure the pressure of a gas supply. Always remember to add
atmospheric pressure after calculatingthe pressure of a fluid column using 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ.

Fig. 5.4 (a) – U tube manometer Fig. 5.4 (b) – Barometer

It is important to note that while the barometer measures atmospheric pressure, the
manometer measures the pressure difference between gas supplies or between a gas
supply and atmospheric pressure.
Effect of temperature on the motion of particles

The kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the thermodynamic temperature:

kinetic energy ∝ thermodynamic temperature

𝐄𝒌 ∝ 𝑻

If the temperature of a gas increases, the particles move at faster speeds, more randomly, in
all directions.

Effect of Pressure on the Motion of Particles

A change in pressure can be:

1. Gradual – there is a gradual change in pressure and the energy of the particles is not
affected. The region of motion is however, limited.
2. Sudden – a sudden increase in the pressure of a gas results in work being done on
the gas and the temperature of the gas increases. This increases the kinetic energy of
the particles. Consequently, a sudden decrease in pressure results in work being
done by the gas and the molecules lose energy, decreasing the temperature.

It is important to note that when temperature is increased, and the volume is not kept
constant, then the pressure remains the same.

Interesting facts

Fluids

A fluid is a liquid or a gas.

Upthrust, the bathtub and the man who cried ‘Eureka!’

2,200 years ago King Hieron II of Syracuse in Sicily gave a jeweller a bar of gold and ordered
him to make it into a crown. The king, however, suspected that the jeweller had substituted
some of the gold for a cheaper metal like silver, while pocketing the leftover gold. Having no
way of proving this he tasked Archimedes – a Greek mathematician, engineer, inventor, and
astronomer – to find a definitive answer. Archimedes noticed how water would splash out
of his bath tub the moment he stepped into it, and the more he stepped into the tub, even
more water got displaced.

At the time, Archimedes had known that gold was denser than silver, so if a certain weight
of silver had been substituted for the same weight of gold, the crown would occupy a larger
space than an identical one of pure gold.So to find the crown’s volume, all Archimedes had
to do was essentially immerse the crown and exact measurement of pure gold in a tub filled
with water to the brim, measure the spillage, and compare the volume of spillages – if the
jeweller had indeed made a crown of pure gold the volume should be the same.

Archimedes was said to be so thrilled with this discovery that he immediately hopped out of
the bath and ran onto the streets naked shouting 'Eureka!' 'Eureka!'. (Eureka in Latin, means
I have got it)

This observation let to the discovery of upthrust and buoyancy. These are embodied in
Archimedes’ principle.

The Archimedes Principle

When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust that is


equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

This upthrust, also known as the buoyant force, causes objects to ‘float’ when they are
immersed in a fluid, for example water.

The upthrust force is

1. Equal to the weight of the displaced fluid


2. Independent of the density of the object
3. The more dense the fluid, the greater the upthrust a body will experience – a plank
of wood floats in water but falls ‘freely’ in air.
4. Is caused by the difference between the pressures exerted on the upper and lower
faces of the immersed object.

Upthrust can therefore be determined as follows:

upthrust = weight of displaced fluid

upthrust = mass of displaced fluid × gravitational acceleration


mass
but density =
volume
upthrust = density of fluid × volume of fluid × gravitational acceleration

𝑼 = 𝝆𝑽𝒈

If the weight of the object exceeds the upthrust the object, for example metal, there is a net
downward force and acceleration and it sinks. If it is lighter, for example wood, it
accelerates upward and floats.
Fig. 5.5 – A block of wood floats while a metal block sinks

Surface Tension

If you look closely at a dewdrop sparkling in the sunlight, you will find that the drop takes a
spherical shape. The water seems to be ‘locked’ in a skin. This is called surface tension.
Hydrogen bonds in water (and some other liquids) cause the surface to be a meshwork of
forces that act as a skin. You may have noticed that some insects walk on water. This is
because, the pressure they exert is not sufficient to break the surface tension so they can
move on the surface skin without falling in!

If we place a needle on a tissue and put it in a bowl of water, the tissue will absorb water
and sink while the needle will float on the surface of the water! This is because the needle
will not have broken the surface tension and is therefore suspended by the skin. Liquids
form spherical globules because the forces within each droplet cause the surface to contract
as much as possible with the smallest surface area for a given volume.

Evaporation

Evaporation, its causes and effect will be discussed in the next chapter.
Revision Questions on Density, Mass and Volume
Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2011 qp.31)
Solution

1. (i) Smaller – the area is smaller (atmospheric pressure is constant)


(ii) Smaller – the depth of water is lower
2. (i) P = ρgh = 1000 × 10 × 12 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐏𝐚
(ii) Total pressure = atmospheric pressure + liquid pressure
Total pressure = 100 000 + 120 000 Pa = 𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐏𝐚
(iii) at constant temperature PV = constant
P𝑠 V𝑠 = P𝑏 V𝑏

220 000 × 5
V𝑠 = = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝐜𝐦𝟑
100 000
(iv) actual volume is bigger than that calculated in (iii).

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2012 qp.33)

Solution

1. (i) The molecules move around and collide with the inside walls of the cylinder.
This exerts a force over a given area and produces a pressure.

(ii) Fewer molecules collide with the walls of the container.

2. total pressure = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to liquid


total pressure = 1.0 × 105 + 1000 × 10 × 25
total pressure = 𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐏𝐚
June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)

November 2003 qp.2 (O Level)

November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)


November 2011 qp.22 (O Level)
November 2005 qp.3 (IGCSE)
Chapter Six: Thermal Physics
“When the water starts to boil it is foolish to turn off the heat.”

– Nelson Mandela

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

Matter is anything that possesses a mass and occupies space. Mass is the amount of matter
in a substance.

The States of Matter

Matter exists in three main states:

1. Solids
2. Liquids
3. Gases

A fourth state, Plasma, is a system of charged particles interacting electromagnetically (the


study of plasma is beyond the scope of this syllabus). A fifth state, a superfluid Bose Einstein
Condensate (BEC) is a liquid that occurs at temperatures close to absolute zero. The three
main states are interconverted by the addition or removal of heat as summarised by Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.1 – The three states of matter

Let us look at these states in greater detail:

Table 6.1 – The Properties of the States of Matter


Property Solid Liquid Gas
Irregular
Regular structure but
arrangement of
spaces between
Set in a regular particles. With no
molecules allow for
arrangement (called arrangement of
free movement. As
a lattice). Particles particles, gases have
Arrangement of such, liquids have a
are held strongly in neither a definite
particles definite volume but
position. Solids have volume nor a definite
no definite shape.
a definite volume shape. Gases take
Liquids take the
and definite shape. the shape of the
shape of the
container and fill all
container.
the space.
Small spaces
Particles are closely between molecules Particles are widely
Spacing between packed. Very little which allow for free spaced (‘infinite’
particles space between (not unlimited) spaces between
particles. movement, hence particles).
liquids flow.
Relatively strong Negligible forces of
Very strong forces of
Forces of attraction forces of attraction attraction. No
attraction.
between molecules. potential energy
Particles move
Vibrate around a Particles vibrate and randomly
mean fixed lattice move within ordered (translational and
Motion of particles
position. Little clusters with limited rotational) with high
kinetic energy. freedom. speeds in all
directions.

The Kinetic Model

The kinetic model combines our prior knowledge of the states of matter and the kinetic
theory, diagrammatically,

Fig. 6.2– The kinetic molecular model of matter

The Kinetic Theory of Matter


The kinetic theory of matter – all matter is made up of tiny particles in a state of constant
random motion.

This kinetic theory is often called the kinetic theory of gases because from the definition of
the kinetic theory it is obvious that only gases can actually obey this theory. Since a theory
must link theoretical assumptions and physical observations, we look at the assumptions of
the kinetic theory and the phenomena that provide physical evidence of this theory below.

Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory

1. All matter consists of particles that are in a state of constant random motion.
2. The forces of attraction between the particles are negligible – very small forces of
attraction between particles.
3. Collisions between particles are perfectly elastic – this means that when the
particles collide between themselves and with the walls of the container, they do not
coalesce (stick together). This is because the forces between the particles and
between the particles and the walls of the container are insignificant.
4. The individual kinetic energy and individual momentum of particles are all
conserved – since the forces between the particles are small enough to be ignored,
there is no work done in separating particles after collision. The energy and
momentum of each particle is therefore conserved.
5. The speed of approach of a particle is equal to the relative speed of separation
(speed of particles is constant) – since there is no change in the kinetic energy of the
particles, the speed of the particles remains the same.
6. Volume of a particle is negligible compared to the volume of the gas – since gases
fill the whole space of a container there are infinite (very, very big) spaces between
particles. The size of the gas molecule though does not change; hence the size of the
molecule becomes so small it is insignificant compared to the volume of the gas.
7. Time of collision is negligible compared to the time in between collision – with
infinite spaces between particles the probability (chance) of particles actually
colliding is very small. Since the collisions of the particles are perfectly elastic the
time that particles are actually in contact is very little.

Gases

Despite us now calling this theory, the kinetic theory of gases, not all gases completely obey
the kinetic. There are two types of gases; real gases and ideal gases.
Fig.
Fig. 6.3– Real and ideal gases
Real and ideal gases are ‘inter-convertible’. This means a real gas may be made to behave as
an ideal gas and vice versa. Fig.6.4 summarises the conditions under which this can take
place.

Fig. 6.4– The


‘inter – conversion’ of real and ideal gases
An ideal gas behaves as a real gas under high pressure and/low temperature. This is
because:

1. At high pressure – the volume of the gas decreases, the spaces between particles
decrease, the size of the particles is no longer insignificant and the forces are no
longer negligible.
2. At low temperature – the kinetic energy of the particles decreases, the speeds of the
particles are lower resulting in less random motion and inelastic collisions as the
particles coalesce.

On the other hand, a real gas behaves ideally under low pressure and/high temperature
because:

1. At low pressure – the volume of the gas increases, the spaces between particles
increase making the size of the particles less significant and the forces of attraction
decrease.
2. At high temperature – the kinetic energy of the particles increases; this means that
the motion is more erratic (random), speeds are faster and collisions are more
elastic.

Evidence of the Kinetic Theory

There are two key pieces of evidence that support the kinetic theory of matter:

1. Brownian motion
2. Diffusion

Fig. 6.5 – Diffusion and Brownian motion

Temperature
Thermal Energy and Temperature

The measure of the difference in thermal energy of two objects is defined as temperature.
Loosely, it is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Thermal energy is transferred
from a hot surface to a cooler surface; this increases the thermal energy of the cooler
surface and decreases the energy of the hotter surface. In short, the temperature of the
cooler surface increases and the temperature of the hotter surface decreases.

Heat
What is heat? This is one of those important questions that often receive a very wrong but
accepted answer! Firstly, there is no physical quantity called heat energy. What is often
called heat energy is in fact thermal energy. Heat is energy in the process of transfer
between objects because of a difference in their temperatures. This means that the heat is
the transfer of thermal energy.

Thermal energy like all energy and matter for that matter will be transferred from where it
is in higher quantity to where it is in lower quantity. Let us use an arbitrary example to
explain this: Chipulu and Lweendo shake hands, Chipulu feels that Lweendo’s hand is cold
but Lweendo feels warm. How is this so?

1. Chipulu feels cold – this is because she has lost thermal energy to Lweendo. This loss
in energy is observed as a decrease in temperature, that is, she is cooler than she
was.
2. Lweendo feels warm – this is because she has gained thermal energy from Chipulu.
This gain is felt as an increase in temperature and she therefore feels warmer than
she did initially.

The process that has occurred is called heat!

Thermal Equilibrium

If thermal energy is transferred from a hotter to a cooler surface, the temperature of the
hotter surface decreases and the temperature of the cooler surface increases. Eventually,
the two objects will possess equal amounts of thermal energy and have the same
temperature. This is called thermal equilibrium.

Fixed Points
When measurement of temperature is done, a temperature scale must be established. This
involves the use of fixed points.
The ice point is the constant temperature at which ice melts/water solidifies.
The steam point is the constant temperature at which water vaporises (boils and changes
into vapour).

The Celsius (also called centigrade) and Fahrenheit scales use these two points as the basis
of their measurement. A third point, called the triple point of water is a temperature at
which ice (solid), water (liquid) and steam (gas) coexist. This temperature is 0.01 ℃. This
point is the basis of the absolute (also called Kelvin) temperature scale.

Temperature Scales

Temperature, unlike the sensations of warmth and cold, is a physical quantity. The S.I. unit is
the Kelvin (K). Other scales used are the degrees Celsius scale (℃) and the Fahrenheit scale
(℉).

In Zimbabwe, the unit of temperature is the degrees Celsius whereas in the United States it
is the Fahrenheit. These three scales are joined by the following pair of equations:

𝐊 = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

𝟗
℉= ℃ + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓

Absolute Zero

We know that when matter loses energy, for example by exposure to cold, its volume
decreases and the speed of particles also diminishes. Absolute zero is 0 K which is
equivalent to −273.15℃. At this temperature, all particles in matter seize to possess kinetic
energy, clearly defying the kinetic theory. This means matter will no longer exist!

Thermometric Properties and Thermometers

Temperature is measured using a thermometer. A thermometric property is a physical


property of a material that varies linearly with changes in temperature. Thermometers must
use materials that have a thermometric property so that they can be used to accurately
measure the temperature of an object or system.
There are many different thermometric properties. Here is a list of the six main ones:
1. Thermal expansion (of liquid)
2. Electrical resistance
3. Volume of gas (if pressure is constant)
4. Pressure of gas (if volume is constant)
5. Length of material
6. Colourof object

Properties of thermometers

Thermometers have three main properties that determine their use:

1. Sensitivity – the size of movement or change in the thermometer per degree. A


sensitive thermometer gives a reading even when there is a very small temperature
change.
2. Range – the difference between the minimum and maximum temperatures that can
be measured by a thermometer. A thermometer with a wide range can give readings
over a wide spectrum of temperatures.
3. Linearity – change is same for all degrees. If a thermometer has a change in its
thermometric property (length of liquid column, volume, potential difference or
current) that is not uniform, it is considered to be nonlinear.

There are 4 types of thermometers in physics; we will put much emphasis on only two:

1. Liquid – in – glass thermometer


2. Thermocouple thermometer
3. Platinum resistance thermometer
4. Constant volume thermometer

1. Liquid – in – glass Thermometer

Fig. 6.6 – A typical liquid-in-glass thermometer

This is the most common thermometer and it exists in two main forms:
1. Alcohol thermometer
2. Mercury thermometer
The liquid – in – glass thermometer uses thermal expansion of the liquid. When the
bulb of the thermometer is placed in a hot substance, the ethanol or mercury
expands and rises up the bore. Likewise, a drop in temperature causes contraction of
the liquid and it falls.

Properties
Sensitivity – they have low sensitivity. This can be improved by using a

1. Thin glass wall


2. A narrow bore
3. A large bulb

Range – have small range, for example alcohol thermometers contain ethanol which
boils at 78℃ and therefore cannot measure temperatures beyond this.

Linearity – the linearity of the expansion decreases as the measured temperatures


approach the boiling point of the liquid.

Advantages
1. Easy to read off and use
2. Cheap
3. Direct reading

Disadvantages
1. Low sensitivity
2. Very fragile (glass can crack or break)
3. Not accurate
4. Limited range: 23 – 633K
5. Glass expansion and contraction results in spoiled calibration

Uses
1. Clinical thermometer
2. Laboratory
3. Domestic uses

Fig. 6.7 – A clinical thermometer has a constriction to prevent backflow of mercury

4. Thermocouple thermometer
Fig. 6.8 – A typical thermocouple

A thermocouple thermometer is made of two different metal wires of different


electrical conductivity. The commonly used wires are iron and copper. One end of
the wireis connected to the cold junctionat ice point, and the other is placed at the
point whose temperature is to be determined called the hot junction. The cold and
hot junctions are joined by another wire.

Principle
The difference in temperature causes an electric current to flow from the hot
junction to the cold junction. The current is very small and can only be detected by a
galvanometer or milliammeter. The size of the current is proportional to the
temperature difference between the two junctions. The temperature is obtained by
graduating the milliammeter to temperature or comparing with a standard chart and
calculating the temperature using proportion.

Fig. 6.9 – A thermocouple being used to measure


temperature of a hot surface

For example, if a thermocouple with ends at ice and steam point generates a
potential difference of 5V, a liquid that generates a voltage of 3V with the end at ice
point will have a temperature of
𝑉𝜃 − 𝑉0
𝜃= × 100
𝑉100 − 𝑉0
3
𝜃= × 100
5

𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎℃

Advantages
5. Wide range 25 – 1400K
6. Very sensitive
7. Fast in response and is used to measure rapidly changing temperatures
8. Readings can be done remotely (at a distance) and stored in a computer (can
measure very low or very high temperatures)
9. Very accurate

Disadvantages
10. For high accuracy a high resistance voltmeter is used
11. Expensive

Uses
12. Measures rapidly changing temperatures
13. Measures very low/very high temperatures, for example in kilns or furnaces
14. Measures temperatures over a very wide range

Interesting facts

Have you ever noticed that ice feels colder during a hot afternoon than it does on a cold
evening? You may have also noticed how the same cup of tea seems hotter during winter
than during summer. The sensations of warmth and cold are just that; feelings that cannot
be quantified or calibrated but are dependent on the conditions within the environment.

Let us look at these two examples in greater detail


1. Ice feels colder during a hot afternoon than on a cold night because of the
differences in thermal energy in the two cases. On a hot afternoon, the difference in
the energy possessed by the ice and your hand is so big that more energy is
transferred from you to the ice faster than in the evening when the thermal energy
is nearly the same.
2. Similarly tea is ‘hotter’ in winter because you feel ‘colder’ than usual. During summer
it is already hot and the difference in thermal energy of the environment and the tea
is not as big.

Revision Questions on Temperature


Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.32)

Solution

1. (i) Change in length per unit rise in temperature


(ii) Narrow bore/large bulb
2. (i) Difference between the highest and lowest temperatures
(ii) Using a sufficiently long tube/wide bore/little liquid
3. (i) Equal size divisions for equal temperature rises
(ii) Uniform bore/use liquid that expands proportionally with temperature

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2003 qp.3)


Solution

1. (i) Iron/constantan (any metal that is not copper)


(ii) Galvanometer (or milliammeter or millivoltmeter)
2. The temperature between two different metal junctions generates a potential
difference that is measured either directly by a temperature-calibrated
galvanometer or is compared to a calibration chart which requires the temperature
of one of the junctions to be known.
3. Dark (or dull or black) surfaces

November 2004 qp.3 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2010 qp.21 (O Level)

November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.21 (O Level)
Thermal Properties of Materials

Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of a material is increased, it absorbs thermal energy. This energy is
converted to kinetic energy of the particles in the material, which increases. This in turn
increases their vibrational motion. As the particles vibrate more, they fill in the spaces
between them and the material undergoes thermal expansion. By definition, thermal
expansion is the increase in volume of matter due to absorption of thermal energy.

Referring to the kinetic theory, we can establish that as the state changes from solid to
liquid to gas, there is an appreciable increase in the spaces between particles. This means
that when a solid (with negligible spaces) undergoes thermal expansion, the space filled and
consequently the change in volume is not as large as when a gas (with ‘infinite’ spaces)
undergoes expansion. In short, the greater the spaces between particles, the greater the
expansion. This means that gases expand the most and solids the least.

It is important to note that the particles do not change in size; they just fill the spaces
between each other.

It is also essential to remember that the term thermal expansion is usually associated with
an increase in temperature causing an increase in volume. When the temperature decreases
and volume decreases, this is called thermal contraction.

Everyday Applications and Consequences of Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion has many consequences and useful applications in our everyday lives.
Let us list and explain a few important ones:

4. Fish plates – thermal expansion joints (called fish plates because of their shape) are
used to separate sections of roadways on bridges and at road junctions. Without
these joints, the surfaces would buckle due to thermal expansion on very hot days or
crack due to contraction on very cold days. This would cause the roads to crack.

Fig. 6.10 –Fish plates allow for expansion and


contraction of the road without damage
5. Wall partitions – if you walked past
a neighbour’s wall, you may have
noticed that in between sections
of their security walls there is a
white plastic form that is inserted
in the vertical joint. As the
temperature of the bricks changes
this soft material allows the wall to
expand and contract without any
Fig. 6.11 – Wall partitions decrease
damage to the wall. Often where
attrition between sections and
this material is not used, there
minimise cracks
appear cracks on the walls.

6. Railroad tracks – the tracks on


railway systems are fitted loosely.
This is because on a hot day or due
to operation (the friction between
wheels and tracks produces
thermal energy) the metal
expands. If the rail is fitted too
tightly, this expansion causes the
buckling of the track
Fig. 6.12 – Railways tracks can
buckle in very hot conditions. This
seriously affects the network and
is dangerous

Recap: Effect of Temperature on the Volume of a Gas at Constant Pressure

Earlier we looked at Charles’s law that states:

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the thermodynamic


temperature if the pressure remains constant. Mathematically,

𝑉∝𝑇
Using the kinetic theory, we can now explain this relationship: the volume of a gas will
increase with an increase in temperature because the particles possess greater kinetic
energy, vibrate more, and fill in spaces more rapidly and the gas expands.

Now that we have established how a change in temperature can affect the volume of
matter, it is imperative that we also look at the effect of temperature on the energy of
particles and state of matter. This leads us to the concepts of heat capacity (also called
thermal capacity) and latent heat. For us to fully understand these two we must first look at
the concept of internal energy.

Internal energy, 𝑼

The internal energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the
particles in the system. This energy is randomly distributed throughout the system and is in
effect the total energy of the atoms and/molecules of the system.

We derive this energy from the kinetic theory in that we know that kinetic energyis
associated with the translational (from one point to another), rotational (spinning) and
vibrational (revolving around a mean fixed lattice position) movement of the particles. The
kinetic energy component is affected by temperature, that is, the thermal energy
transferred between the system and the surroundings. The potential energy component is
associated with the bonding and forces of attraction between particles.

𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝐏𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 + 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲

According to the equation, an increase in either the potential or kinetic energy will increase
the internal energy. This means an increase in temperature (increases KE) or a change in
state (increases PE) will increase IE.

Heat Capacity

Heat capacity – the energy required to increase the temperature of a mass by 1℃.

It is measured in Joules per degree Celsius J/℃. Remember that a change of 1℃ is


equivalent to a change of 1K. Therefore heat capacity can also be measured in J/K.

Specific heat capacity – the amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of
1 kg of a substance by 1℃.

It is measured in J/(kgK) or J/(kg℃).

If a body of mass 𝑚 kg and specific heat capacity 𝑐 needs a total amount of energy 𝐸 to
increase its temperature by ∆𝜃 then by definition

𝐸
𝑐=
𝑚∆𝜃
Therefore
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝜽
Experiment: How to determine the Specific Heat Capacity of an aluminium block
Steps:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 6.13 and record the initial temperature of the
aluminium block.
2. Switch on the power supply and immediately start the stopwatch.
3. Record the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. Adjust the variable resistor and obtain new readings of voltage and current.
5. After two minutes, switch off the power, stop the stopwatch and record the time
and the final temperature.
6. If the electrical energy supplied by a power source is all transferred to thermal
energy that is absorbed by the aluminium block, then use the relationship

electrical energy = thermal energy

𝐼𝑉𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝐼𝑉𝑡
𝑐=
𝑚(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

Where:

1. 𝐼 is electric current – it is measured using an ammeter. The current is kept steady by


using a rheostat (variable resistor),
2. 𝑉 is emfof the DC power source – it is measured using a voltmeter across the source,
3. 𝑡 is time over which the source operates – it is measured using a stopwatch,
4. 𝑚 is mass of the aluminium block – it is measured using a balance,
5. (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) is the change in temperature – it is measured using a thermometer over a
temperature of about 10℃. This is to ensure that the temperature of the block is
uniform.
6. 𝑐 is specific heat capacity of the block, and
Fig. 6.13 – Setup of apparatus to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid

The experiment is not very accurate because some of the heat energy is lost to the
environment. Energy losses in the experiment are reduced by lagging which involves the
use of an insulator for example cotton wool, to cover the aluminium block so that no energy
is transferred by conduction. Using an oil medium between the filament/electric heater and
the block will also allow the energy to be transmitted effectively between them.

Latent Heat

While heat capacity involves a change in temperature latent heat involves a change in state.
Let us first explain the word latent. Latent means hidden or concealed. When we look at the
idea of changes in state and temperature we fully appreciate the use of latent. Let us
consider water at room temperature (25℃). If we heat it, we can see that the temperature
rises with time but when we get to 100℃ something unusual happens – instead of the
temperature continuing to rise, it stops. Even as we add energy to the system, the
temperature remains constant. Where is all the energy going? It seems as if it is going
somewhere we cannot see it, that is, to a concealed place. In fact, the energy that is being
supplied to the water is used to boil it, this change in state from liquid to gas involves the
weakening of intermolecular forces called van der Waals forces and the breaking of bonds
between water molecules and this is where all the energy is going. Looking at the
thermometer does not explain this latent phenomenon because the temperature does not
change!
Melting Point and Boiling Point

There are two main fixed temperatures at which phase changes occurs:

1. Melting point – from solid to liquid. The reverse is called the freezing point.
2. Boiling point – from liquid to gas. Boiling point is defined as the fixed temperature at
a fixed pressure that a liquid changes into the gaseous phase.

Melting and Boiling

1. When latent heat is supplied, it increases the potential energy of the molecules and
supplies energy for work to be done against the attractive forces and bonds between
particles.
2. There is no change in the kinetic energy of the molecules since the temperature is
constant.

Latent heat – this is the energy required to change the state of a pure substance at a
constant temperature.

Specific latent heat – this is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg of a substance
without a change in temperature.

If a body of mass 𝑚 kg and specific latent heat 𝑙 needs a total amount of energy 𝐸 to change
its state at a constant temperature then by definition

𝑬 = ±𝒎𝒍

If energy is absorbed the latent heat is positive (endothermic) and the state change is
melting or boiling. If energy is evolved the latent heat is negative (exothermic) since energy
is lost and the phase change is solidification (commonly called freezing) or condensation.

There are two types of specific latent heat:

1. Latent heat of fusion


2. Latent heat of vaporization

Let us analyse each one in turn

1. Specific latent heat of fusion (melting)


This is the energy required to change 1 kg of a pure solid into its liquid state at
constant temperature.

2. Specific latent heat of vaporization (boiling)


The energy required to change 1 kg of a pure liquid into its gaseous phase at
constant temperature.
Experiment: How to determine the Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

Assuming all the electrical energy supplied is transferred to thermal energy absorbed by the
ice at constant temperature,

Steps:

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 6.14 and switch on the DC supply.
2. When water starts coming out of the funnel, start the stopwatch.
3. After some time, switch off the heater and record the time for which the heater was
on as well as the mass of the water collected. Since the mass of the collected water
cannot be measured directly, the initial and final masses of the beaker can be
measured and the difference calculated.
4. Use the relationship

electrical energy = thermal energy

𝐼𝑉𝑡 = 𝑚𝑙

𝐼𝑉𝑡
𝑙=
𝑚
Where:

5. 𝐼 is electric current – it is measured using an ammeter. The current is kept steady by


using a rheostat (variable resistor),
6. 𝑉 is emfof the DC power source – it is measured using a voltmeter across the source,
7. 𝑡 is time over which the source operates – it is measured using a stopwatch,
8. 𝑚 is mass of melted ice – it is determined by subtracting the initial and final masses
of the receiving beaker,
9. 𝑙 is specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Fig. 6.14 – Determining the specific latent heat of ice

Finely crushed ice is used because:

1. Crushed ice has a larger surface area than ice blocks


2. The inside of large pieces could be well below freezing point
3. There are smaller air gaps if smaller pieces are used
4. There is better contact between the heater and the ice
5. The heat from the heater only goes to the ice

To ensure accuracy, measurements can only be taken when the water drips out of the
funnel at a uniform rate – this is because the ice will be at its melting point (0 ℃).

Why Boiling Needs More Energy than Melting

The latent heat of fusion (that is, melting) involves the weakening of bonds within a solid.
The latent heat of vaporisation (that is, boiling) however involves the breaking of bonds.
This means that there is more energy absorbed by a system as it changes from liquid to
vapour than from solid to liquid.

When a liquid boils, some of the liquid vaporises and some condenses as it is pushed back
by the atmosphere. An equilibrium is achieved between the liquid and gaseous phases:

liquid ⇌ vapour

As more thermal energy is absorbed by the system, the equilibrium shifts to the vapour and
a vapour pressure (due to the gas) is established. Thevapour pressure is exerted on the walls
of the container and on the atmosphere. For a liquid to boil, thisvapour pressure must
become equal to or greater than the atmospheric pressure. No such work is done against
the atmosphere during melting. This explains why the scald from steam causes more
damage than a scald from boiling water.

There are two consequences of this concept of work being done against the atmosphere:

1. Water can boil at a temperature of more than or less than 100℃ – water boils at
100℃ at sea level and boils at a lower temperature with increase in height above
sea level. Since a liquid boils when the vapour pressure becomes equal to or exceeds
the atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of a liquid depends on the atmospheric
pressure and therefore the altitude of the system. Atmospheric pressure changes
with height and this means the vapour pressure that must be achieved at Mt
Kilimanjaro which is about 4000m above sea level, is significantly less than at sea
level and so the boiling point is lower than expected. The water may boil at 70℃
and we can even put our hands in it without being burnt! Similarly eggs, which are
cooked at 100℃, cannot be boiled because while the water is boiling, the
temperature is too low to cook them!

2. Pressure cookers – a pressure cooker is a device that is used to cook foods at


temperatures greater than 100℃. This is how it is achieved: the cooker has a lid that
locks in all the steam and so rather than allow an equilibrium to be slowly achieved,
the cooker exerts an artificially high ‘atmospheric’ pressure, increasing the vapour
pressure that must be achieved and consequently increasing the boiling point.
Pressure cookers cook food quickly at high temperatures.

Boiling and Evaporation

In our learning so far, we have associated boiling withvaporisation. In fact these two words
mean the same thing. There is however, a common mistake that allows vaporisation and
evaporation to be interchanged as well. While vaporisation, that is boiling, may cause
evaporation, the converse is not true. We can explain using two simple examples: while
boiling water in a tea kettle evaporates, the evaporation of water from drying clothes on a
hanger cannot be attributed to boiling!

Table 6.2 – Differences between Boiling and Evaporation


Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at constant temperature Occurs at any temperature
Occurs at the surface of the liquid only,
Occurs throughout the liquid occurs opposite the point of application of
‘heat’
Caused by gain in thermal energy of
May be caused by draught, wind or heating
molecules (by heating)
Particles possess the same energy The most energetic particles are located at
throughout the liquid the surface of the liquid*
Liquid is at the same temperature Liquid is at different temperatures at
throughout different points
Results in a change in state of the whole Only the most energetic molecules change
liquid state
Not largely affected by pressure but mainly
Affected by atmospheric pressure only by humidity, surface area and temperature
of surroundings

*The Cooling Effect of Evaporation

During a hot afternoon or when we take part in active exercise, we produce thermal energy,
that is, heat. Our bodies regulate their temperature by a mechanism called homeostasis.
This causes us to start sweating. It is not the sweat that cools our bodies down but its
evaporation. Since evaporation results in the most energetic particles changing state and
leaving the surface of the liquid, when sweat evaporates, the molecules take with them
thermal energy from the skin and this decreases the energy on our skin surfaces, decreasing
the temperature and leaving a ‘cooling effect’. The same principle works when water or a
volatile liquid, for example methylated spirit evaporate from our skin by wind or draughts
(air movements). There is an associated cooling effect because the evaporating molecules
take thermal energy from the skin.

Factors that increase evaporation

1. Large surface area – the greater the surface area, the faster the molecules
evaporate.
2. Wind – wind removes the molecules at the top of the liquid.
3. Heat – increasing the heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and hence
their speed.

Let us look at a few everyday examples and consequences:

1. Glass versus Pyrex® glass – this is a very interesting and practical example. In
kitchens at homes, normal glass cannot contain a hot liquid; this is because glass is
an insulator. The inside surface of the glass becomes hot and expands while the
outside is at room temperature and does not expand as much. This difference in
expansion causes thermal stress between the two surfaces and the glass shatters.
Pyrex ® glass, used in laboratories, has a smaller difference in the expansions of the
inner and outer surfaces and this allows us to use boiling water with these beakers,
test tubes and other ‘glassware’.
2. Ball and socket experiment – this is a common experiment that you may have come
across in your first years of science. A ‘ball’ will fit into a ‘socket’ at room
temperature but once the ball has been heated, it will not fit into the socket due to
expansion. Using this idea how would you fit a ball through a socket that is smaller?

3. Bimetallic strip – the bimetallic


strip uses the difference in
thermalexpansitivities of two
metals (for example, iron and
brass). When a strip is ‘heated’,
brass, which expands about 1 ½ Fig. 6.15 –A bimetallic strip bends
times as much as iron, causes the because the two metals have
strip to bend as show below. This different thermal expansititivies
strip has applications in
thermostats and circuit breakers.

4. Weathering of rocks – this mechanical denudation (breakdown) of rocks is a


consequence of repeated thermal expansion and contraction as weather changes.

5. The cracking of walls, floors and roads may also result from thermal expansion
and/or contraction.

NB: It is important to note that thermal expansion occurs uniformly throughout a material
Worked Examples on the Kinetic Theory

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2012 qp.32)


Solution

1. The T-shirt in strong breeze dries faster. The wind causes water to evaporate faster.
2. The unfolded T-shirt dries faster because of the larger surface area for evaporation
to occur.
3. The water evaporates; the more energetic particles change state, escape the hair
and lowering the kinetic energy of water, cooling it.

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2010 qp.33)

Solution
1. (i) Random bombardment of smoke particles by air molecules.
(ii) The air molecules are smaller than smoke particles. They move randomly at
very high speeds in all directions.
2. (i) Increases.
(ii) The kinetic energy of the particles in the can increases as the temperature
increases. They collide with the walls of the container more rapidly and
frequently at higher speeds exerting a greater force per unit area and
therefore a bigger pressure.

Revision Questions on Thermal Properties

Questions on Thermal Expansion

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2009 qp.31)


Solution

1. Water; liquids expand more than solids.


2. Steel; it has similar expansion as concrete; the expansion of aluminium is much
bigger than concrete and will crack and/or break the concrete.

November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)


Questions on Heat Capacity

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2010qp.31)


Solution

1. The energy required to increase the temperature of a 1 kg mass by 1 ℃ or 1 K.


𝐸 23800
2. 𝑐 = 𝑚(𝜃 = 0.93(41.3−13.1) = 𝟗𝟎𝟕. 𝟓 𝐉/𝐤𝐠 ∙ 𝐊
2 −𝜃1 )
𝐸 23800
3. (i) 𝑐 = 𝑚(𝜃 = 0.93(62.1−41.0) = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟗 𝐉/𝐤𝐠 ∙ 𝐊
2 −𝜃1 )
(ii) The initial temperature is higher than room temperature and so more energy
is lost to the environment. Since the average temperature is higher than in
the first case, the rate of heating may also be lower.
4. 1. Insulation – lagging using cotton wool prevents heat loss.
2. Start the experiment at the same initial temperature.
3. Use oil (for thermal transmission) between heater and block.

November 2009 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)


June 2003 qp.2 q.10 (O Level)

June 2010 qp.21 q.9 (O Level)


Questions on Latent Heat

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2012 qp.31)

Solution

1. Heat required to change the state of 1 kg solid into its liquid state at constant
temperature.

12
2. (i) mass = density × volume = 920 × 0.25 × 1000 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟔 𝐤𝐠

(ii) power = 250 × 0.25 = 62.5W


energy = power × time = 62.5 × 1 = 62.5J
energy absorbed = 60% of total energy = 0.6 × 62.5 = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝐉

(iii) total energy needed to melt the ice = ml = 2.76 × 3.3 × 105 = 910800J

total energy 910800


time = = = 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝐬
energy absorbed by area 37.5
June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2006 qp.3 (IGCSE)

June 2007 qp.3 (IGCSE)


Thermal Transfer

The Laws of Thermodynamics

The first and second laws of thermodynamics institute the basis our knowledge of the
relationship between thermal energy, temperature and heat. The first law established the
concept of internal energy as the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of particles in a
system. The second law states the fact that no machine is 100% efficient so we never get as
much work done out of a system as the amount of energy we have put in. Even more
fundamental than both these laws, is a law that ironically was discovered last. In physics the
laws are named in order of priority so this law could not be named the third. Instead what
number comes before one and two?

Thermal Equilibrium and the ZerothLaw of Thermodynamics

Energy (like matter) is transferred down a gradient. If the thermal energy of two objects is
different, then energy is exchanged as heat until there is a thermal equilibrium, that is, both
surfaces possess equal amounts of energy. When two surfaces are in thermal equilibrium,
they are at the same temperature. This means that no thermal energy is transferred
between the two surfaces.

0th Law of Thermodynamics– if objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium


with a third object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Simply put, if A and C are at the same temperature, and B and C are at the same
temperature, it therefore means A and B must be at the same temperature as well. Pretty
obvious, right? Not necessarily as we shall explain later.

Thermal energy is transferred in three ways:

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

1. Conduction

Thermal energy is transferred in solids by conduction. Microscopic particles gain


energy and are excited, this increases there vibrations and they collide with less
energetic particles and ‘pass on’ the energy.
Fig. 6.16 – conduction involves collisions
between adjacent particles

Think of it as a game of hot potato – particles quickly pass on the potato to the
nearest one without the particles moving; if particles are close together, for example
if the density of the solid is high, the energy is transferred faster and more
efficiently. Solids that allow thermal energy to be transferred through them are
called conductors while insulators (also called nonconductors) do not transmit
thermal energy. This is because the atoms or molecules in the material are tightly
fixed in position and cannot vibrate or collide with adjacent particles. Some materials
may conduct thermal energy but do so very marginally, these are called poor
conductors.

Table 6.3 – Example of Good and poor thermal conductors


Good conductor Poor conductor Insulator
Metals Water Plastic
Graphite Wood
Diamond Glass
Concrete

2. Convection

Fig. 6.17 – Convection currents involve the


actual movement of the medium
Convection is involved in the thermal transfer of fluids. A fluid is any substance that
flows hence convection occurs in liquids and gases. Unlike conduction in which the
particles vibrate but remain in their original positions convection occurs due to the
movement of the fluid.

Let us refer to the case of water on a stove. When the fluid is heated, like all matter,
it expands. This expansion increases the volume and decreases the density of the
water at the base of the pot and it rises. Cold water at the top, which has not been
‘heated’ will have a higher density and will sink to the bottom of the pot where it will
be heated, expand and rise and be replaced by the water at the top that would have
cooled down. This forms convection currents which then transmit the energy
throughout the fluid until the temperature is uniform.

An important application of this is why a heater is placed on the floor in a room but
the cooling element in a refrigerator is placed at the top.

1. The heater is placed on the floor so that it is at the lowest point in the room; this
allows for the warm air at the base to expand and rise and for the cool air at the top
to descend. The convection currents ensure that the temperature of the room is
uniform.
2. The cooling element in a fridge is placed at the top of the refrigerator to ensure that
the cold air at the top descends while the cool air (which has a lower density) rises
and can be cooled. Once the required temperature inside the refrigerator has been
achieved, the fridge falls into a dormant state where it uses less energy. Constantly
opening the door allows cold air to escape and warm air to enter and this forces the
cooling process to continue until thermal equilibrium is again reached, wasting
energy.

NB: Convection currents are formed because of the changes in density that occur when
thermal energy is absorbed or released by a fluid.

3. Radiation

In terms of physics, the strict definition of radiation is energy transfer through a


vacuum. A vacuum is space. Space implies that there is no matter that exists inside
that region. It means that that the only way for energy to be transferred through this
region would be via electromagnetic radiation (EM).

Regarding thermal energy transfer the EM waves we are concerned with are infrared
red (IR) radiation. It is this part of the spectrum that gives the sensation of
warmth.As we established when we looked at how stoves work, infrared is absorbed
by all particles and will cause them to vibrate; the friction then causes the warmth.

Fig. 6.18 – Radiation involves transfer of energy


in a vacuum or where neither conduction
nor convection can explain it

Loosely speaking though, radiation is usually used to refer to situations whenever


energy is transferred without the physical contact conducting or being in the
direction of convection currents. For example, during winter we can warm up using
an open flame in a fireplace. We cannot consider that there is physical contact
between us and the fire because the conductivity of air is very low so conduction is
not responsible; at the same time we cannot account for the warmth by convection
because we do not sit in the path of the convection currents since convection
currents cause fluids to rise and descend, we would need to sit above the flame to
attribute our warmth to convection. As such we consider this to be radiation.

Absorbing and Emitting Infrared Radiation: What is Emissivity?

We know that dark surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters of heat. We also know
that shiny and white surfaces are poor absorbers and good reflectors of heat. Very few of us
though even bother to ask why this is the case. Instead, often we misuse the word heat
instead of infrared radiation.

Emissivity is the property of a surface that allows it to absorb infrared radiation. A perfect
absorber (with high emissivity) of infrared radiation is black. A perfect absorber is also a
perfect radiator, that is, it absorbs and loses energy quickly. Black (or dark) surfaces are
‘black’ because they do not reflect light. This explains why cooking using black pots is fast.

White and shiny surfaces have the lowest emissivity and reflect all the energy and are thus
poor absorbers and poor emitters. This explains why food cooked in black pots must be
transferred to silver ones so that it remains hot for longer periods.
Interesting Facts

Jerseys are not hot, you are!

There is a common misconception that jerseys, coats and blankets are warm. This is not
true! Let us see why: a jersey or blanket on its own cannot produce infrared radiation.
Instead, when we wear jerseys or use our blankets, weemit ‘heat’ and the jersey or blanket
keeps a film of warm air between our bodies and the jersey. The reason why we consider
them to be warm is that they retain the warm air that acts as an insulator and this keeps us
warm. That’s why when we get in bed, we do not feel warm immediately, but rather have to
wait a while for the blankets to warm up with the heat from our bodies. Other articles of
clothing for example T-shirts and blazers are usually ‘free’ and do not trap the warm air and
allow cool air to get in making us ‘cold’.

Thermos Flask

The thermos flask (or Dewar flask) is a container that is used to minimize energy losses by
conduction, convection and radiation. The insulated bottle is designed to store either hot or
cold liquids for long periods. It has a simple structure: double walled Pyrex glass with
silvered walls.

Fig. 6.19 – The basic design of a Dewar


(Thermos) flask

To prevent loss by conduction or convection the walls are separated by a vacuum that
prevents any transfer of energy between the two surfaces. The silvered walls reflect the
energy back into the solid or liquid, preventing energy losses by radiation. At the same time,
the shiny surface does not allow heat to get into the flask from the environment. Although
this is less useful since we normally use a vacuum flask to keep hot fluids in the vacuum
flask, it would be helpful to keep cold substances cool for a longer period.

Satellites

Satellites use similar techniques to protect themselves from the tremendous temperature
extremes in space. The interior of a satellite is wrapped in aluminum foil that reflects the
suns intense radiation (when the satellite is in the line of the Sun’s rays) but also retains
energy when the satellite is in the extreme cold of the Earth’s shadow.

Thermography

As we shall see when we look at the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared radiation has many
uses in homes, industry and medicine. Among several innovations applying infrared
radiation arethermograms which are used in night vision and cancer diagnosis, radiation
thermometers and infrared reflexology for muscle relaxation and physical therapy.

Revision Questions on Thermal Transfer

Worked Solution: O Level (June 2009 qp.2)


Solution

1. (i) Conduction.
(ii) Molecules vibrate and pass on energy as they collide.
2. (i)

(ii) When the water at the bottom is heated, it expands decreasing density and
rises. The cooler water at the top has a higher density and descends to fill the
space left by the warm water. This process repeats itself forming a
convectional current as the water at the surface cools and falls and the water
at the bottom is heated and rises.

November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
June 2003 qp.2 (O Level)

November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)


Chapter Seven: Waves and Oscillations
“All of nature is a great wave phenomenon.”

– Louis de Broglie

General Properties of Waves


Waves

A wave is the process of transferring energy without the actual movement of the medium.

Think of it this way, if a group of 10 builders wanted to move 10 000 bricks from point A to
point B 100 metres away would each carry a set of bricks at a time between the points? No!
Instead they would space themselves out between A and B and pass the bricks between
them without any builder moving. This is how energy is transferred between two points as a
wave. The particles vibrate and pass on the energy to adjacent particles so that eventually
energy is transferred from A to B without a particle moving.

Classification of Waves

Fig.
7.1 – Longitudinal and transverse waves
Longitudinal Waves

These are waves in which the direction of wave propagation is parallel to the direction of
wave travel.

Think of how a slug or snail makes its way across the street: the back pushes and
compresses the middle section which in turn stretches, propelling the body forward. This is
how longitudinal waves propagate energy. Let us look at an example:

1. Oscillating spring – since a spring’s oscillations are parallel to the disturbance (see
Fig. 7.2 and Fig. 7.3), areas of compression, corresponding to crests and rarefactions
(stretches), corresponding to troughs are formed as shown.

Fig. 7.2 – Energy in longitudinal waves is transmitted by


compressions and rarefactions

Fig. 7.3 – Compressions correspond to crests


and rarefactions correspond to troughs

Transverse Waves

These are waves in which the direction of wave propagation is perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel.

If we consider a guitar string or spring held at both ends, energy is transferred through the
string or rope by transverse waves. The propagation and displacement (wave travel) are at
right angles as illustrated:
Fig. 7.4 – Energy transfer in transverse waves is
perpendicular to the vibrations

Fig.
7.5 – Mechanical and electromagnetic waves

Mechanical Waves

These are waves which require a physical medium for energy to be transferred from one
point to another. The energy is transferred when the molecules in the medium collide. The
denser the medium the easier and faster it is to transfer the energy.

Electromagnetic Waves

This is a spectrum of waves that can travel in vacuoat a constant speed of 3 × 108 ms −1 .
General Wave Properties

To fully understand waves we must first define and understand the following terms:

Wavelength, 𝝀 (𝜆 is a Greek letter pronounced lambda) – the distance between any two
successive corresponding points. The wavelength can be the distance between adjacent
crests or adjacent troughs. Wavelength is measured in metres (m).

Fig. 7.6 – Graphical representation of the wavelength of a wave

Period, 𝑻 – the time for one complete oscillation. It is measured in seconds (s).

Fig. 7.7 – Graphical representation of the period of a wave

Frequency, 𝒇 – the number of complete oscillations per unit time. Frequency can be defined
by the equation,
1
frequency =
period

𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
It is measured in waves per second (s –1) or Hertz (Hz).

Speed, 𝒗 – the rate of change of distance of a wave. This is how fast energy is transferred
from one point to another. It is measured in metres per second (m/s).

If a wave starting from rest at time 𝑡 = 0, travels a complete wavelength 𝜆 in time 𝑡, the
speed 𝑣 of the wave can be defined by the equation
distance travelled in one wave
speed =
time taken to travel one wave

wavelength
speed =
period
𝜆
𝑣=
𝑇
1
but 𝑓 =
𝑇
so
𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀

Amplitude, 𝒂 – the maximum displacement of a wave from the equilibrium position. The
point of maximum positive displacement (that is, positive amplitude) is called the crest. The
point of maximum negative displacement (that is, negative amplitude) is called the trough.
Amplitude is measured in metres (m).

Phase difference – this concept is rarely referred to at this level so we will just introduce it.
It is defined as the degree to which particles along a wave are ‘out of step’. If particles are in
the same position simultaneously (for example, both at crests or both at troughs) they are
said to be in phase. When they are opposites (for example, one is at crest and the other at a
trough) they are in anti-phase. This property is particularly responsible for the phenomena
of interference and superposition.

Phenomena Associated with Wave Theory

1. Reflectionis when a wave bounces off a plane surface back into the same medium in
which it is travelling. For example a reflected sound is called an echo and light can be
easily reflected using a plane mirror.

Fig. 7.8 – Reflection of a wave


2. Refraction refers to the bending of a wave when travelling between media of
different densities. Refraction occurs because waves travel at different speeds in
different media.

Fig. 7.9 – Refraction of light. Notice how when


light is refracted, some of it reflected

3. Diffraction refers tothe spreading out of waves as they encounter an obstacle or go


through an aperture. Diffraction is more pronounced when the gap is very small and
the opposite is true when the gap is large.

Fig. 7.10 – The diffraction pattern produced when


light goes through a thin horizontal aperture

This relationship between the size of the aperture and the extent to which a wave is
diffracted explains why sound (with wavelength proportional to the size of door) is
diffracted but light (with very small wavelength) appears to travel in a straight line.
Fig. 7.11 – Diffraction of sound
allows sound to be heard behind
walls

Fig. 7.12 – Light appears to travel in a


straight line. This is why rays of light are
drawn as straight lines.
Fig. 7.13 – The diffraction of a wave is more pronounced when the aperture is small (right)

Interference and Superposition – when two waves undergo diffraction and occupy the
same region at the same time, they overlap. This is called interference. This interference
pattern can be observed using water waves as two wavefronts interfere. The amplitude of
the combined wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves, a phenomenon called
superposition. If waves are in phase, we add the amplitudes with sound becoming louder,
light brighter and water ripples forming larger waves. This is known as constructive
interference. If the waves are in anti-phase, the amplitudes cancel out. Destructive
interference as this is known causes two loud sounds to produce silence, two giant waves
form a plane water surface and two light sources interfere to form darkness!

Fig. 7.14 – Interference pattern produced by


superposing ripples from two wave fronts

Oscillations

Oscillations are to-and-fro vibrations of a system. Free oscillations are vibrations of a system
in the absence of an external force. Examples of free oscillations are a vibrating ruler and a
simple pendulum when air resistance is negligible. Forced oscillations are vibrations that a
system will undergo due to the action of an external unbalanced force. The external force
either increases or decreases the amplitude of the oscillations. For example, dampers
(commonly known as shock absorbers) minimise oscillations in a cars suspension system
when a driving along a bumpy road.
Resonance

When the natural frequency of a vibrating object is equal to the frequency of the driving
force, resonance occurs in which case the amplitude is at its maximum. When resonance
occurs, a system becomes increasing unstable until it gives way and collapses, for example
the Tacoma Narrows bridge in the United States collapsed in 1940 due to resonance caused
by wind. A high note by a soprano sung loudly enough can crack crystal glass.

Fig. 7.15 – The Tacoma Narrows Bridge before (left) and after (right) their collapse caused
by resonance due to wind vortices

Revision Questions on Waves


Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2011 qp.31)

Solution

1. A narrow beam of light is set incident on a glass prism; the path of the ray can be
marked by optical pins. The path of the refracted ray can be deduced by placing as
the light exits the prism and is shown on a surface.

We can use the refractive index of glass-air (calculated by measuring the incident
and refracted angles) to determine the speed of light in glass using the equation
sin 𝑖 𝑐
=𝑛=
sin 𝑟 𝑣
where 𝑖 is the incident angle, 𝑟 is the refracted angle, 𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 m/s and 𝑣 is
the speed of light in glass.

2. (i) 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑣 240
𝑓= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝐇𝐳
𝜆 1.9 × 105
6.0×105
(ii) time for earthquake to travel to coast = 2.5×103 = 240 s
6.0 × 105
time for tsunami to travel to coast = = 2500 s
240
warning time = 2500 − 240 = 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝐬

November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2006 qp.3 (IGCSE)


June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2008 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
Light

Definition of Terms

Let us take a look at a few words we will constantly refer to in this section:

Ray – a line which represents the direction of travel of a wave. Since we established that
light waves are minutely diffracted, light rays are drawn as straight lines.

Normal – an imaginary line that makes a right angle (90°) with the plane surface to which a
light ray is incident.

Incident ray – a ray that approaches (is ‘incident upon’) a plane surface or a boundary
between two media.

Reflected ray – a ray that bounces off a plane surface or boundary between media and
returns to the original medium.

Refracted ray – a ray that is transferred between media.

Angle of incidence – the angle that the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence.

Angle of reflection – the angle that the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence.

Angle of refraction – the angle that the refracted ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence.

Reflection

In the previous section, we explained that reflection occurs when a wave encounters a plane
surface and bounces back into the original medium through which it is travelling. There are
two types of reflection: specular reflection occurs on a smooth plane while diffuse
reflection occurs on uneven surfaces.

Fig. 7.16 – Specular reflection of red laser


Fig. 7.17 – reflected rays bounce of the plane
surface and remain in the medium

Laws of Reflection

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, lie in
the same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Fig. 7.18 – Reflection of a ray at a plane surface

Angle of incidence 𝒊 = Angle on reflection 𝒓

Plane (flat) Mirrors

A plane mirror is simply a flat thin glass with a silvered back surface. The silver surface
reflects all the light and the glass is thin to avoid refraction occurring at the surface. The
reflected light rays constitute the image that we see.

Properties of the image in a plane mirror

The reflection in a plane mirror has the five main properties:

1. Virtual.This means that the image


1. Is not produced by real rays crossing
2. It cannot be formed on a screen
3. The rays appear to come from the image

4. The image and object are equidistant from the mirror line. This explains why if an
object is brought near the mirror surface, the reflection also seems to approach the
mirror.
5. Not magnified.The image and object are exactly the same size.
6. Upright.
7. Laterally inverted. The image is rotated so that the left side is on the right and the
right side is on the left.

Fig. 7.19 – The image of the letter Z shows


all the characteristics of images produced
by plane mirrors: each image point is the
same distance away from the mirror line
as the corresponding object point; the
image is unmagnified, upright and is
‘flipped’ horizontally so that the objects
left is the images right and vice versa.

How images are formed on a plane mirror

If an object O is placed before a plane mirror (see Fig. 7.20), the image I is found by two
simple steps:

1. Draw any two rays from point O to the mirror line and reflect them (remember angle
of incidence is equal to angle of reflection!)
2. Extend the reflected rays so that they converge behind the mirror line. This is where
the image is located.
NB: The line joining the object and image makes a right angle with the mirror line.

Fig. 7.20 – Obtaining the image of an object in a plane mirror


Proving that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection: The Optical Pin Experiment

This experiment is used to investigate the nature of reflection of light, as well as to prove
the laws of reflection.

The experiment is carried out in three easy steps

1. Place a mirror vertically on a card. Then place two optical pins so that they are one in
front of the other.

Fig. 7.21

2. Position yourself so that you can see both pins as only one. This is the line along
which the incident ray is travelling. Draw a line joining the two pins and extends it to
touch the mirror surface and establish the normal line.

Fig. 7.22

3. Go onto the other side to see the reflection of the pins and positions yourself so that
you see the images of both pins as only one: this means that you are in line with the
reflection of the incident ray. Trace this line on the card and then measure the
incident and reflected angles. They are equal!
Fig. 7.23 – Proving the laws of reflection

Fig. 7.24 Mirror writing – you may have noticed that the front of
police vehicles, fire brigade trucks and ambulances have banners
written backwards. This is called mirror writing. When such a
vehicle is behind a driver and the driver glances into the rearview
mirror, it inverts the words so that they can be read easily and the
driver can give way.

Refraction

When a ray is transmitted from one medium to another of a different optical density,
refraction occurs. In general refraction causes a change in the speed of a wave, bending it.
In monochromatic light, refraction is dependent on the wavelength of the wave.

Fig. 7.25 – Refraction of red laser in a glass prism


Fig. 7.26 – refracted rays are transmitted
(and bend) between adjacent media

Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, lie in
the same plane.

2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for two media.

This can be expressed as an equation

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭, 𝒏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

Fig. 7.27 – Refraction of light at the boundary of glass


and air. Notice how the ray bends towards the normal.

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
= 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓

where 𝑖 is the angle of incidence and 𝑟 is the angle of refraction.

This is called Snell’s law.


The constant, given symbol 𝒏 is called the refractive index and is constant for a pair of
media, for example air – water, air – glass or water – glass.

Since refraction causes a change in the wave’s speed, the ratio of the speed of the incident
ray to the speed of the refracted ray also gives the refractive index

𝒗𝒊
𝒏=
𝒗𝒓
where 𝑣𝑖 is the speed of the incident ray and 𝑣𝑟 is the speed of the refracted ray. If we
consider the speed of light in a vacuum, the equation can modified to give

𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗

where 𝑐 is the speed of light in a vacuum, that is 3 × 108 ms −1 and 𝑣 is the speed of light in
the medium.

Whenever a ray is incident upon a boundary between two media, part of it bounces back
into the original medium (this is called internal reflection) and part of it is transmitted into
the adjacent medium. That is, part of it is reflected and part of it is refracted. This is shown
by Fig. 7.28.Since the energy of the incident ray is split into the reflected and refracted rays,
the intensity of either the refracted ray or reflected ray will be less than the incident ray:

𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐲 = 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐚𝐲 + 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐚𝐲

Fig. 7.28 – Refraction is always


accompanied by reflection. (In this figure,
the angle of refraction has been labeled 𝑟𝑓
so that it is not confused with the angle of
reflection𝑟)

Refraction may occur in two main ways

1. Light travels from a medium to a denser medium

2. Light travels from a medium to a less dense medium

Let us look at each example in turn.


1. Light travels from a medium to a denser medium
When a ray travels from a medium to a denser medium (for example, air to water),
the refracted light bends towards the normal as shown:

Fig. 7.29 – Refraction from a less


dense to more dense medium
decreasesboth the angle and
speed of the ray

We can illustrate this using a very easy but profound example: if you put a coin in a
cup and move away so that the coin is hidden how can you see it without moving?
Poor water into the cup! Why? When light travels from air into water, it bends
towards the normal. This allows the ray to go toward the coin and we can see the
image of the coin. The coin seems not to be on the base of the cup, this also explains
why a fork appears to bend at the water surface.

Fig. 7.30 – A coin that cannot be seen (left) is


visible by refraction of light in water (right).

2. Light travels from a medium to a less dense medium


When a ray travels from a medium to one that has a lower density, the refracted ray
bends away from the normal as shown:

Fig. 7.31 – Refraction from a


medium to less dense medium
increasesboth the angle and speed
of the ray.
This second example of refraction has important implications on how we can use
light in optical fibres particularly in communications technology and medicine. To
explain this let us look at the concepts of critical angle and total internal reflection.

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

Earlier we established that when light travels from a medium to a less dense medium (this
example will use glass to air) it bends away from the normal. Using the second laws of
reflection and refraction we know that if we increase the angle of incidence, both the angles
of reflection and refraction will increase. This means as we increase the angle of incidence,
the refracted ray moves further and further away from the normal.

Fig. 7.32 – Increasing the angle of incidence, also increases the angle of refraction

The critical angle, 𝒄of a ray is the greatest angle of incidence for which refraction can occur.
This means that the refracted ray is parallel to the boundary between the two media,
making a right angle (90°) with the normal. This right angle of refraction is called the
glazing angle.

Fig. 7.33 – When angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, 𝑐,


the angle of refraction is 90° (glazing angle)

We observe the phenomenon of refraction often in our lives. Look at these examples:
1. The sun appears to be on the horizon even after it has gone down because light from
the sun is repeatedly refracted by the air in the atmosphere (which is at different
temperatures because of altitude). This means we may see the sun even after it has
actually set.
2. Water sparkles in the sun at a particular angle and we cannot see beneath the
surface. This changes if we take a few steps forward because then the angle of
incidence is less than the critical angle and we can see inside the water.
3. ‘Water’ on the road – this often occurs on a hot day when light rebounds off the
surface of the tarred roads and there appears to be pools of water which do not exist
once we get to the location.
4. Mirage – this is a common occurrence in the desert
where travellers appear to see an oasis (pool of water)
when they are really being deceived by their senses
and the refraction of light. The temperature difference
between the ground and air causes refraction in the air
(the air will have different densities) and the person
sees the ‘reflection of a tree’ and believes there is
water.

If the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, that is, 𝑖 > 𝑐, the ‘refracted’ ray will
bend even further away from the normal so that 𝑟 > 90°. This means that the ‘refracted’
ray bends back into the original medium, no refraction actually occurs and all the light
rebounds at the boundary. This is called total internal reflection.

Fig. 7.34 – Total Internal reflection occurs when the


angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle

Internal reflection has several common examples including the multiple internal reflections
(using glass prisms) in submarine periscopes and the sparkling of diamonds. By far, the most
important application is in the use of optical fibres particularly in communications
technology and medicine.

Fibre Optics

An optical fibre is a thin flexible solid glass or transparent plastic rod. Light is confined to
travel through the rod by multiple internal reflections even around curves. A bundle of
parallel fibres is used to construct an optical transmission line in which images and data (as
light) can be transferred from one point to another.

Fig. 7.35 – Light travels through a curved


transparent rod by multiple internal
reflections. The ray does not pass out of
the glass at the point of incidence but is
totally internally reflected.

Uses in Medicine
Fibre optics are used to view images of inaccessible locations, for example the oesophagus,
stomach or colon for diagnosis and examination. In this case a cable consisting of two
fibreoptic lines is used: one to transmit light to the area for illumination and the other to
allow the light to be transmitted from the location. The images produced can then be
observed directly by the physician or on a television monitor. This technique avoids the use
of major surgery which may be unnecessary, is invasive and can be traumatic.

Uses in Communications Technology


Optics have massively changed how telecommunications work. The use of light (and infrared
radiation) allows for high – speed internet traffic, radio and television signals and telephone
calls. The fibres can carry much higher volumes of telephone calls and other forms of
communication than electrical wires because of the high frequency of the light used to carry
the information on optical fibres.

Fig. 7.36 –Strands of glass optical


fibresare used to carry voice, video,
anddata signals in
telecommunicationnetworks.

Advantages of fibre optics over copper cables

1. Cheap
2. Fast – data is transferred at the speed of light
3. Large data volumes and bandwidth (range of frequencies for information
transmission)
4. Conserve energy compared to copper cables because they are insulators (copper
cables lose energy as heat).Immune to changes in physical conditions, for example
rain, wind or snow
5. Immune to electromagnetic interference, for example jamming
6. Secure – no crosstalk or compromised transmission
7. Very little intensity is lost – data is completely intact throughout the transmission,
for example no missing or damaged data
8. Viewing images produced in inaccessible locations, for example the oesophagus and
stomach when checking for ulcers or examining the colon without performing
surgery.
9. Little maintenance over a long period
Revision Questions on Light

Questions on Reflection and Refraction

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2009 qp.3)


Solution
1. A; angle of refraction in air is larger than incident angle in medium A
2. A; light travels faster in a less dense medium
3. 42°
4. Total internal reflection
sin 𝑟
5. = 𝑛 (we always put more dense medium on top)
sin 𝑖
sin 𝑟
= 1.49
sin 35
sin 𝑟 = 1.49 sin 35 = 0.8546288902
𝑟 = sin−1 0.8546288902 = 58.72°
𝑐
6. =𝑛
𝑣
𝑐 3 × 108
𝑣= = = 2.013 × 108 m/s
𝑛 1.49

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.32)


Solution

1. Light of the same frequency, wavelength and colour


2. Refraction
3. 180 − (61 + 90) = 29°
sin 𝑖
4. 𝑛 = sin 𝑟 = sin 45 sin 29 = 1.458524649 = 1.46
5. Angle of incidence at B exceed the critical angle so total internal reflection occurs
6.

June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2006 qp.3 (IGCSE)
June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)

June 2010 qp.21 (O Level)


November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2008 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.22 (IGCSE)


November 2010 qp.21 (O Level)
Lenses

There are two main types of lenses: converging and diverging.

Fig. 7.37 – Types of lenses

Converging and Diverging Lenses

Rays parallel to the axis converge (meet) after passing through a biconvex (converging) lens
(Fig. 7.38). The focal point 𝐹, is defined to be the point at which the converging rays meet.
Rays parallel to the axis diverge (deviate) after passing through a biconcave (diverging) lens
(Fig. 7.39). The focal point is defined to be the point at which the diverged rays appear to
originate.

Fig. 7.38 – Converging lens


Fig. 7.39 – Diverging lens

Let us define two very important terms

Principal focus, 𝑭 – also called the focal point is the point where rays of light actually
intersect or where they appear to originate.
Focal length, 𝒇 – the image distance that corresponds to an infinite object distance. This
simply means that if an object is at an infinite distance away from the observer, the image
that is seem is formed at this point.

Converging Lenses

When we look at reflection and the plane mirror we established that the object produces an
image. This image (reflection) has particular properties. The images formed using
converging lenses also have special properties depending on the position of the object.
Constructions called ray diagrams assist us in determining the properties of the image
produced by a converging lens.

Ray Diagrams

Before drawing ray diagrams we must understand (but need not memorise) the meaning of
the following terms:

Principal axis – a horizontal line that crosses the centre of lens. The object base, image base,
and focal points all lie on this line.

Minor (vertical) axis – a vertical line that acts as the centre of the lens forming a right angle
with the principal axis. This is the line at which parallel lines are deviated so that they
converge.

Focal length – the distance between the focal point and the centre of the lens.

Object distance – the distance between the object and the centre of the lens.

Image distance – the distance between the image and the centre of the lens.

image distance
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
object distance

Fig. 7.40 – A standard ray diagram


How to draw ray diagrams

Three rays are drawn using three simple steps:


1. First ray – draw a ray from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis to the
minor axis. After being refracted by the lens, the ray passes through (or appears to
come from) one of the focal points.

Fig. 7.41 (a)

2. Second ray – draw a ray from the top of the object through the centre of the lens.
This ray continues as a straight line.

Fig. 7.41 (b)

3. Third ray – draw a ray from the top of the object through the other focal point to the
minor axis. It emerges from the lens parallel to the principal axis.

Fig. 7.41 (c)


Often we use two of the three steps since we only need to draw two lines to locate the
image. Step 2 is compulsory so we may choose either step 1 or step 3 to complete the
diagram.
Properties of images formed by a converging lens

We are concerned with 4 properties that the image formed may possess:

1. Real or virtual – as explained earlier in the book a virtual image is one that is not
real, cannot be formed on a screen or the rays appear to come from the image.

2. On the same side or opposite side of the lens – the image is either on the same side
or on the opposite side of the lens as the object.

3. Upright or inverted – inverted images are said to be ‘up – side – down’

4. Magnified or unmagnified – magnification does not mean enlargement. A


magnification greater than 1 is enlargement while a magnification less than 1 results
in a diminished image. A magnification of 1 means that the object and image are
exactly the same size, the image is then said to be unmagnified.

Magnification is calculated using the formula

𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

Describing an Image

In describing an image answer the following questions

1. Is it real or virtual?

2. Is it magnified, diminished or the same size?

3. Is it upright or inverted?

4. Is it on the same side of the lens as the object or it’s on the opposite side?
Standard Ray Diagrams
1. Object between lens and 𝑭 – The magnifying glass

Fig. 7.42
Properties of image:
1. Virtual
2. Same side of lens as object
3. Upright
4. Enlarged

Use:
Magnifying glass

5. Object at 𝑭

Fig. 7.43
Properties of image:
1. Real
2. Opposite of lens as object
3. Inverted
4. Infinitely enlarged

Use:
Telescope
5. Object between 𝑭 and 𝟐𝑭

Fig. 7.44

Properties of image:
1. Real
2. Opposite side of lens as object
3. Inverted
4. Enlarged

Use:
Projector

5. Object at 𝟐𝑭

Fig. 7.45
Properties of image:
6. Real
7. Opposite side of lens as object
8. Inverted
9. Unmagnified (same size as the object, so object and image distances are equal)

Use:
Camera

10. Object beyond 𝟐𝒇


Fig. 7.46
Properties of image:
11. Real
12. Opposite side of lens as object
13. Inverted
14. Diminished

Use:
Camera used for smaller pictures
Eye

15. Object at infinity

Fig. 7.47
Properties of image:
16. Real
17. Opposite side of lens as object
18. Inverted
19. Infinitely diminished

Use:
Telescope
Lenses and the images they produce have wide ranging applications including the camera,
projector, photographic enlarger, telescope and the eye. Let us take a brief look at the main
applications: the camera and they eye.
The camera and the eye have the same basic function:
Fig. 7.48 – The camera

Fig. 7.49 – The eye


1. A converging lens produces a real image. In cameras the image is produced on the
light sensitive component (in non-digital cameras a photographic film is used) while
in the eye the image is formed at the retina.
2. Focusing is accomplished by changing the distance between the lens and the
film/retina. In cameras the lens moves while the eye lens focuses by dilating the
pupil (to focus on near objects) or constricting (to focus on far objects) in a process
called accommodation.
3. The camera shutter, behind the lens, is a mechanical device opened for selected
time intervals. With this arrangement, moving objects can be photographed by using
short exposure times, dark scenes (with low light levels) by using long exposure
times. If this adjustment were not available, it would be impossible to take stop-
action photographs.
4. Light exposure is controlled in both cameras and eyes by controlling the diameter of
the aperture. In cameras this is mechanically adjustable while in eyes this is
controlled by accommodation.

Dispersion of Light

The extent to which a wave is refracted depends on the wavelength of the wave. Visible
light (also called white light) is a mixture of colours and when it is incident on a prism, the
different colours (each having its own range of wavelengths) refract at different angles. This
causes the different colours to take different paths and the white light is dispersed.

By definition, the dispersion of light is the dependence of the refractive index on


wavelength. Simply put the angle of refraction depends on the wavelength of the light. The
longer the wavelength, the less the bending of the ray, that is and the smaller angle of
refraction. When visible light is dispersed it produces a spectrum of colours with red light
(longest wavelength) refracted least and violet light (shortest wavelength) refracted the
most as shown:
Fig. 7.50 – Dispersion of white light produces a spectrum of colours

The Colours of Visible Light

increasing frequency →
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet
← increasing wavelength

Fig. 7.51 – The colours of visible light

We refer to light of one colour as monochromatic. However this is not a sufficient definition.
Instead monochromatic light is defined as light with the same wavelength, frequency and a
constant phase difference. This also means that monochromatic light is coherent.

Interesting facts

Near and Far Sightedness


Near-sightedness known as myopia occurs when the image is formed before the retina and
is blurred. It occurs when the eye is longer than normal or when the focal length is
insufficient to produce a clearly focused image.

Fig. 7.52 – Near sighted people cannot see distant (far off) things

It is corrected with a diverging lens. The lens refracts the ray away from the principal axis
before they enter the eye, allowing them to focus on the retina.
Fig. 7.53 – Correction of near sightedness diverging lenses

On the other hand, far-sightedness (hyperopia) occurs when the eyeball is too short or when
thecilliary muscle cannot change the shape of the lens enough to form a properly focused
image. The converging rays cannot be brought to a sharp focus in time and the blurred
image is formed beyond the retina.

Fig. 7.54 – Far sighted people cannot see near things

Hyperopia is corrected by placing a converging lens in front of the eye. The lens refracts the
incoming rays more toward the principal axis before the entering the eye, allowing them to
converge and focus on the retina.

Fig. 7.55 – Far sightedness is corrected using converging lens

Image in a spoon: convex and concave mirrors


Have you ever looked at your reflection using a spoon? Depending on whether you bring the
spoon surface closer or further away from you (hence changing object distance) and
whether you use the inside or outside of the spoon (concave or convex) the image may be
upside down, distorted or both.
DVD ‘reading’
Compact disks (CDs) and digital video disks (DVDs) have a plastic that protects the
information layer. When a DVD is played, laser is refracted as it travels from the air into the
plastic and onto the information layer. This allows the DVD to be ‘read’.

Revision Questions on Dispersion of light

November 2008 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2006 qp.3 (IGCSE)
Revision Questions on Lenses

June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are a family of waves which travel in a vacuum at the same speed.

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. They can travel in a vacuum – they do not need a physical medium for travel.
2. They travel at the same speed in vacuo. This is the speed of light 𝑐 = 3.0 ×
108 ms−1 .
3. They are transverse waves
4. They can be reflected, refracted anddiffracted
5. They can be polarized – this means that they can be restricted to vibrate in only one
plane.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

R – radio waves

M – microwaves

I – infrared rays
increasing increasing
wavelengthfrequency
V – visible light → →
U – ultraviolet rays

X – X-rays

G – gamma rays
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

Table 7.4 – Uses of the Electromagnetic Waves


Wave Uses
Radio and television communication systems. Amplitude modulation
Radio waves
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM) are examples of radio signals.
Satellite television and telephone networks, microwave ovens,
Microwaves
telemetry (satellite communications)
Electrical appliances (for example, cooking stoves), remote
controllers for televisions, intruder alarms, physical therapy, infrared
Infrared waves (IR)
photography (used to check for cancer growths and tumour), fibre
optics
Visible light Fibre optics in medicine and telecommunications
Sunbeds, fluorescent tubes, sterilization of medical and surgical
Ultraviolet (UV)
equipment
In medicine as a diagnostic tool, for example to check for broken
X-rays
bones, treatment of certain forms of cancer, and security
Medical treatment of cancer, sterilisation of surgical or medical
Gamma rays
instruments, irradiation of food

Issues of Safety When Dealing with EM radiation

Microwaves
Microwave Ovens: There is a common practice where people open microwave ovens while
they are in operation or just after they stop. In both cases microwave radiation is still inside
the cooking compartment and people can be exposed to the radiation. Such exposure may
cause damage to tissues and organs, or even mutation of cells and genes.

UV Waves
Sunglasses: the idea of wearing sunglasses to look cool can have adverse consequences.
Wearing sunglasses without ultraviolet protection is worse than not wearing glasses at all.
This is why: sunglasses absorb some light, and cause the pupils to dilate so that we see
properly. This allows more UV to enter the eye and damage the lens. Without the sunglasses
our pupils naturally constrict reducing the amount of visible and harmful UV that enters the
eye. Wear sunglasses that have UV protection or approved by an optometrist.

X-rays and Gamma Rays


Both X-rays and gamma rays can easily penetrate and damage or destroy living tissues and
organisms. They may also cause mutation of genes. Care must be taken to avoid
unnecessary exposure and overexposure.
Interesting Facts

Two students saw two sources of light; one a bright red one and the other a dim blue one.
Student A made an educated guess by saying the red one transferred more energy, while
Student B said it was the blue one. Both of them were correct! The bright red light
transferred a more intense light than the dim blue one (making Student A correct). Blue
light has a higher frequency and therefore possesses more energy than red light (making
Student B correct as well).

Microwaves versus Stoves

Have you ever wondered why stoves warm the food and the container yet microwaves
warm the food only? The answer is simple really: stoves use infrared radiation (commonly
mistakenly called heat waves, this radiation is what gives us the sensation of warmth from
the sun during busking) while microwave ovens use microwaves. Here is the difference –
stoves use filaments which produce infrared radiation that is absorbed by atoms in the
metal pan or pot which causes them to be agitated. As the temperature increases their
vibrational motion and they pass on the energy as heat to the food by conduction.
Microwaves (which carry less energy than infrared) on the other hand, are absorbed by
water molecules only. This means that when warming food the water molecules gain
energy, are agitated and the friction produces the ‘heat’ that warms the food. The container
(plastic or ceramic) does not have water molecules and therefore does not get hot. Since
microwaves are directly absorbed as radiation by the food whereas infrared uses
conduction (indirect, since the container must first become hot), they warm the food much
faster. It is also important to note that since they agitate water molecules only, microwaves
cannot cook or warm dry food (that is, with no water content).

Why Is The Sky Blue?

This is a common question among science students but virtually no proper answer is given.
Often it is condemned to the long list of questions that don’t need to be answered ‘because
they are not in the syllabus’. The colour of the sky may be explained by either of or both of
two main theories:

1. Refraction of light due to air molecules and water vapour in the stratosphere
produces blue light during the day because of the position of the sun. At dusk the
sun’s new position allows us to see the longer wavelength refracted colours hence
the sky turns orange/red. This is called Rayleigh’s Theory.
2. Water molecules and other gas particles in the air absorb low energy (long
wavelength) radiation during the day. This means they reflect the short wavelength
colours that is, blue and indigo. As the dusk approaches and the temperature
decreases, the molecules and atoms lose the long wavelength radiation they had
absorbed and we see the yellow/orange/red colour of the sky.
Why Do We Use Red For Danger and Traffic Lights etc.?

Red light has the longest wavelength in the visible light part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This means it can travel a long distance without losing too much intensity and
therefore can be seen from far away. This allows drivers to easily pick up danger warning
sides or the red light at traffic intersections.

Infrared Imaging

We often see action heroes using thermal or infrared goggles. These pick up the ‘heat’
emitted by warm bodies. This can be used to producethermograms that can be used to
identify cancer.

Fig. 7.56 –Tumours and growths (this


woman’s left breast is diseased) can be
identified using an infrared thermogram

What is a Laser?

Laser is not an actual word, it is an acronym:

L – Light A – Amplification by S – Stimulated E – Emission of R – Radiation

When light is amplified to a very high intensity, it becomes ‘hot’. This amplification can be
done using crystals for example rubies or even gases like carbon dioxide. The amplified light
can then the ‘concentrated’ and targeted at an object. Laser has a wide range of uses from
facilitating the healing and closure of wounds without forming scars to repairing peripheral
nerves, blood vessels and making incisions such as in eye surgery and in recording and
reading of CDs and DVDs. MASERS on the other hand use microwaves instead of light waves.

Why Do We See Lighting Before We Hear Thunder?

The speed of light is approximately 3.0 × 108 ms −1 . To put this in perspective, light travels
from Harare in Zimbabwe to Johannesburg in South Africa and back (a combined distance of
about 2400km) 125 times in one second! Sound on the other hand travels at about
330 ms−1 in air (this is not slow by any means and it is 33 times faster than the fastest man
on earth!) and this means that light is about 1 million times faster than sound! We therefore
seethings before we hear them. Another example is how we can see a logger use an axe to
cut a tree but we only hear the sound of impact after.
Revision Questions on the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Worked Example: IGSCE (November 2010 qp.31)

Solution

1. (i) Sound
(ii) Mechanical (or longitudinal)
(iii) Ultraviolet (UV)
2. 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑣 3 × 108
𝜆= = = 1.2 m
𝑓 2.5 × 108

June 2003 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2006 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2004 qp.2 (O Level)

November 2005 qp.2 (O Level)


June 2008 qp.2 (O Level)

November 2007 qp.3 q.7 (IGCSE)


November 2012 qp.21 (O Level)

June 2005 qp.3 (IGCSE)


Sound
Production of Sound

Sound waves are produced by the vibrations of particles in a medium for example, a tuning
fork.

Propagation of sound: Compression and Rarefaction

Let us use Fig. 13.1 to explain this. When the tuning fork arm vibrates to the right, the air
molecules to its right are forced closer together than normal. This produces a region of high
molecular density and high air pressure called a compression. When the arm swings to the
left, the air molecules to its right are spread out and the density and pressure in this region
are lower than normal. Such a region is called a rarefaction.

Fig. 7.57 – Compressions are Fig. 7.58 – Rarefactions are formed


formed by the forward movement by backward movement of a
of a vibrating system vibrating source

Molecules to the right of the rarefaction move to the left. The rarefaction itself therefore
moves to the right, following the compression. This process continues as long as the
medium vibrates and there are alternate compressions and rarefactions as sound wave are
propagated.

Fig. 7.59 – Sound waves are


formed by alternate compressions
and rarefactions. Compressions
correspond to loud sounds while
rarefactions correspond to soft
sounds
Propagation and Representation of Sound Waves

Direction of wave travel

C R C R C R C R C

graphical

presentation

wavefronts 𝜆

Where

C − compression and R − rarefaction

Wavefront –an imaginary line that joins crests or troughs. The distance between
consecutive wavefronts is the wavelength, 𝜆.
Sound: The Longitudinal Wave

Sound waves are longitudinal in nature. This is because the disturbance and the
displacement of the wave are parallel. As explained above, sound waves are produced by
vibrating sources using compressions and rarefactions. They also undergo diffraction,
reflection and refraction.

Sounds waves generally have long wavelengths and therefore undergo massive diffraction.
This explains why even when a source is not directed at a receiver, the sound waves spread
out enough to be picked up, for example, in the example we dealt with earlier, student B
was able to hear student A even though they were in different rooms because of the
aperture (door). At the same time if someone looks at a wall and speaks, a person standing
behind them can hear them because sound waves can be reflected. A reflected sound is
called an echo. We will deal will echoes later on in this chapter. When a sound wave is
moves from one medium to another of a different density, the speed changes. During
refraction of sound speed and wavelength changes but the frequency remains the same.

Types of Sound Waves

There are three categories of sound wave frequencies:

1. Infrasonic waves
2. Audible waves
3. Ultrasonic waves

Let us briefly look at each type

1. Infrasonic Waves (infra means below)


These are longitudinal waves with frequencies below the audible rangefor example
earthquakes. Sea animals such as whales use infrasonic waves to navigate the murky
waters where light cannot penetrate and they cannot depend on their sight. They
send these waves which are then reflected by the rocks and shoals of fish in the
water. Submarines use this technique as well to determine the terrain of the sea
bed.

2. Audible Waves
These are longitudinal waves that lie within the range of sensitivity of the human
ear, that is, the audible range. This range lies between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz.

𝐀𝐮𝐝𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬: 𝟐𝟎 𝐇𝐳 𝐭𝐨 𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐇𝐳


3. Ultrasonic Waves (Ultra means above)
Longitudinal waves with frequencies above the audible range. Dog whistles produce
ultrasound waves that cannot be heard by humans but can be picked up by animals.
Bats (which have poor eyesight but are not blind as is often mistakenly assumed) use
ultrasonic waves to make a ‘map’ of the area in which they fly or hunt – they scream
these high frequency waves which are reflected by trees, buildings, water and even
prey like locusts and caterpillars. The bat then receives these echoes and uses the
speed of the waves to calculate the distance.

Sound: The Mechanical Wave

Sound waves can only be propagated in a physical medium. This explains why sound cannot
travel through a vacuum (space). Since sound is mechanical, depending on vibrations of
atoms or molecules, the density of the medium affects the rate at which the energy is
transferred that is the speed of sound varies with the density (and consequently the state)
of the medium.

Speed of Sound

Do you remember the example of the 100 builders that had to move the 10 000 bricks?
Solids generally have high densities so particles are closely packed. Solids are like having 1
000 builders in the same line. There are fewer spaces so bricks will not fall between builders
and this allows the bricks to be transferred efficiently and quickly. Sound therefore is
clearest and fastest in dense media (such as solids). Liquid is agood medium while gases are
generally poor transmitters of sound since energy is lost because of the large spaces
between the molecules.

Order of Magnitude of Sound

1. Solids, for example aluminium~ 5 100 m/s


2. Liquids, for example water ~ 1 500 m/s
3. Gases, for example air ~ 300 m/s

Long ago, people used to determine how far away a train was by detecting sound waves
transmitted through the railway line rather than those transmitted through the air. The
sound is clearer and faster in solids than in gases. This proves that while they may not have
read any physics textbook they were scientifically correct!
Determining the Speed of Sound in Air

The speed of sound waves (like all waves) is given by the equation

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

where 𝑣 is the speed, 𝑓 is the frequency and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the sound. To determine
the value of 𝑣 we will use sound echoes. Here is a simple experiment: two students stand in
an open area with a plane vertical wall about 𝑑 m (𝑑~100 m) away. Student A stands at
point X and student B stands at point Y which is the same distance away from the wall as X.

Fig. 7.60 – Determining the speed of sound

Student A produces a sound by either clapping his hands or some objects together. Student
B immediately starts a stopwatch, and measures the time between seeing student A
clapping his hands to hearing the echo.

If the time between producing the sound and hearing the echo is 𝑡seconds, the speed of the
sound wave can be determined using the equation. The distance is doubled because the
sound travels to and from the wall

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝟐𝒅
𝒗=
𝒕
Properties of Sound

Sound has 4 main properties that are of interest to us:

1. Loudness
2. Pitch
3. Intensity
4. Timbre

1. Loudness
Loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of the wave. The bigger the
amplitude, the louder the sound and the lower the amplitude, the softer the sound.
We see this effect on radio and audio player graphic equaliserswhich produce higher
peaks when the volume is increased

Fig. 7.61 – Two waveforms with the same frequency.


The wave on the right has a bigger amplitude.

2. Pitch
The concept of pitch is a little tricky. There is a common mistaken phrase ‘pitch of
sound’ which is a measure of how high or low a note is on a scale (from treble to
bass). The reason why this phrase does not exist is because pitch in not a physical
property of sound, insteadit is the response to the stimulus caused by the frequency
of a sound wave. The pitch is dependent on the frequency of sound. The higher the
frequency of a sound wave the higher (or sharper) its pitch.

Fig. 7.62 – Two waveforms with the same amplitude.


The wave on the left has a higher frequency
3. Intensity
intensity ∝ (amplitude)2

As shown above the loudness of sound is proportional to amplitude and this


loudness s brought about by the intensity of the wave which in turn is proportional
to the square of the amplitude. The faintest sound that the human ear can detect
has an intensity of 10−12 W/m2 . This is known as the threshold of hearing. Unless
trained, most humans are not capable of hearing sounds that are this ‘soft’. The
loudest sounds that the ear can tolerate have an intensity of 1 W/m2 . This is called
the threshold of pain. At this intensity the ear drum can burst and the ears can
bleed.

4. Timbre
Timbre is the quality of a sound wave. This depends on the smoothness of the wave
and is affected by the mixture of harmonics in the sound. A disharmonic (or
commonly discordant) sound has poor timbre. Different instruments (for example
tuning fork, flute and clarinet) playing the same note at the same key produce
different number of harmonics. A tuning fork produces one ‘sound’ because it
produces one harmonic. A flute (seven harmonics) and clarinet (nine harmonics)
produces the waveforms shown in Fig 13.5 below:

Fig. 7.63 – Different musical instruments produce different


waveforms of the same note because they
produce different number of harmonics

Echo

An echo is a reflected sound. Sound waves can be reflected by large objects such as hill,
mountains and walls. Echoes have the same speed, wavelength and frequency as the
original sound. They however have lower amplitudes and therefore lower volumes (that is,
they aresofter) than the original waves.
Uses of Ultrasound

As we established earlier, ultrasonic waves have a frequency greater than 20 kHz. Due to
their very high frequencies ultrasound waves transmit a lot of energy. This allows their uses
in industry and medicine, chief among them are

1. Cleaning
2. Quality control
3. Pre-natal scanning
4. Surgery, medical diagnostics and treatment
5. Navigation
6. Determining the depth of oceans and Sonography

Let us briefly look at each use

1. Cleaning
Ultrasound has high energy waves that can be used to clean surfaces by ‘burning
away’ materials that are on surfaces, for example the surface of hard disk and read
head in computers.

2. Quality control
The reflection and absorption of ultrasound waves allows manufacturers of good to
check the consistency of their products. When the intensity of the reflected waves
changes it means there is an inconsistency in the thickness, density or quantity of
material used in a particular substance for example thickness of paper or glass or the
uniformity of metal sheeting.

3. Pre-natal Scanning
Ultrasound can be used to monitor the growth and development of a fetus in a
mother’s womb. The ultrasound ‘image’ is simply the map of reflected sound waves
being shown on a television monitor by the action of a transducer. The sound waves
are transmitted from the transducer (using a coupling gel) and the waves are
reflected at boundaries as they travel inside the mother’s body. The reflected waves
are then picked up by the transducer and an image is displayed on a computer from
which a picture can be taken.

Fig. 7.64 – An ultrasound image


of a fetus in a womb
Difficulties such as the likelihood of spontaneous abortion or of breech birth can be
easily detected with this technique. Fetal abnormalities such as spina bifida and
hydrocephalus (accumulation of water in the brain) are also readily observed.

The use of ultrasound scanning is safer than X-rays which can cause cancer since
they deposit more energy in cells and can produce birth defects.

4. Surgery, Medical Diagnostics and Treatment


Ultrasound can be used by neurosurgeons to remove brain tumours without causing
serious damage to healthy surrounding tissue. It is also used to break up kidney
stones without the need for invasive surgery which leave scars. It can also be used to
produce imaging of blood vessels and tissues.

5. Navigation
Just as ultrasound is used by whales and other aquatic life forms for underwater
communication, bats and other animals use it in ‘mapping’ a route as they quickly
move through dense or dark forests, sonars used by ships and submarines use
ultrasound for navigation.

6. Determining the depths of oceans


Ultrasound waves are transmitted from a boat to the seabed where they are
reflected back to a receiver. The time for the reflected waves to reach the detector is
recorded and the depth of the sea is calculated using the formula

Fig. 7.65 – Determining the depth of an ocean

distance = speed × time

where time is halved because it is the time taken for the sound wave to travel to and
from the sea bed.
Interesting Fact

The Doppler Effect

Ever noticed that when an ambulance is approacing you, the frequency of the sound waves
emitted seems to increase while it seems the frequency decreases as the sound source
moves away. A similar effect is observed when you approach a sound source and when you
are stationary. This is called the Doppler Effect. Walking between two speakers that are
producing the same sound appear out of tune because as you move away fom one toward
the other, the Doppler shift causes the sounds to have diffenet frequencies and hence a
distorted sound. This explains why the siren of an approaching ambulance seems to make
its peals (the rings) faster than a departing one who’s peals seem to have more time
between them. The distorted sound in a moving vehicle is also a result of this effect.

Fig. 7.66 – The Doppler effect in water


ripples: the source is moving to the right,
notice how the waves on the right seem
closer but the ones on the left are spaced
apart
Revision Questions on Sound

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2011 qp.32)

Solution
1. Compression
Rarefaction
2. Cone moves forward (in direction of wave travel), pushing air particles closer to each
other.
Cone moves backward (away from direction of wave travel), allowing spaces.
3. (i) increases
Unchanged
(ii) Unchanged
Increases

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.32)

Solution:

1. (i) 300 m/s


distance 300
(ii) time = = 5000 = 0.006s
speed
2. He hears two sounds, one from air and the other from steel. The sounds travel at
different speeds, with the sound in steel reaching his ear first.
June 2003 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2008 qp.2 (O Level)

June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2009 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2010 qp.22 (O Level)
November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
Chapter Eight: Electricity and Magnetism
“Electricity is really just organized lightning”

– George Carlin

Static Electricity and Electric Fields

Greek: Electro – concerning charges particles or electricity

Static – at rest

Static electricity, also known as electrostatics, is the study of charges at rest. Experiments
demonstrate that there are two kinds of electric charge, whichBenjamin Franklin (1706–
1790) named positive and negative.

Charge is measured in Coulombs (C).

Laws of Electrostatics

1. Unlike charges attract (positive and negative charges attract)

2. Like charges repel (positive and positive or negative and negative charges repel)

Conductors and Insulators

In conductors, electric charges move freely in response to an electric field. This means that
charge can be transferred throughout the material. For a material to be a conductor it must
have mobile charge carriers, for example metals are good conductors because they have
delocalized electrons that can carry charge throughout the metal. Insulators are not
affected by an electric field or electric force because either they do not have any charge
carriers (for example, pure water and other molecular substances do not have any free
electrons or ions) or the charge carriers are tightly bound in the lattice (for example,
plastics and glass). Some materials conduct electricity at high temperatures because the
electrons have enough energy to break free from their bonds; such materials, like silicon
and germanium, are called semiconductors.
Production and Detection of Electrostatic Charges

Charge is not a physical quantity; it is in fact a property. Charge cannot be created but a
neutral object may become charged if there is an unequal amount of negative and positive
charge. Electrostatic forces between objects arise when these objects have net negative or
positive charges.

Protons (fixed in the nucleus) are positive while electrons (loosely bound in shells) are
negative. An object can become charged by electrostatic charging, a process by which
electrons are transferred resulting in uneven charge distribution.

There are three ways in which a body can be charged:

1. By conduction
2. By friction
3. By induction

1. Charging by Conduction

Conduction implies physical contact between conductors or between a conductor


and an insulator. Let us refer to Fig. 8.1 to explain:

1. Just before contact, the negative rod repels the sphere’s electrons, inducing a
localized positive charge.

Fig. 8.1(a)

2. After contact, electros from the rod flow onto the sphere neutralizing the local
positive charge.

Fig. 8.1(b)
3. When the rod is removed, the sphere is left with a negative charge.

Fig. 8.1(c)

When charging by conduction, the object being charged (in this case, the metal
sphere) is always left with a charge with the same sign as the object doing the
charging (the rubber rod).

4. Charging by Friction

Friction involves rubbing surfaces against each other. When a glass (or Perspex) rod
is rubbed with silk, electrons are transferred from the glass surface to the silk. By
conservation of charge, this means that each electron gained by the silk adds to
negative charge while every electron lost by the glass leaves it positive. This means
that the glass becomes positive and the silk becomes negative. Polythene and rubber
(both polymers with strongly bound electrons) usually gain electrons from the silk
and become negatively charged whole the silk becomes positive.

When charging by friction, two initially neutral object end up having opposite
charges.

5. Charging by Induction

Wilson and his friends are walking home, playing soccer with a can and running
across the street when they see a group of girls a short distance away. Immediately,
all childishness stops, they adjust their uniform and their swagger changes. This
scenario has several implications that will help us understand the concept of
induction.

To induce is to cause, without direct contact. The behavior of the boys changed
because of the presence of the girls. The girls did not say anything; they may not
even have noticed the boys but their very presence changed what the boys were
doing.
Let us now look at charging by induction:

1. A neutral metallic sphere has equal numbers of positive and negative charges.

Fig. 8.2 (a)

2. The charge on a neutral metal sphere is redistributed when a charged rubber rod is
placed near, but not in contact with the sphere.

Fig. 8.2 (b)


3. When the sphere is grounded (connected to a conducting wire or copper pipe buried
in the Earth), some of the electrons leave it through the ground wire.

Fig. 8.2 (c)


4. When the ground connection is removed, the non-uniformly charged sphere is left
with excess positive charge.

Fig. 8.2 (d)

5. When the rubber rod is moved away, the charges on the sphere redistribute
themselves until the sphere’s surface becomes uniformly charged.
Fig. 8.2 (e)

When charging by induction, the object that is being charged ends up with a charge that is
opposite in sign to the object that is being used to charge it.

Everyday Examples of Electrostatics

We encounter electrostatics in many parts of our every life. Here are a few examples

6. Jerseys crackle and spark in the dark – polyester jerseys are charged by friction as we
moved during the course of a day. This causes an uneven distribution of positive and
negative charges on different parts of the jersey. When we take the jersey off, the
opposite charges are attracted to each other forming sparks and making a crackling
sound.
7. Rubbing your ruler on cotton or your charges it (by friction), this can then be used to
pick up a small piece of paper which would have been charged by induction.

Fig. 8.3 – Small pieces paper are attracted by a charged comb.


The comb induces electrostatics in the paper, attracting them
8. A small stream of water from a tap ‘bends’ away from a charged ruler (the ruler can
be charged by friction)
9. Dragging your feet on a carpeted floor while wearing socks charges you, if you touch
a metal handle you will slightly shocked as the charge flows from you to the door.
You can also ‘zap’ a person by touching after dragging your feet on a carpet, even
though this is not recommended and is done at your own risk!
10. If you rub a balloon on a carpet or with a cloth, it will stick onto the wall.

Fig. 8.4 – the charged balloon induces


charges in the wall, sticking to it

11. Lightning – this is the most common natural example of charging by friction; as the
clouds rub against each other (in the process producing thunder), they get charged
and the electrons are attracted to the earth (positively charged) through the air.
Lightning takes a zigzag pattern because the air and water vapour are poor electrical
conductors.

Fig. 8.5 – lightning occurs when negative


charges are attracted to the earth

Applications of Electrostatics in Industry

1. The Electrostatic Precipitator


2. Electrostatic Air Cleaner
3. Xerographic Copiers (Photocopying)
4. Laser Printing
5. Spray Painting
6. Van de Graaff Generator

1. The Electrostatic Precipitator and Air Cleaner

Particulate matter, for example flue ash, smoke, soot, dust and ash are charged and
‘captured’ by wire gauze within smoke towers. This significantly decreases pollution
and recovers valuable metal oxides from waste gases.

2. Spray Painting
A car is held at a negative potential. The paint is then released at high velocity and
pressure at the snout of the spray gun. In this way it is charged by friction at the
muzzle and loses electrons becoming positive.The paint is then attracted to a
particular negative region of the car. This allows uniformity of the paint.

3. Van der Graff Generator

The Van de Graaff electrostatic generator was invented in 1929 by Robert J. van de
Graaff (1901 – 1967). It uses the principles of electrostatics to build up a very large
charge that ionises air and produces ‘lightning bolts’ as charge is discharged. It is
used to produce sparks and has extensive use in nuclear physics research.

Fig. 8.6 – The world’s largest


airinsulatedVan de Graaffgenerator
produces boltsof lightning indoors at
theMuseum of Science in Boston
(Massachusetts, USA).The discharges
occur whenthe voltage difference
getslarge enough to ionize theair, an
instance of dielectricbreakdown.

Electric Fields

An electric field is a region where a charged particle experiences a force. The electric field
and electric force act from a region of higher potential to a region of lower potential, that
is, from positive to negative or from more positive to less positive or from less negative to
more negative.

The electric field is represented by field lines. The strength of the electric field is determined
by how close the lines are; the closer the field lines, the stronger the field. As stated earlier,
field lines move from positive to negative as shown in Fig. 8.7.

Fig. 8.7 – Electric field lines between parallel plates

In the same vein, isolated charges produce their own electric fields. Field lines move out
from positive charges (for example, protons) while negative charges produce fields that
come in as shown:

Fig. 8.8 – Field lines move out from positive charges but come in to negative charges

Now we can show the attractive and repulsive forces (and field lines) between unlike and
like charges respectively.

Fig. 8.9 – Unlike charges attract: note that


the strongest attraction is the region
between the two charges
Fig. 8.10 – positive charges repel. Think of
them as givers; when two givers meet
there is no receiver. Similarly, two
negative charges are takers: when two
takers come together, there are no givers!

Revision Questions on Electrostatics

Worked Example: O Level (November 2005 qp.2)


Solution

1. (i) Since like charges repel, the electrons in the metal ball are repelled by the
negatively charged dome. They are transferred away from the ball by the
conducting rod and are earthed.
(ii)

2. Q = It
Q 0.00016
I= = = 0.0133A
t 0.012
June 2003 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
Current of Electricity

Current

Current is the rate of flow of charge. It can also be defined by the equation,

𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
It is measured in Amperes (A).

The equation defining current can be rewritten to give

𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕

Often people talk about the ‘flow of current’. This is also a common mistake among many
students. It is not the flow of current but rather the flow of charged particles that
constitutes a current. This flow per unit time is the current. Therefore just like it is the flow
ofwater that constitutes a steam or river, it is the flow of charge that constitutes a current.

Current is measured using an ammeter placed in series with the component. An ideal
ammeter has zero resistance, allowing all the charge to pass through it freely.

Electron flow and Conventional Current

Long ago, when the study of electricity and magnetism was still its infancy, scientists
believed that in electrical circuits, positive charges move from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal and they called this flow of charge conventional current. In other words,
the assumption was that current was the flow of protons. With time they later realised that
protons are firmly bound within the nuclei of atoms and therefore cannot move. Rather it is
the electrons in the shells of atoms that are free to move. These electrons move from
negative to positive constitute the electronflow.

Since the flow of protons had been the basis of learning for over 200 years, with practical
success (the theory was wrong but the practical was correct as electrons carried the
charge!) it was impossible to completely throw out this idea. Instead, the flow of positive
charges is now referred to as conventional current while the flow of negative charges (that
is, electrons) is called electron flow.
In all circuits and for teaching and learning purposes, conventional current is used as charge
flows from positive to negative. In practice however, electron flow is used, with electrons
flowing from negative to positive. This is summarised below:

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

postive negative

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

Fig. 8.11 – Conventional current and electron flow

Fig. 8.12 – Types of voltage

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.), 𝜺

This is the voltage of a power supply.

Definition:

This is the amount of electrical energy that is formed from other forms of energy when one
Coulomb of charges passes through a circuit.

An e.m.f of 12 Volts means that 12 Joules of electrical energy are formed from other forms
of energy per Coulomb of charge.

𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝
𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞

𝑬
𝜺=
𝑸

It is measured in Volts (V).

The electromotive force, despite the name, is not an actual force. Instead it is a measure of
the amount of work done or energy that is required to drive unit charge through a circuit.
Potential Difference (p.d.)

The potential difference is the amount of electrical energy converted into other forms of
energy when unit charge flows through a circuit component. It can also be defined by the
equation

𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝
𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞

𝑬
𝑽=
𝑸

It is measured in Volts (V).

Both potential difference and electromotive force are measured using a voltmeter that is
placed in parallel with the component. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so that no
charge passes through it.

Resistance

Georg Simon Ohm (1789 – 1854) stated that the potential difference across a circuit
component is proportional to the current passing through it if the temperature and other
physical conditions remain constant.

This statement is known as Ohm’s Law.

Mathematically,
potential difference ∝ current

𝑉∝𝐼

𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅
𝐼

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹

The constant 𝑅 is called the resistance of the component. It is defined as the ratio of the
potential difference across a conductor to the current passing through it:

𝐩𝐨𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭

It is measured in Ohms (Ω).


Fig. 8.13 – Determining the resistance of a component

The resistance of a conductor (for example, a metal wire, resistor or any other electrical
component) can be determined by a simple experiment. A standard circuit diagram that
includes a copper wire (component), voltmeter, ammeter and source of variable
electromotive force is shown below. Notice how the ammeter is placed in series and the
voltmeter in parallel with the component.

1. Close the switch to complete the circuit, and record the value of current and voltage.

2. Adjust the variable resistor and record the new value of current and voltage until
there are three sets of readings.

3. Use the formula


𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
to calculate the resistance.

4. Repeat the experiment to improve accuracy.

Factors affecting resistance of a conductor

The resistance of a component is dependent on four main factors

1. Length
2. Cross sectional area (diameter)
3. Type of material (resistivity)
4. Temperature
Let us briefly look at each factor

1. Length, 𝒍
Resistance is directly proportional to length. If the length of a conductor increases,
the resistance also increases. When the length of the conductor is doubled, its
resistance also doubles. A long wire therefore has a bigger resistance than a short
one.

2. Cross sectional area, 𝑨


Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the conductor. If
the area is doubled, the resistance is halved. Similarly if the area is halved the
resistance is doubled. This means a thin wire has a greater resistance than a thick
one.

Cross sectional area cannot actually be measured. It is calculated from the diameter.
Resistance is inversely proportional to the square of the diameter. This means if the
diameter is halved, the resistance is quadrupled. If instead the diameter is doubled,
the resistance decreases to a quarter of the original.

3. Type of material (resistivity, 𝝆)


Materials such as tungsten (used in filament lamps) have very high resistance. Other
materials such as copper have very low resistance and for this reason they are used
in electric cables. The property that gives a material this resistance is called the
resistivity. The resistivity of a conductor is constant if temperature remains constant.

4. Temperature
If temperature increases, the wire expands slightly and its resistivity decreases, this
means that the resistance decreases.
Combining the first three factors (temperature affects resistivity), we obtain the
equation

Electrical Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. It can also be defined by the equation

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽

since we know that 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

substituting for 𝑉
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹
substituting for 𝐼
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹

What is the unit of power? Watt is the unit of power!

Electrical Energy

Electrical energy is the capacity to do work. It can also be given by the equation

𝑬 = 𝑰𝑽𝒕

where 𝐸 is energy, 𝐼 is current, 𝑉 is potential difference and 𝑡 is time in seconds.

Recall the mnemonic Vitamin E.

Energy is measured in Joules (J).

Electricity in the home

One of the saddest things I have noticed when it comes to the study of electricity is the
impracticability of theoretical learning. How many times has a fuse blown or plug needed
changing or an appliance required repair and we have condemned these activities to
‘specialists’ and ‘electricians’ – the experts who know how to deal with electricity because it
is dangerous!

While I am not condoning the unsafe use of electricity, I pity an ‘O’ Level student who can
draw, label and explain the three pin plug yet is ‘scared’ of replacing a blown fuse! More
than anything, physics in general and electricity to be specific, require us to be able to be
theoretically practical.

Uses of Electricity

Electricity is used in several ways including but not limited to:

1. Heating
2. Lighting
3. Motors: dissipating energy in the form of mechanical energy, for example drills,
clocks
4. Television and other communications and entertainment appliances, for example
computers and mobile phones.
The Kilowatt-hour

In practice, electrical energy is rarely calculated in Joule (the Joule is the S.I. unit of energy)
because of the large numbers that would be used in calculating. Instead, for costing
purposes, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hours and then changed into units that
can be charged.

The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kilowatt device in 1 hour.

Numerically,

1kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

Question: If ZESA energy is purchased at an estimated price of 10.0cents per kilowatt-hour,


what is the cost of using an electric heater of voltage 120V and resistance 8Ω for 3 hours?

Solution:

𝑉2 1202
𝑃= = = 1800W = 1.8kW
𝑅 8

𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 = 1.8 × 3 = 5.4 kWh

cost = cost of 1 kilowatt − hour × number of kilowatt − hours

cost = 10.0 ¢ × 5.4 = 𝟓𝟒 ¢

Dangers when using electricity

Electric shock can result in fatal burns, or it can cause the muscles of vital organs, such as
the heart, to malfunction. The degree of damage to the body depends on the magnitude of
the current, the length of time it acts, and the part of the body through which it passes.

1. 5 mA or less can cause a sensation of shock.


2. Larger than about 10 mA, the hand muscles contract and the person may be unable
to let go of the live wire.
3. At 100 mA, a few seconds, it can be fatal. Such large currents paralyze the
respiratory muscles.

Exposure to electric shock significantly increases when a person is exposed to:

1. Damaged insulation, for example ‘naked’ wires and ‘bridging’ of cables at plug
sockets,
2. Overheating of cables due to overuse, extended periods of continual use, too many
appliances drawing current from the same socket, and
3. Damp conditions; impure water is a good conductor and a person may get
electrocuted if any electrical device gets in contact water, for example blow drier or
toaster.

Safe use of electricity in the home

When using electricity in homes, at school or in industry, safety measures must be taken to
prevent unnecessary contact with electricity, which is usually fatal.

1. Earthing or grounding – the earth wire in a plug is connected to a metal plate that is
in contact with the ground. Any excess current is withdrawn by the earth wire and
earthed or grounded.

2. Insulation – insulators are materials that do not conduct electricity. Using insulation
(in the form of rubber and plastic covering keeps the conducting wire away from
exposure to moisture and physical contact with people thus ensuring that the user is
not electrocuted

3. Circuit breakers and fuses – a circuit breaker is any device that breaks a circuit when
an excess current is in the circuit. The current may increase due to a surge of
electricity or a short circuit; both circumstances may lead to the damage of
appliances.

The most common circuit breaker is the fuse. It is simply a metal wire whose
resistance increases with current. When a current exceeds the stated current rating
the fuse melts, breaking the circuit and protecting the appliance. The fuse must be
replaced for the circuit to be complete again and the appliance can be used. In more
developed countries, fuses have been faced out and replaced by circuit breakers
that use bimetallic strips that break connection when current passing (and
consequently temperature of) through the circuit breaker is too large. In even more
advanced countries, the circuit breaker uses electromagnetic induction and the
resultant forces between the neutral and live wires. When an excess current is
detected in one of the wires either by surge or short circuit, the resultant force
causes a sensing coil to operate the circuit breaker (this application of
electromagnetism is dealt in detail later in this book).
Fig. 8.15 – The sensing coil picks
up a net change in the magnetic
field when there is more current in
one of the wire. The flux change
generates an emfin the coil that
triggers the circuit breaker.

Fig. 8.14 – A circuit breaker that


uses thermal expansion: when the
current through the circuit is too
high, the bimetallic strip bends
into the gap and the metal bar
falls, breaking the circuit and
protecting the appliance.

The fuse or current rating is the maximum current that a circuit breaker will allow to
pass through it before it breaks the circuit to protect the appliance from a short
circuit or electricity surge. The fuse is always connected to the live wire. The fuse
rating is usually fractionally higher than the current rating of an appliance. The
power rating of an appliance is the power output of the appliance. This also
determines how much power, voltage and current an appliance draws from the
mains electric circuit.

The 3-pin Plug

Fig. 8.16 – The 3-pin plug


A standard electrical plug has three wires;

1. Live wire (brown) – this wire carries electric current of 120 V (standard voltage of
most household goods) from the source in the building to the appliances. The live
wire is connected to the fuse which melts and breaks the circuit when too much
current is in the circuit.

2. Neutral wire (blue) – this wire carries current from the appliances back to the source
to complete the circuit. The neutral wire is grounded and so the current in it has a
voltage of 0 V.

3. Earth wire (green and yellow) – the third wire is connected to the metal case of a
plug. It carries no current except when there is an excess current that’s come from
the source due to short circuit or surge. The earth wire carries this excess charge
away from the plug (avoiding electrocution of people) and directs it into a metal
plate in the grounded.
Revision Questions on Practical Electricity

Worked Example: O Level (November 2009 qp.2)

Solution
P 650
1. (i) I = V = 230 = 2.83A
(II) 3 A (less than 7 A or it will allow current to damage the appliance)
2. (i) Casing becomes live (at high voltage). The user may be electrocuted as the
current passes him/her into the ground.
(ii) Connecting earth wire to outer casing draw all the excess charge to the
ground protecting the user. The fuse blows, breaking the circuit when too
much current flows in the circuit thus protecting the appliance.

June 2005 qp.2 (O Level)


June 2004 qp.2 q.9 (O Level)

November 2006 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2005 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2002 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2001 qp.2 (O Level)
Revision Questions on Current of Electricity

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2008 qp.31)

Solution
1.
2. (i) P = IV
P 100
I= = = 0.5A
V 200
(ii) Q = It = 0.5 × 60 = 30C (Do not forget to change one minute into seconds!)
3. (i) power loss = initial power − new power = (60 × 3) − (15 × 3) = 135W
(ii) E = Pt = 135 × (60 × 60) = 486000J ≡ 486kJ

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2009 qp.31)

Solution

1. (i) Using a step-up transformer


(ii) Low current hence less energy is lost as heat in the cables
P 55000
2. P = IVI = V = 22000 = 2.5A
3. P = I2 R = (2.5)2 × 3 = 18.75W
4. V = IR = 2.5 × 3 = 7.5V
5. potential difference recieved = emf − voltage drop in both cables
pd = 22000 − (2 × 7.5) = 21985V

June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2008 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)
Electric Circuits

A circuit is a collection of real objects, usually containing a source of electrical energy (such
as a battery) connected to elements that convert electrical energy to other forms (for
example, light, heat, sound) or store the energy in electric or magnetic fields for later
retrieval.

Fig. 8.17 – A typical DC circuit

Circuit components
There are many circuit components that we will encounter during our studies in IGCSE and O
level Physics. Below is a summary of the main elements, their symbols, properties and uses:

Table 8.1 – Circuit components, their symbols and uses


Component Symbol Use

Power sources are sources of electromotive force


(emf). They provide the electrical energy that
pushes a current through a circuit. Examples of
Power sources D.C. sources are cells (above), batteries (below)
and dynamos.
Sources exist in two forms: direct current (DC)
and alternating current (AC) power supply (left).
Alternating current sources include generators.

A switch is a component used to complete a


Switch
circuit.
A fixed resistor is a conductor that provides a
specified resistance in an electric circuit. Resistors
Fixed resistor oppose current (flow of charge) and dissipate
energy, usually as heat. Heaters are examples of
components that have resistors in them.

Variable resistors are also known as rheostats.


Variable Their resistance may be manually changed
resistor depending on the circuit. They are used to control
the amount of current in a circuit.
Light dependent resistors (LDRs) are resistors
whose resistance varies inversely with light
Light dependent intensity. If light intensity increases, the
resistor resistance of a LDR decreases. Conversely, the
resistance of an LDR increases significantly in
dim/dark conditions.
Thermistors are also known as temperature
resistors; this is because their resistance changes
Thermistor with temperature. The resistance of a thermistor
decreases with an increase in temperature.
Thermistors dissipate electrical energy as heat.

A lamp dissipates energy as light.


Lamp

An ammeter is used to measure the electric


current past a point in a circuit. It is connected in
Ammeter
series with components in a circuit. An ideal
ammeter has zero resistance.
Voltmeters measure the potential difference
across a component, for example a resistor or
Voltmeter lamp. They are connected in parallel with the
component. An ideal voltmeter has infinite
resistance so that no current passes through it.
A fuse is a circuit breaker used to break a
connection by stopping current if too much
Fuse
charge (that may damage an appliance) flows
within the circuit.

A bell (or speaker) dissipates


Bell
electrical energy as sound.

Rectifying diode A rectifying diode restricts the flow of charge so


that it flows in one direction. When current is
allowed to pass the diode is said to be forward
biased. Charge cannot flow in the opposite
direction and the diode is said to be reverse
biased.
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) produce different
Light emitting colours of light when electric current of different
diode amounts flow through it. We often see Leeds
being used in television and graphic equalisers.

Capacitors are devices that store electrical


energy. The stored energy is used to supplement
current shortfalls of rectified AC (see rectification,
Capacitor page) and is seen as the residual charge that very
briefly keeps appliance lights on after the power
source has been removed. Other applications
include computer keyboards and camera flash
attachments.
A transistor is a device that is used to switch on a
circuit in response to an external stimulus, for
Transistor example changes in temperature, light intensity
or even humidity. A network of transistors
constitutes a logic gate that forms the basis of all
integrated circuits used in computers.

Types of Circuits

Electrical circuits exist in two forms:


1. Series circuits
2. Parallel circuits

Let us look at each type of circuit in detail

1. Series Circuits

The network of resistors above is considered to be in series because the resistors are
adjacent to each other.

Fig. 8.18 – Resistors on series


All series resistor networks must have the following properties:

1. The current 𝐼 at every point in the circuit is the same.


2. The potential difference 𝑉 across each resistor is proportional to its resistance 𝑅
3. The effective (total) resistance 𝑅𝑇 is equal to the sum of the individual resistances 𝑅1
and 𝑅2 .
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
4. The total potential difference 𝑉𝑇 is equal to the sum of the individual potential
differences across each resistor 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. This is also equal to the emfof the cell.
This is called Kirchhoff’s loop rule and is an application of the conservation of
energy. If we take the emfto be a 1 litre jug of water and the resistors small 500 ml
bottles, provided no spillages (in this case energy losses) all the water in the jug can
be poured into the bottles, filling them:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
5. The effective resistance is greater than the largest individual resistor.

Effective resistance of a series network

Using the two equations above:


𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
But 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Hence 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
Therefore
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

The effective resistance is the arithmetic sum of the individual resistances.

6. Parallel Circuits

The network of resistors above is considered to be in parallel because the resistors


are across the voltage supply and are parallel to each other in branches.
Fig. 8.19 – Resistors on parallel

All parallel resistor networks must have the following properties:

1. The potential difference 𝑉 across each resistor is the same.


2. The total current 𝐼𝑇 from the source is the sum of the currents in each branch 𝐼1 and
𝐼2 . This is called Kirchhoff’s junction rule and is an application of the conservation of
charge. Using the analogy between current of electricity and a water current, the
volume of water that enters a confluence (junction) must be same as the volume of
water that leaves the junction as moving water cannot accumulate!

Fig. 8.20 –Kirchhoff’s junction rule:


𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

Fig. 8.21 – Current at a junction is zero


Applying this rule to the network of parallel resistors:

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
3. The current 𝐼 through each resistor𝑅 is inversely proportional to the resistance. The
larger the resistance, the smaller the current that passes through it. Current just like
water will flow along the path of least resistance.
4. The potential difference 𝑉 across each resistor is also equal to the emfof the cell.
5. The effective resistance is smaller than the smallest individual resistor.

Effective resistance of a parallel network

Using the equation above and that 𝑉 is constant:


𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑉
But 𝐼 =
𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Hence = +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2
Therefore
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

If we have only two resistors (as in this case), this equation can be developed
further:

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
=
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 × 𝑅2

𝑅1 × 𝑅2
𝑅𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕
𝑹𝑻 =
𝒔𝒖𝒎

NB: This equation applies when we have two resistors only. If there are more than
two resistors then the first equation must be used.

When dealing with resistor networks in series and in parallel, it is important to note that the
potential difference dissipated in parallel circuits is much less than in series circuits. At the
same time, in parallel circuits, the potential difference across each resistor is equal to the
emfof the supply. An advantage of this is when using lamps and using remote controls:

1. Lamps – lamps set in parallel are fully bright, and are independent of each other.
This allows one to be switched off without affecting the operation and brightness
rest of the lamps. Series lamps however are dim as they share the emfbetween them
since their pds add up to the emfof the supply. At the same time, turning one lamp
off disconnects the whole circuit and all the other lamps automatically switch off.

2. Parallel lamps each use all the power and voltage provided by the emfsource
whereas series lamps share the emfbetween them.
Fig. 8.22 – (left) parallel lamps
(right) series lamps

3. Torches and remote contols – batteries set in series dissipate more energy than
those in parallel and have a short lifespan. This is because each cell adds its emfto
the overall voltage of the cell whereas in cells parallel provide an emfof only one of
the cells. You may have noticed that the batteries used in a remote control or
calculator (in parallel) last longer than those used in torches (in series).

Action and use of circuit components

There are a few circuit elements that we must study further to fully understand their
application in physics and in our everyday lives.

Potential divider

Fig. 8.23 – The potential divider

The variable potential divider (also called potentiometer) is a


source of variable potential (voltage). If two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
are in series as shown below, then the potential difference
across them is 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 respectively. Each of these output
voltages can be used to operate a remote circuit. If instead of
having two fixed resistors we used on fixed resistor 𝑅 and a
rheostat (variable resistor) or transducer (a component that
changes energy from one form to another), for example light
dependent resistor, thermistor or rheostat, the output voltage
across this component can be varied manually (in the case of the rheostat) or due to
changes in conditions (light intensity in the case of LDRs and temperature in the case of a
thermistor). This output potential can be used, together with a relay, to operate light
sensitive switches and temperature operated alarms (see below).
Fig. 8.24 – A potential divider circuit using a rheostat

Thermistor and light dependent resistor

As we have noted above, both thermistors and light dependent resistors are input
transducers; this means that they respond to external stimuli, for example a change in
physical conditions and give a corresponding output (response). We can incorporate
thermistors or LDRs as part of a potential divider circuit that will give a variable potential
difference depending on the conditions.
Let us explore this a little further

Fig. 8.25 – A potential divider using a thermistor

1. Thermistor – in the potential divider below, the resistance of the thermistor changes
with temperature. If the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor
decreases: this decreases the combined resistance, increases the current in the
circuit, increases the pdacross the fixed resistor but decreases the pd across the
thermistor. When the temperature decreases, the resistance of the thermistor
increases; the combined resistance increases, the current in the circuit decreases,
the pd across the fixed resistor decreases but the pd across the thermistor increases.
The variable pdcan be used to operate a temperature based alarm that signals if the
temperature is too high or too low and may switch on a heater, fan, thermostat or
motor.

Fig. 8.26 – A potential divider using a light dependent resistor

2. Light dependent resistor – LDRs are light sensitive resistors. When light intensity
increases, for example in bright light or during the day, the resistance decreases; this
decreases the effective resistance, increases the current in the circuit, increases
pdacross the fixed resistor but decreases the pdacross the LDR. Conversely, in dim or
dark conditions, the resistance of the LDR increases; this increases the total
resistance, decreases total current in the circuit, decreasing the pdacross the fixed
resistor and increasing the pdacross the light dependent resistor. This variable
output can them be attached to a light sensitive switch, for example in burglar
alarms.

Capacitor

Contrary to the common mistake that they store charge, capacitors in fact store energy. This
energy can then be used in an electric circuit in four main ways:

1. Time – delay circuits: when electrical energy supply is slightly delayed, for example in
rectified alternating current, the capacitor ‘fills in the gap’ and allows for appliances
to have enough energy until the main supply takes over.

2. Smoothing circuits: together with time-delay circuits, the use of capacitors in


smoothing circuits is the biggest use of this component. When AC id rectified to DC,
the rectified voltage is not constant; the fluctuations are compensated for by
capacitors which are placed in parallel with the appliance. Capacitors ‘fill in the gaps’
and make the current steady. Every appliance used in the home has a capacitor;
some quite small like those in phone chargers and laptop adapters that keep the
light on briefly after supply is cut to very large ones used in microwaves that can
store enough energy to electrocute a person!

3. To produce electrical oscillations: capacitors can cause electrical vibrations during


their charging and discharging

4. To stop current: when the pdacross a capacitor equals the emfof a supply, charge
stops flowing and current seizes. A capacitor therefore can be used to stop current in
certain situations.
Revision Question on Electric Circuits

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2009 qp.31)

Solution

1. (i) 0 A (no current flows because the circuit is incomplete)


(ii) 12 V (emf of the cell)
12 12
2. (i) I = 8+16 = 24 = 0.5 A
8
(ii) V = 24 × 12 = 4 V
𝑅1 ×𝑅2 8×16 16
3. (i) new resistance = = = Ω
𝑅1 +𝑅2 8+16 3
V 12
I= = = 2.25 A
R (16⁄ )
3

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2012 qp.31)

Solution

1. (i) 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
(ii) 𝐼1 = 𝐼4
2. (Ii) V = IR = 0.8 × 3 = 2.4 V
V 2.4
(ii) I= = = 1.2 A
R 2
(iii) pd across R = 6 − 2.4 = 3.6 V
V 3.6 3.6
R= = = = 1.8 Ω
I4 1.2 + 0.8 2

November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)

June 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)

November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


June 2004 qp.2 (O Level)
nbbb
November 2007 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2008 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2006 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2006 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2002 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2005 qp.2 (O Level)
Magnetism

The Earth: One Giant Magnet

Fig. 8.27 – The Earth’s gravitational and magnetic poles

The Earth is a large magnet that produces its own magnetic field. The magnetic North Pole
and South Pole are actually the reversal of the geographical North and South Poles. This
means that what we often refer to as the ‘North Pole’ is just in fact just in the geographical
north but is really the magnetic south, and the ‘South Pole’ is really the magnetic North
pole! This explains why a compass needle points to the North, it is really the south – seeking
pole that points to the North. The Earth’s magnetic field affects ocean tides, the seasons,
climates and is responsible for magnetic rocks.

Properties of Magnets

1. Magnets have two ends, the North Pole and South Pole. The names come from the
behaviour of a magnet in the presence of Earth’s magnetic field. If a bar magnet is
suspended from its midpoint so it can swing freely in a horizontal plane, it will rotate
until its North Pole points to the geographical north (magnetic south) and its South
Pole points to the south.
Fig. 8.28 (a) – A bar magnet produces a field that aligns iron filings

Fig. 8.28(b) – Diagrammatic


representation of how magnetic Fig. 8.28(c) – A compass follows
field lines move from North to the magnetic field lines, with its
South North pointing to the magnetic
south

2. The poles exert attractive or repulsive forces to each other: like poles repel each
other and unlike poles attract each other.
3. Exert attractive or repulsive forces to charged objects. Protons and electrons are
deflected as they pass through a magnetic field.
4. Poles cannot exist in isolation. If a permanent magnet is cut an infinite number of
times, each piece will always have a north and south pole.
5. Can magnetise other unmagnetised materials (for example, iron) by stroking
(contact) or induction (field force).

Soft magnetic materials, such as iron, are easily magnetized, but also tend to lose their
magnetism easily. In contrast, hard magnetic materials, such as cobalt and nickel, are
difficult to magnetize, but tend to retain their magnetism.
Induced Magnetism

For us to fully understand how a material can be magnetised, we must understand what
being magnetized actually means. In all matter electrons exist in regions of motion called
domains. In most materials, these domains have a random orientation (arrangement) and
they are referred to asunmagnetised. When an external magnetic field is applied (by
stroking or induction), the domains tend to align with the magnetic effect; the stronger the
field, the greater the alignment of the domains with the field, the material is then said to be
magnetized.

Fig.8.28

Magnetising by Stroking

Stroking anunmagnetised material using a magnet causes the electron domains to align in a
way that corresponds with the magnetic pole in contact with it. If a North Pole is used then
it causes a north pole at the point of contact and causes a south pole at the point of
separation. Conversely if the South Pole is used it produces a south pole at the end of
contact and a north pole at the end of separation. The strength of the induced field is
increased by using a strong magnet and/or stroking many times.

Fig. 8.29 (a) – Stroking with the North Pole


Fig. 8.29 (b) – Stroking with a South Pole

Magnetising by Induction

Earlier we saw how the behavior of a group of boys can be remotely changed by a few girls
standing by the road. We concluded that the girls have an inductive effect on how the boys
behaved even though there was no physical contact between the two groups.
Magnetisation by induction has the same effect – leaving an unmagnetised iron in the
presence of a strong permanent magnet eventually magnetizes the iron. The magnetic field
produced by the magnet realigns electrons domains in the iron with the external field
causing it to have poles. The process can be accelerated by heating and cooling the iron. The
strength of the induced magnetic field is increased by using a strong magnet.

Fig. 8.30 (a) – A magnets South Pole will induce a South Pole in the face of the magnetic
material near it

Fig. 8.30 (b) – A magnets North Pole will induce a North Pole in the face of the magnetic
material near it

Magnetising by Electromagnetic Induction

According to a law of electromagnetic induction stated by Michael Faraday (1791 – 1867),


an electric current causes a magnetic flux (flux means field). If a current flows around an
unmagnetised bar, the bar can be magnetised. Reversing the current demagnetizes the bar;
this process is used to make and operate solenoids and electromagnets.

Fig. 8.31 –(Above) Electromagnetic


induction involves using a current to
magnetise (or demagnetise) a material,
for example an iron rod. The current in
the coil produces a magnetic field that
then magnetizes the rod.

(Below) The resulting magnetic field is


similar to that of a bar magnet with lines
moving out of the North Pole and into the
South Pole.

Types of Magnetism

So far we have used magnets and iron when dealing with magnetization. It is important that
we realize that there are different types of magnetism and there are different types of
materials.

Magnetism exist in three forms

1. Ferromagnetism
2. Paramagnetism
3. Diamagnetism

Ferromagnetism refers to magnetism in which magnetic fields produced by electron spins


do not cancel. While the definition is not very applicable at our level of learning, it is
important to note that this is the most common type of magnetism which is based on
ferrous materials, for example iron and steel and also other magnetic materials like nickel
and cobalt. Materials that are not affected by magnets or magnetic fields are said to be non-
ferrous. Common examples are wood, glass, concrete and plastic.

Paramagnetic materials (for example, water and transition metal compounds) are weakly
attracted by a magnetic field while diamagnetism refers to weak repulsion between a
material and the magnetic field.
Magnetic, Non-magnetic and Magnetised Materials

Magnetic (also called ferromagnetic) materials are affected by a magnet or a magnetic field.
Soft magnetic materials (for example, iron) have a high magnetic permeability. This means
that they are easily magnetised and demagnetised. Hard magnetic materials (for example,
steel, nickel and cobalt) have a low permeability; they are difficult to magnetise but also do
not easily lose their magnetism. Non-magnetic (or non-ferrous) materials are not affected
by a magnetic field. Magnetisedmaterials are materials whose magnetism is induced. They
are not naturally magnetic but rather become affected by a magnetic field by stroking,
induction or electromagnetic induction. Magnetized materials may lose their magnetic
effect with time depending on the strength of the inducing magnet or current, duration of
exposure and permeability of the material and may behave as temporary magnets.

Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field is a region in in which a charged particle or a current carrying conductor will
experience a force that acts perpendicularly to the current.

Just as in electric fields, magnetic fields are represented by field lines. These field lines show
the direction of the field. Magnetic field lines move from North to South. The strength of
the magnetic field (known as the magnetic flux density, B) is shown by lines that are very
close to each other. Weak fields are represented by widely spaced field lines.

Field Patterns Around Bar Magnets

Earlier we looked at the laws of magnetism that state like poles repel and unlike poles
attract. With this in mind, if two magnets were placed near each other, each magnet would
produce its own magnetic field which would interfere.

When two magnets are placed near each other with the North poles of both facing each
other, there is repulsion between the magnets (Fig. 8.32). Think of it this way: since field
lines move from North to South, let us call North poles givers and South poles takers. This
means that if two givers meet there is no receiver and the poles repel. Similarly if two takers
meet, there is no giver hence if two South poles are placed near each other, the poles repel
each other and the magnets move apart. However, if the North Pole of one magnet is placed
near the South Pole of the other, the two unlike pole attract, producing the magnetic field in
Fig. 8.32.
Fig. 8.32 – (Top) The magnetic field
between a opposite poles shows an
attraction (Middle) A magnets own North
and South Poles can produce a pattern
due to their attraction. (Bottom) Two like
poles, in this case both North Poles
produce repulsive forces. The field lines
move away from each other. Since the
forces are in opposite direction there is a
point of zero resultant force. This point in
the centre of the repelling magnetic poles
has zero flux, zero flux density and zero
magnetic force.

Magnetic Permeability
When we looked how magnetic materials can be classified as soft or hard. This is because of
their magnetic permeability; the ease at which a material is penetrated by a magnetic field.
Think of it as easy in easy out. If a material has high permeability, it allows a magnetic field
to penetrate it easily hence it is easily magnetized. At the same time it also easily loses the
magnetic effect. Soft magnetic materials can be used as temporary magnets (for example,
electromagnets) while hard magnetic materials are used as permanent magnets.

Table 8.2 – Temporary and Permanent Magnets


Temporary magnets Permanent magnets
High magnetic permeability Low magnetic permeability
Easily magnetised and demagnetised Difficult to magnetise and demagnetise
Made from soft magnetic material, for Made from hard magnetic materials, for
example iron example steel
Uses: electromagnets, transformers, Use: bar magnets, loudspeakers, generators
solenoid and motors, amplifiers, compasses

Magnetic Screening

Sometimes the effect of a magnetic field is undesirable. For example, if a magnet is placed
near a television screen for a prolonged period of time, the magnet may interfere with the
television and permanently damage the screen so that the colour becomes distorted.

Magnetic screening is used to protect sensitive equipment from exposure to magnetic fields
by using a piece of metal that will prevent it from contact with the material. It is also used to
generate a potential difference in the use of superconductors, a type of electrical conductor
that you will learn about if you decide to do physics at university.
Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is the confluence of the studies of current and magnetic fields, the forces
they produce and their effect on each other. From the laws of electromagnetic induction,
we can establish that a current has a magnetic effect and a magnetic field has an effect on
the movement of charged particles. This topic outlines these relationships.

Magnetic Field Patterns produced by an Electric Current

In ‘O’ Level/IGCSE Physics we are concerned with three main magnetic field patterns
produced by a current. These are a field produced by:

1. A long straight wire


2. A circular coil
3. A solenoid (electromagnet)

To be able to predict the direction of the induced magnetic field, let us take a detour and
look at the right-hand screw rule.

The Right-Hand Screw Rule

It is very important for us to remind ourselves that in the study of electricity and magnetism,
we use conventional and not electric current. If you curl your right fist with the thumb
extended outward, the right hand screw rule states that: the thumb represents the direction
of current and the curled fingers represent the direction of the induced magnetic field as
shown:
Fig. 8.33 – The right hand screw rule gives
the relative directions of current and the
induced magnetic field.

1. A long straight wire


The magnetic field produces concentric circles around the centre of the wire. The
further the lines are from the centre the more they are apart and the weaker the
induced magnetic field.

Fig. 8.34 – The magnetic field


pattern produced by a long
straight wire forms circles around
the wire. The strength of the
induced field decreases as we
move from the wire, this is shown
by an increase in the distance
between adjacent concentric
circles.

2. A circular coil
Magnetic field lines for a current loop resemble those of a bar magnet with one side
of the loop acting as a North Pole and the other as a South Pole.
Fig. 8.35 –(left) The field produced by a flat circular coil resembles that produced by
a bar magnet. (right) Field lines of a current loop displaced by iron filings

3. A solenoid
Also called an electromagnet, a solenoid is a long straight wire that is bent into a
coil of several closely spaced loops. It acts as a magnet only when it carries a
current. The field inside the solenoid is strong and uniform, resembling those of a
bar magnet so that it effectively has North and South poles. The field outside the
solenoid is non-uniform, weak and opposite in direction to the interior field.

Fig. 8.36 – The field produced by a


solenoid resembles a bar magnet

Factors affecting the magnetic field produced by a current


1. Magnitude of current – the current in a conductor is directly proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field it produces. If the size of current increases the
magnetic field strength also increases.
2. Direction of current – changing the direction of a current in a conductor reverses the
magnetic field. If the current in one way causes a N – S orientation, reversing the
current produces a S – N orientation. In temporary magnets (for example,
solenoids), this results in demagnetization.

Current, Field and Force: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

When we looked at electromagnetic waves, we established that the magnetic electric fields
that propagate the waves at right angles to each other and that each of the fields is in turn
perpendicular to the direction of movement or propagation of energy. This concept forms
the basis of Fleming’s Left hand Rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: The conductor with a current (direction of electric field) flowing
perpendicularly to a magnetic field (direction of magnetic field) will experience a magnetic
force (direction of movement) that acts at right angles to both the current and the field.

So why is it called the Left hand Rule? This is for easy remembering: if you extend the thumb
up, forefinger forward and second (or middle) finger to the right so that all three fingers
form right angles to each other, your LEFT HAND gives the relative directions of the force,
magnetic field and current respectively.

Fig. 8.37 – Fleming’s left hand rule

Table 8.3 – Fleming’s left hand rule


Left Hand Finger Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Meaning
Thumb Thrust (Force)
Forefinger (also known as index or first Field
finger) Current
Second (middle) finger

The letters in bold will help you remember what each finger represents. Remember this law
only applies when you use your LEFT HAND!!!

Applications of the magnetic effect of a current

Electricity and magnetism, or electromagnetism as they are collectively known have several
very important applications in the home, industry and medicine. A current produces both a
magnetic field and magnetic force. Let us briefly look at some of the main ones

Electromagnets

Electromagnets are formed when a current flows through a wire wound around an iron
core. The magnetism induced in the iron core is temporary since it can be turned on and off.
A soft iron core is used because it is easily magnetised and demagnetised (high magnetic
permeability).

The strength of an electromagnet is


increased by

1. Increasing the number of turns of


the coil
2. Increasing the current in the coil
3. Using a soft iron core

Fig. 8.38 – An electromagnet

Uses of electromagnets

Relays

A relay is a component that breaks or completes a circuit based on the principle of an


electromagnet. It is used when switching on a high current circuit using a small current
circuit.
Fig. 8.39 – A relay being used to remotely switch on a circuit

1. When the switch is closed, the circuit is complete and an electric current
flowsthrough circuit A.
2. The current produces a magnetic field around the soft iron core, attracting the metal
switch in circuit B.
3. When the switch closes, circuit B is completed and the heater dissipates electric
energy.
4. In this way a low current in circuit A is safely used to switch on a high voltage circuit
B.

Relays Circuits

Relays are basically special switches; this is because they are used to autonomously switch
on/off circuits depending on the operating of another. As we established when dealing with
thermistors and light dependent resistors, relays can be used to operate switches and
alarms.

There are two main types of relays

1. Simple relay
2. Reed relay
Fig. 8.40 –A simple (left) and reed relay

While the two may appear different, both relays use the same mechanism. When a switch is
closed in one circuit, an electric current passes in the coil producing a magnetic field in the
soft iron core. The magnetic field attracts the flexible iron arm to the fixed arm. When the
contacts touch, the other circuit is complete, electric current flows and the motor dissipates
energy. A relay is used to remotely or indirectly control other circuits by acting as a switch.
In reed relays, this switch is called a reed switch. The indirect control is dependent on the
properties of the components in the switch; some properties include the variation with light
(light dependent resistors) or temperature (thermistors).

Dusting for fingerprints

Latent (or invisible) prints can be lifted from a crime scene by sprinkling a powder of iron
dust on a surface. The iron adheres to any perspiration or body oils that are present and can
be spread around on the surface with a magnetic brush that never comes into contact with
the powder or the surface.

Circuit breakers

The current in the live and neutral wires this induces a voltage that is used to
are in opposite directions. This means that trigger a circuit breaker, stopping the
the magnetic fields and forces acting on current.
each wire are equal and opposite hence
there is no net result force. If a short
circuit occurs in the appliance so that
there is no returning current, the net field
and force is no longer zero. This may
occur when a wire loses its insulation or a
surge of electricity. Since the current is
alternating, there is a change in magnetic
flux that is picked up by a sensing coil and
Fig. 8.41 – An electromagnetic circuit
breaker

Production of sound in electric guitars

Fig. 8.42 – An electric guitar uses electromagnetism


to produce sound

1. A vibrating string induces an emf in a coil. The pickup coil is placed near the
vibrating guitar string, which is made of a metal that can be magnetized.

2. The permanent magnet inside the coil magnetizes the portion of the string nearest
the coil. When the guitar string vibrates at some frequency, its magnetized segment
produces a changing magnetic flux through the pickup coil.

3. The changing flux induces a voltage in the coil; the voltage is fed to an amplifier. The
output of the amplifier is sent to the loudspeakers, producing the sound waves that
we hear.

Apnea monitors

1. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a devastating affliction in which a baby


suddenly stops breathing during sleep without an apparent cause. One type of
monitoring device, called an Apnea monitor, is sometimes used to alert caregivers of
the cessation of breathing.
Fig. 8.43 –Apnea monitor in use

2. The device uses induced currents. A coil of wire attached to one side of the chest
carries an alternating current. The varying magnetic flux produced by this current
passes through a pickup coil attached to the opposite side of the chest. Expansion
and contraction of the chest caused by breathing or movement changes the strength
of the voltage induced in the pickup coil.

3. However, if breathing stops, the pattern of the induced voltage stabilizes, and
external circuits monitoring the voltage sound an alarm to the caregivers after a
momentary pause to ensure that a problem actually does exist.

Loudspeakers

Fig. 8.44 – A loudspeaker

To fully appreciate how a loudspeaker works, please read and understand the application of
Fleming’s left hand rule (page). A loudspeaker is basically made of a coil of wire (the voice
coil), a flexible paper cone (the speaker) and a permanent magnet. An electric current
produces a magnetic flux that causes a force. The alternating current changes the direction
of the field and consequently the force. This change in direction of the force causes
vibrations in the cone that produce sound waves.

Audio and video tape recording


Fig. 8.45 – How audio and video tapes are recorded

The tape is a plastic coated with iron oxide or chromium oxide. When a sound is sent into a
microphone, it is transformed into an electric current and amplified. The current then
magnetizes an iron recording head. As the sound changes, the current changes and this
causes the magnetic field produced to change as well. The small pieces of iron oxide on the
tape are magnetized and form a pattern that is directly related to the frequency and
intensity of the sound signal entering the microphone. The sound signal is reconstructed by
‘playing’ the tape: this movement of magnetized particles on the tape generates an electric
current which is transformed into a sound signal. This generating of sound from a current
explains why speakers and amplifiers have magnets in them.

Electromagnetic pumps for artificial hearts and kidneys

Artificial hearts require a pump to keep blood flowing and kidney dialysis machines also
require a pump to assist the heart in pumping blood that is to be cleansed. Mechanical
pumps create problems because they damage blood cells. Electromagnetic pumps keep the
blood in motion by producing a magnetic force that acts on ions and electrons in the blood
without moving parts that damage blood cells.

Force on current carrying conductor

We now know that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
will experience a magnetic force. The three are inseparable: current, field and force. The
magnitude and direction of the force experienced by the conductor are dependent on four
factors:

1. Magnetic flux density, 𝐵 – flux density is defined as the strength of the magnetic
field. As is expected, the stronger the magnetic field, the greater the force the
conductor experiences. If the direction of the magnetic field is reversed, the
direction of the force also changes.
2. Current 𝐼 – the amount of current determines the change in the magnetic flux. A
large current in a conductor increase the force exerted on the conductor. Reversing
the direction of the current reverses the direction of the force.
3. Length of conductor 𝑙 – the longer the conductor, the greater the current that passes
through it. This increases the force experienced.
4. Angle of orientation sin 𝜃 – to fully understand this let us use an analogy: If a road
sign post is placed parallel to the wind, it will experience a very small force. If
instead, it is placed perpendicular to the wind, it will experience the full brunt of a
storm. Similarly a current carrying conductor will experience a force that is
dependent on the angle the conductor makes with the magnetic field – a conductor
parallel to the field experience no force while one that is perpendicular experiences
maximum force.

Fig. 8.46 – A conductor perpendicular to


the field (left) experiences maximum flux
𝜙 and consequently maximum force while
one that is parallel to the magnetic field
experiences zero flux and zero force.

Force on two parallel conductors

When two adjacent conductors carry current, using Fleming’s left hand rule we establish
two things

1. If the currents are in the same direction, the magnetic force between the conductors
is attractive; if in opposite directions, the force is repulsive.
2. The magnitude of the force acting on both conductors is the same regardless of the
magnitude or direction of the current in each.

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNETISM
D.C. Motor

A motor changes electrical energy into mechanical energy. The current flowing in the coil
passes through a magnetic field. This causes a magnetic force to act perpendicularly to the
conduction coil.

Fig. 8.47 – a direct current (D.C.) motor

Referring to the diagram above:

1. According to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, the current in the right hand arm of the coil
produces a downward force while the current in the left hand arm produces an
upward force. This couple of forces causes a turning effect or torque. The coil then
rotates.
2. If the coil rotates 180° and the current remains in the same direction as shown in the
diagram, the torque reverses direction and turns the loop in the opposite direction.
To avoid this, and ensure that the rotation is in one direction, the current in the loop
must periodically reverse direction. This is accomplished by the split rings
(commutators) and carbon brushes. The brushes also reduce friction between the
commutator and the rotating loop.If the current in the loop is increased, the
magnitude of the force increases; this in turn increases the torque and the speed of
rotation.

Most mechanical appliances in homes, schools and industry are motors or have motors in
them. Common examples are computers, fans and drills.

To increase the rate at which the loop turns, that is, produce more mechanical out we may

1. Increase the current or emf


2. Use stronger magnets (producing a stringer magnetic field)
3. Increase the number of turns/loops; this increases the current in the magnetic field
4. Introduce an iron core; it will strengthen the magnetic field between the two poles

Effect of Force on charged particles

In conclusion, even though we have concentrated on the effect how a magnetic force acts
on a current carrying conductor. It is also vital that we understand how the magnetic force
acts on individual charges and causes their deflection. Again, we will refer to the left hand
rule for the direction of the current (in this case the direction of the charged particles’
motion), the magnetic field and the force.

Revision Questions on Electromagnetism

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.31)


Solution

1. First finger – flux or field


Second finger – current
2. (i) carbon brushes
(ii) commutator (split rings)
(iii) Increase current/increase voltage/use more turns in coil (increases current in
field)/introduce iron core (strengthens flux between poles)

June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)
November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)


Electromagnetic Induction

Definition:

This is the process whereby an electromotive force (e.m.f) is induced in a circuit when
magnetic field lines are cut.

Principles of Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction hinges on three laws. While at our level of learning, we must
remember the applications rather than the names of the laws, we will state them here for
ease of reference. This topic outlines the interdependent relationship between electricity
and magnetism:

1. The Law of Mutual Induction


2. Faraday’s Law
3. Lenz’s Law

1. Law of Mutual Induction

A changing magnetic field can cause a current in a circuit, consequently, an


alternating current in a circuit can cause a change in the magnetic field in which it
flows.

This principle is used in the transformer to set a changing magnetic field in the
primary coil and thereafter induce an e.m.f in the secondary coil. Simply put, this law
states that an alternating current and a changing magnetic field induce (cause) each
other. As we established when we looked at methods of magnetizing, an electric
current can be used to induce a magnetic field in an iron rod

Fig. 8.48 – An emfproduces a Fig. 8.49 – The current induces a


current in a coil than can be used magnetic field that magnetizes the
to magnetise an iron rod rod
In the same vein, when a magnetic field is changed (either by increasing its strength,
moving it changing its direction) the change in magnetic flux induces an emfand
current in a coil as shown below.

Demonstrating electromagnetic induction

Fig. 8.50 – When the magnet is


moved down, the change in flux
induces an emf in the coil. The
electric current generated is
measured using the milliammeter.
When the magnetic is moved up,
the change in direction causes a
change in the direction of the
magnetic field and the current is
reversed.

2. Faradays Law

The induced emf produced in a circuit is directly proportional to the rate of


magnetic flux change causing it.

The faster the change in the magnetic field, the bigger the induced emf. The
magnetic field can be changed by:

Fig. 8.51 – The faster the change in the field, the larger the deflection of
millivoltmeter. Changing the direction of the magnet reverses the deflection

1. Changing the speed of the bar magnet


2. Changing the direction of movement of the magnet
3. Changing the magnitude of the field by using a stronger/weaker magnet
4. Lenz’s Law

The direction of the induced emfopposes the change causing it.

This law is a bit confusing to most students. It is important to note that applying the
first two laws of electromagnetic induction: a change in magnetic flux induces an
emf. The current induced by this change in flux travels in a direction that creates a
magnetic field with flux opposing the change in the original flux. In other words the
magnetic flux produced by the induced current opposes the magnetic flux producing
the current. In this way no energy is created from nowhere, that is, Lenz’s Law is an
application of the law of conservation of energy.

These three laws can all be illustrated using a simple example: a bar magnet can be moved
through a coil connected to a galvanometer. When the magnet moves in one direction, the
galvanometer shows a deflection (law 1). If the speed of the magnet is increased, the size of
the deflection increases while changing the direction of the magnet causes a deflection in
the opposite direction (law 3).

Factors Affecting Induced emf

There are 3 factors that affect the direction and magnitude of the induced electromotive
force:

1. Strength of the magnet – the strength of the magnet is proportional to the induced
emf. If a strong magnet is used, a large emfis induced.
2. Number of wound loops or coils, 𝑁 – the induced emf increases with increase in the
number of coils as there is an increase in the value of current.
3. Velocity – the faster a magnet, the greater the rate of change of flux and the larger
the induced emf. Reversing the direction of the current reverse the flux change and
the direction of the electromotive force.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

This is used to predict the current induced by a conductor which cuts magnetic field lines.
The thumb, first finger and second finger are placed at right angles to each other.

The thuMb denotes the direction of the Motion, the First finger points in the direction of
the Field and the seCond finger points in the direction of the Current.
Fig. 8.52 – Flemings Right Hand rule

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

A.C. Generator

A generator is a device that changes mechanical energy into electrical energy. A wire loop is
rotated in a magnetic field by an external means, usually the turning of a turbine by the
action of pressurised steam as in nuclear reactors and geothermal stations, or falling water
as in hydroelectric power plants.As the loop rotates, the magnetic flux through it changes
with time. According to Faraday’s law this induces an emf and a current in an external
circuit.

Fig. 8.53 – An alternating current (A.C.) generator


The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings that rotate the loop. Connections to the
external circuit are made by stationary carbon brushes in contact with the slip rings,
allowing free rotation and producing an alternating current. The carbon brushes also reduce
friction between the rings and the connections.

Fig. 8.54 – The voltage output of an AC generator

Transformer

A transformer is a device that alters the voltage of an electric transmission. It consists of


two parts; the primary is the input whereas the secondary is the output, these ends are
separated by an iron core that is magnetized and demagnetized. There are two types of
transformers:

1. Step-up transformer – the number of coils and the voltage in the secondary are
greater than in the primary. This is the step up in voltage.

Fig. 8.55 – A step-up transformer

2. Step-down transformer – the number of coils and the voltage in the primary are
higher than in the secondary. Since the voltage decreases it t referred to as stepping
down.
Fig. 8.56 – A step-down transformer

How Does a Transformer Work?

Fig. 8.57 – A transformer

When alternating current flows through the primary coil it sets up a changing magnetic field.
The field is cut by the secondary coil and this induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil. When
there are more turns in the secondary coil than the primary coil, the induced e.m.f is greater
than the e.m.f in the primary coil.

A transformer only works on alternating current (AC) because only AC is able to setup a
changing magnetic field. The transformer uses the principle of mutual induction

Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is 100% efficient. This means that there are no energy or power
losses. However in practice no transformer is 100% efficient because some of the energy is
lost mainly as heat.

Energy loses in a Transformer

Transformers form an integral part of the electricity transmission and distribution grid. As
such, any power and energy losses that may occur (no transformer is ever truly ideal) must
be minimized.
There are three main ways in which energy is lost in transformers:

1. Eddy Currents – energy is lost as heat due to eddy currents in the conductor. Eddy
currents are turbulence-causing electron flows that are a consequence of Lenz’s law.
Joule heating is reduced by using transformer oil to cool down the transformer.

2. Ohm heating – energy is lost as heat because of the resistance of the conducting
wires. Choosing a less resistant wire or one with a larger diameter reduces this loss.
Thick copper wires are used to minimize energy loses through Ohm heating.

3. Loss of magnetic field lines (Hysteresis) – some of the magnetic field lines by the
primary coil are not cut by the secondary coil. These magnetic field lines which ‘leak’
because of an air gap between the primary and secondary coils results in some of the
energy being lost. However modern transformers are designed in such a way that
somehow the secondary coil surrounds the primary coil in order to maximize the
field lines which the cut the secondary coil. The use of a softiron core (with high
magnetic permeability) also enhances the magnetic field lines.

Transformer Equation

From Faraday’s Law, the voltage and the number of turns are directly proportional, that is,
the emf in the primary coil, 𝑉𝑃 is proportional to the number of primary turns, 𝑁𝑃 and the
emf in the secondary coil,𝑉𝑆 is proportional to the number of secondary turns, 𝑁𝑆 .

Mathematically,

𝑉𝑆 ∝ 𝑁𝑆 and 𝑉𝑃 ∝ 𝑁𝑃

𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺
=
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷

In an ideal transformer, where there are no energy loses, the power in the primary coil is
the same as the power in the secondary coil:

Power𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 = Power𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

𝑰 𝑷 𝑽𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑺 𝑽𝑺
High Voltage Transmission

Nikola Telsa (1856 – 1943) suggested the use of high voltage alternating current as the best
means of transmitting electricity. This has proven to have several advantages:

1. Less energy is lost, that is,there is efficient energy transfer


2. It is cheap because thinner and smaller cables can be used
3. Less massive pylons are used to carry the cables

When electricity is transmitted through cables, often energy is lost as sound and heat. The
power lost is given by the equation

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

⇒ 𝑃 = 𝐼(𝐼𝑅)
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹

At high voltage, the current is low (for constant power and resistance, electric current and
voltage are inversely proportional). The low current decreases the power losses incurred
during transmission.

Electricity is transmitted as high voltage alternating current which is easily stepped up


(between cities) or down (for safe use in homes and industry) using transformers without
using energy. Most household electrical appliances however use low voltage direct current.
Changing high voltage to low voltage is done by using a series of step down transformers.
This leaves us with the question, how do we change alternating current to direct current?
The answer is found in a process known as rectification.

Rectification

It is the process by which alternating current (AC) is converted to direct current (DC) using
diodes. A rectifying diode is a device that allows current to flow in only one direction. A
network of diodes can be used to change an alternating current into a direct current. There
are two types of rectification:

1. Half Wave Rectification


2. Full Wave Rectification

1. Half-Wave Rectification
Current flows in one direction during the first half cycle. When the current changes
direction, the diode is reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow. This means
there is no voltage output across the resistor in the second half cycle. The voltage
across the resistor varies with time as illustrated by Fig. 8.59.
Fig. 8.58 – Half wave rectification

Fig. 8.59 – Voltage output of half-wave rectified current

2. Full-Wave Rectification

Fig. 8.60 – Full Wave Rectification

In the first ½ cycle when the top terminal is positive, the current passes through
diode A (diode B is reverse biased) and flows through the resistor from left to right. It
then passes through diode C and goes to the lower (negative) terminal (Red arrows).

In the second ½ cycle when the bottom terminal positive, the current passes through
diode D (diode C is in reverse bias) and flows through the resistor from left to right
same direction as in the first ½ cycle). It passes through diode B and goes to the top
(negative) terminal (green arrows).
The voltage across the resistor varies with time as shown below:

Fig. 8.61 – Voltage output of full-wave rectified current

As we can see, the voltage across the resistor (and any other appliance) is not exactly direct
current. The wave is smoothed by placing a capacitor in parallel with the resistor. This
capacitor supplies energy when the voltage across the resistor decreases, ‘filling in’ the
‘gaps’ that are left when rectified AC is used.

Fig. 8.62 – Rectified AC can be ‘smoothed’ by a capacitor

A Thought for the Future

Environmental and cost implications of underground power transmission compared to


overhead lines

Table 8.4

Environmental implication Cost implications


Less vulnerable to theft
Low exposure to weather elements so
Possible damage to the environment as corrosion, wear and tear is less; they last
there is polarization of the ground possibly longer
killing microorganisms and affecting the Cheaper; maintenance of the lines will be
ecosystem less frequent as there is little chance of
falling trees, storms or other weather
elements disabling them
Revision Questions on Electromagnetic Induction

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2010 qp.31)


Solution
𝑁𝑆 𝑉
1. (i) = 𝑉𝑆
𝑁𝑃 𝑃
𝑉𝑆 6 × 480
𝑁𝑆 = × 𝑁𝑃 = = 12 turns
𝑉𝑃 240
(ii) The current in the coil causes a magnetic field around the iron core,
magnetising it. The magnetic flux linkage produced in the core induces an
emf in the secondary coil. Since the transformer is a step-down transformer,
the number of coils in the secondary is less than in the primary.
(iii) Heat loss in wires (ohmic heating)/eddy currents in the core/magnetic
leakages in the core (hysteresis)/sound in the core

2. (i) 12 V DC
(ii) Diode
𝐼𝑃 𝑉
3. = 𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑆 𝑃
𝑉𝑆 440
𝐼𝑃 = × 𝐼𝑆 = × 200 = 8 A
𝑉𝑃 11000

November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.33 (IGCSE)
June 2007 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2003 qp.2 (O Level)
November 2004 qp.2 (O Level)

June 2006 qp.2 (O Level)


Chapter Nine: Digital Electronics
“The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking”

– Albeit Einstein

Analogue and Digital Signals

When an input or output signal has a continuous spectrum that increases or decreases
between two extreme values, it is said to be analogue. Digital inputs and outputs only exist
between two extreme values without any intermediate values. Fig. 9.1 shows the difference
between two forms of the same signal.

Fig. 9.1 – (above) Analogue signals have


continuously increasing /
decreasingreadings while (below)Digital
signals have readings that increase /
decrease by one unit.

In this chapter we will dwell more on digital electronics and their applications. In digital
systems (which use a binary number system), the two possible readings are:

1. HIGH/On – this is given binary number 1


2. LOW/Off – this is given binary number 0
Transistors

Transistors are electronic switches. They are used in electronic devices and respond to
changes in external conditions, for example humidity, light intensity and temperature. They
can also be used to give a particular output (response) from a given input (stimulus).

Transistors are made from resistors and other small electronic components. A transistor has
three parts:

1. Collector – receives a small current in a circuit which the


2. Base – acting as an amplifier increases the current and the
3. Emitter – releases the large current that acts as a trigger (or switch)

Fig. 9.2 – A transistor

As stated earlier, transistors can be used in potential divider circuits to produce an output
that responds to changes in external conditions, usually humidity, temperatureand light
intensity.Transistors are used to remotely turn one circuit on or off depending on conditions
and response to stimuli from another circuit. This is done when a transistor collects,
amplifies and emits current from one circuit that can be used to operate another circuit.

Let us look at this is greater detail

Humidity: a Moisture Detector

Fig. 9.3 – Moisture detector circuit


Referring to Fig. 9.3, we see that the light bulb is only switched on when the metal contacts
touch the water and the circuit is complete. If the water level rises and touches the water,
the left hand circuit is completed and the transistor switches on (current flows from
collector to emitter) and the lamp switches on. This circuit can be used as a moisture
detector and warns of impending rain.

Light: Automatic street lights

Fig. 9.4 – A light operated circuit

When connected to a resistor in a potential divider circuit, a light dependent resistor can
control the current that flows in the circuit depending on the intensity of the light falling on
it. In bright light the resistance of the LDR is low and current flows through the LDR. In dim
or dark conditions, however, the resistance of the LDR is very high and no current flows
through it. Rather the increase pdforces the transistor to conduct, completing the circuit
and switching on the lamp. In this way, street lamps that use this integrated circuit turn
on/off automatically depending on sunlight intensity and cloud cover instead of manual or
time based (for example, 6 pm to 6 am) operation.

Or

When light intensity decreases the resistance across the LDR increases, this causes current
to flow through the base emitter path thereby switching on the transistor. The current then
flows through the collector emitter path and the lamp switches on.

Temperature: temperature sensitive alarms


Fig. 9.5 – A temperature operated circuit

The resistance of a thermistor varies inversely with temperature. In high temperatures, the
resistance of the thermistor falls, decreasing the potential difference across it and increasing
the current in the circuit. This causes the transistor to conduct, switching on the lamp. This
circuit can be used to operate fire alarms, refrigerator fail lights or any other temperature-
dependent automatic lighting system.

Relays

Relays are devices used as electromagnetic switches.

Uses of relays in switching circuits

1. Temperature operated alarms

Fig. 9.6 –A temperature sensitive relay network

1. A thermistor’s resistance decreases with increase in temperature.


2. If the temperature of a system increases greatly (for example, due to a fire or during
heat waves), the thermistor provides little resistance allowing a current to pass
through and switch on a motor (in this case, using a reed circuit).
3. The motor could be a cooling system, for example, a fan or air conditioning, or an
alarm that warns of the severity of the heat or a fire

4. Light sensitive switches

Fig. 9.7 –A light dependent relay switching circuit

1. The resistance of a light-dependant resistor decreases with increase in light intensity.


2. In low intensity light (for example. in the dark or overcast conditions) the resistance
of the LDR is very high and the bulb glows dimly of is off.If a light shines on the LDR,
the resistance will decrease and current will flow through it, lighting the bulb. (The
barrier stops light from the bulb reaching the LDR)
3. This system could be used

1. With an alarm instead of a lamp. The alarm will sound in the event that a
thief shines its torch on the LDR or
2. With a bell to show an interruption, for example, at the entrances of stores
or
3. Attached to a relay so that it turns on/off a motor in different light
intensities, for example automatic street lamps that turn on in overcast
conditions and turn off as soon as there is light rather than at a stipulated
time, conserving energy in the process.

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a network of transistors and other components used as a switch within an
integrated circuit. The relationship between the input(s) of a logic circuit and the output is
produced in a truth table.

There are five main logic gates:

1. NOT gate
2. OR gate
3. AND gate
4. NOR gate
5. NAND gate

There are two other logic gates that are beyond the scope of this syllabus:
6. Exclusive – OR (𝐸𝑥-OR)
7. Exclusive – NOR (𝐸𝑥-NOR)

To predict the output of a logic gate, we relate the name of the logic gate to its function and
give an equation known as the Boolean expression.

1. NOT Gate
This is called the inverting gate. The output is the opposite of the input. A HIGH
input gives a LOW output and a LOW input gives a HIGH output.

Symbol:

Fig. 9.8 – A NOT Gate

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Boolean expression: output = input

Truth table for NOT gate:


Input Output
0 1
1 0
2. OR Gate
This is called the addition gate. A HIGH output is produced when either input A OR B
or both are HIGH.

Symbol:

Fig. 9.9 – An OR Gate


Boolean expression: 𝑦 = A + B

Truth table for OR gate:


Inputs Output
𝐀 B 𝒚
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

3. AND Gate
This is called the multiplication gate. A HIGH output is produced only when both
inputs (A AND B) are HIGH.

Symbol:

Fig. 9.11 – An AND Gate


Boolean expression: 𝑦 = AB

Truth table for AND gate:


Inputs Output
𝐀 B 𝒚
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
4. NOR Gate
This is an OR gate + NOT gate. All OR gate outputs are inverted. A HIGH output is
produced only when both inputs are LOW.
Symbol:

Fig. 9.10 – A NOR Gate


Boolean expression: 𝑦 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A+B

Truth table for NOR gate:


Inputs Output
𝐀 B 𝒚
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

5. NAND Gate

This is a AND gate + NOT gate. All AND gate outputs are inverted. A HIGH output is
produced when either or both inputs are LOW.
Symbol:

Fig. 9.12 – A NAND Gate

̅̅̅̅
Boolean expression: 𝑦 = AB

Truth table for NAND gate:


Inputs Output
𝐀 B 𝒚
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Exclusive-OR (𝐸𝑥-OR): this is called the difference gate. A HIGH output is produced only
when the inputs are different. The Exclusive-Nor gate inverts all outputs of the Exclusive-Or
and gives a HIGH output when the inputs are the same.
Truth table for 𝐸𝑥-OR: Truth table for 𝐸𝑥-NOR:
Inputs Output Inputs Output
𝐀 B 𝒚 𝐀 B 𝒚
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1

Logic Circuits

Logic gates can be combined to form logic circuits that can be used for to produce specific
outputs. Automatic street lights, alarm bells and temperature based triggers can all use logic
circuits. The integrated circuit (IC) is the basic component of all computer based technology,
for example PCs, tablets, traffic lights, televisions etc.

Here are two easy examples

In both cases, notice how the words NOT, OR and AND are used to explain the function of
the logic circuit.

1. Security lock

A security lock uses a two-switch system. If a hidden switch (B) is turned on first and
then a main switch (A), the door will open. However, if the hidden switch is not
turned on, turning on the main switch will turn on the alarm instead.

Fig. 9.13 – A logic circuit that operates a switch

The logic circuit produces the following truth table:

Inputs Outputs
𝐀 B C L 𝐌
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0

2. A fire alarm
A fire alarm will turn on when smoke or heat is detected. If both smoke and heat are
detected, the fire extinguisher will also operate.

Fig. 9.14 – A fire alarm that is operated by a logic circuit

The logic circuit produces the truth table below:

Inputs Outputs
𝐀 B L 𝐌
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1

Revision Questions on Digital Electronics

Questions on Transistors and their applications


Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2012 qp.32 q.11)

Solution

1. Transistor
2.
Switch S1 Switch S2 Lamp L1 Lamp L2
Open Closed Off Off
Closed Open On On

November 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.32 (IGCSE)
Questions on Logic Gate Circuits

Worked Example: IGCSE (June 2012 qp.32)


Solution

1. NOR

2. (i) 1
(ii) 0
(iii) 0
(iv) 0

3. (i) NOT and OR


(ii)

4. At Y logic level is 0
At Z logic level is 1

June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)
June 2008 qp.3 (IGCSE)

June 2003 qp.2 q.7 (O Level)

November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2005 qp.3 (IGCSE)


November 2009 qp.2 q.11 (O Level)
November 2007 qp.3 (IGCSE)
June 2004 qp.3 (IGCSE)

November 2004 qp.3 (IGCSE)

June 2008 qp.3 (IGCSE)


Cathode Rays

Thermionic Emission: The Source of Cathode Rays

Thermionic emission is the release of electrons from a metal surface using heat energy.

When a metal filament is heated, the electrons within the lattice gain energy and become
excited. When the electrons have gained sufficient energy to break free from the attraction
of the metal cations, they are emitted from the metal surface. This boiling off of electrons
from a metal surface using heat is called thermionic emission.

Fig. 9.15 – Thermionic emission is when electrons are emitted from a hot filament

The emitted electrons are accelerated away from the metal surface by an anode held at a
very high potential. These accelerated high velocity electrons are known as cathode rays.

Nature of Cathode Rays

Cathode rays are very interesting; this is because while they travel at very high speeds
9
(about × speed of light!) and consequently transfer energy, they remain particulate in
10
nature because they are electrons. As a consequence cathode rays have unique properties:

1. Weakly ionising – they can be detected by the glow of a fluorescent screen.


2. Travel in straight lines – a small object placed in a beam of cathode rays casts a
shadow.

3. Negative electric charge – they are deflected to the positive in an electric field.

4. Deflection in magnetic fields – They are also deflected in magnetic fields

5. Have a mass – as shown by their ability to turn a small paddle wheel in their path

Fig. 9.16 – Nature of cathode rays


The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

A cathode ray oscilloscope displays the waveform of a signal. Its basic structure has the
following sections

1. Cathode – also called the electron gun, it is the source of electrons that are
accelerated to form cathode rays. The electrons undergo thermionic emission when
the pd across the filament generates enough heat. In simple terms, the electron gun
fires electrons.

The thermionic current (number of emitted electrons per second) is increased by


increasing the heat of the filament. This can be achieved by increasing the emfof the
supplying voltage, the current flowing in the filament or using a filament with a
higher resistance.

2. Anode – the anode is held at a very high potential, this attracts the emitted electrons
and directs, focuses and accelerates them to speeds close to the speed of light.

The intensity (how fast and penetrating) of the thermionic current is increased by
increasing the accelerating voltage.

3. Deflecting system

1. X plates – the electric field plates deflect electrons horizontally. The X plates
are connected to the time base of the oscilloscope. It is interesting to note
that the X plates are vertical for them to be able to deflect electrons
sideways.

2. Y plates – the electric field plates that deflect electrons vertically. The voltage
supply is connected to the Y plates; this shows the variation in the
displacement of the wave. The Y plates are horizontal which makes them able
to deflect electrons up and down.

4. Fluorescent screen – this shows the position of the deflected cathode rays. It is
ionised by the fast moving electrons.

5. Brightness control knob – the CRO has a knob connected to the negative voltage
which regulates the number of electrons from the cathode to the screen. When the
voltage of the brightness control knob is reduced, more electrons can pass through.
This causes more electrons to reach the screen, which then becomes brighter.
Fig. 9.17 – A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Uses of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The CRO has two main uses:

1. It displays waveforms
2. it can be used as a voltmeter

From the display of the CRO the following quantities may be determined or measured:

1. Period – the period is the time taken for one complete cycle on the CRO. The period
of a wave is changed by varying the time base of the oscilloscope.
2. Frequency – frequency cannot be directly determined from the waveform on a CRO.
Instead it must be calculated from the period of oscillation using the equation
1
𝑓=
𝑇
3. Amplitude (peak voltage or peak current) – the amplitude is the maximum
displacement of an oscillation from its equilibrium position. The Y input can be
calibrated to measure current or voltage. Increasing the vertical gain of the
oscilloscope increases the amplitude of the displayed waveform

Fig. 9.18 – The sound wave on the right has a higher pitch (higher frequency) and
louder note (bigger amplitude) than the one on the left.
4. Wavelength – the wavelength of a wave (for example, sound wave) can be
determined by calibrating the time base of the oscilloscope so that it measures
displacement.
5. Timbre – this is the quality of a waveform. Low timbre waves usually have a
distorted waveform while high quality signals are smooth.

For example, a flute and a guitar produce numbers of different harmonics and hence
the sounds they produce have different waveforms

Fig. 9.19 – Flute and guitar produce different sound


quality when playing the same note

The CRO as a voltmeter


The source of e.m.f. to be measured is connected to the Y plates. When the positive
terminal is connected to the top plate, the electrons are attracted and deflected upwards.
The opposite is true when the positive terminal is attracted to the bottom plate, as the
electrons are deflected downwards.
The magnitude of deflection is proportional to the voltage across the Y plates. The CRO gain
is used to calculate the voltage. For example when the gain is set at 5 V/cm and the
electrons are deflected 3 cm upwards, then the voltage is calculated as

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 × 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆


𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 5 × 3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 15𝑉

Waveforms displayed by a CRO

1. Positive voltage terminal on the top Y plate


1. DC voltage – time base off
2. DC voltage – time base on

3. Positive voltage on the bottom Y plate

1. DC voltage - time base off 2. DC voltage - time base on

3. AC voltage

1. Time base off 2. Time base on


Revision Questions on Cathode Rays

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2011 qp.31)


`Solution

1. (i) To heat the cathode


(ii) To emit electrons by thermionic emission
(iii) To direct, focus and accelerate the emitted electrons
2. (i) A potential difference is generated across the plates with the upper plate
being positive and the lower one being negative. The negative cathode rays are
attracted to the upper plate.

(ii)

November 2005 qp.2 (O Level)


June 2008 qp.2 (O Level)

June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)


November 2008 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)
June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)
June 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)
November 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)
November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)

November 2010 qp.22 (O Level)


Chapter Ten: Atomic Physics
“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.”

– Albert Einstein

Radioactivity

The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. Both these subatomic particles have
very large masses compared to electrons. Consequently, most of the mass and density of
the atom is found in the very small nucleus. At the same time, we already know that like
charges repel, shouldn’t then the protons in the nucleus repel and move as far apart from
each other as possible? The truth is they do, but there is an invisible ‘force’ that binds them
together; this is called the binding energy.As the nucleon number increases however, the
nucleus becomes increasingly unstable and eventually breaks down producing radiation – a
process known as radioactivity.

Radioactivity

Definition – the spontaneous emission of radiation.

Radioactivity is said to be both spontaneous and random.

1. Spontaneous means that it occurs without cause; - there is no ‘reason’ of emission.


It occurs without any predictability or reason and is not affected by physical
conditions such as temperature or pressure.
2. Emission occurs randomly; this means that there is no pattern to the decay and so
we cannot predict accurately when or how much of the substance would have
decayed in a given period of time. This random nature explains the fluctuations
observed in radiation meters during experiments.

When nuclei undergo radioactive decay they emit radiation. This radiation can be particle or
energy or both. There are three types of radiation:

1. Alpha (𝛼) particle emission


2. Beta (𝛽) particle emission
3. Gamma (𝛾) ray emission

Radioactive Decay

Definition – the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei.


Properties of Radioactive Emission

Table 10.1 – Properties of the Three Types of Radioactive Emission

Alpha (𝜶) particle Beta (𝜷) particle Gamma (𝜸) ray


Property
emission emission emission
Symbol 𝛼: 42He2+ 𝛽: −10𝛽 or −10e 𝛾: 00𝛾
Wave:
Particle: helium Particle: high velocity
Nature electromagnetic
nucleus electron
radiation
Relative charge Positive (+2) Negative (−1) Neutral (0)
1
Relative mass Massive (4) Small ( ) Negligible (no mass)
1840
Weakly ionising –
Highly ionising – this
these are fast Negligibly ionising –
is because 𝛼
(𝑣 ≤ 0.9𝑐) moving since they are waves
particles are slow
electrons – their with neither a
(𝑣 ≤ 0.1𝑐), large,
small mass means significant mass nor a
massive and positive
collisions between 𝛽 charge, 𝛾 rays will not
– this causes them
particles and the ‘collide’ with
Relative ionising to collide effectively,
molecules in a molecules or atoms in
effect dislodge and attract
medium barely a medium and cannot
electrons from the
displace valence dislocate electrons.
outermost shells of
electrons. Since they Therefore their
the molecules or
are negative, they ionising effect is barely
atoms of the
will repel electrons evident. They travel at
medium that they
and barely cause 𝑐, the speed of light.
are moving through
ionisation.
Very high – since no
Low – since 𝛼 High – 𝛽 particles
energy is lost during
particles expend retain most of their
collisions and with no
their energy during energy as they travel
mass to cause a
collisions and in through a medium,
decrease in
ionising the particles with minimum
momentum as they
of the medium energy used in
travel, 𝛾 rays are the
through which they collisions and
most penetrating type
travel, they quickly ionising. This means
Relative of emission. They
attenuate (lose they can travel
penetrating power travel through nearly
energy) and do not greater distances
every material with
travel long through a medium
little loss in intensity.
distances. than 𝛼 particles.
They are stopped by
very dense material,
They can be stopped They are stopped by
for example a thick
by skin, paper of a a few millimetres of a
lead container
few centimetres of metal, for example
air aluminium or zinc
Deflection in an Deflected slightly to Deflected Undeflected – with no
electric field* the negative – significantly to the charge there is no
emphasis must be positive – this is electric force that acts
placed on the slight because they are on 𝛾 rays
deflection: this is negative and have a
because of the big small mass so they
mass of each 𝛼 are deflected much
particle. more than 𝛼
particles.
Deflection in a Deflected
Deflected slightly Undeflected
magnetic field* significantly

Deflection of Emission in an Electric Field

In an electric field – it is important to remember the law of electrostatics (like charges repel
and opposite charges attract). It will guide you in determine to which plate the particles are
deflected. The alpha particle (positive) is attracted to the negative plate, while the beta
particle (negative is attracted to the positive plate. The deflection of the beta particle is
much greater than the alpha particle because of its much smaller mass.

Fig. 10.1 – Deflection of emission in an electric field

Deflection of Emission in a Magnetic Field

In a magnetic field – we use Fleming’s Left Hand rule to determine the direction of the
deflection of the particle. It is important that we remind ourselves that using this rule:

1. The magnetic field (North to South), the current (direction of flow of positive
particles) and the magnetic force (and hence the deflection) are perpendicular to
each other.
2. Applies to positive charges only – this means once we determine the direction of
deflection the alpha particles (positive), we know that beta particles (oppositely
charged) are deflected in the opposite direction.
For example, if the magnetic field acts normally, from the top of the page to the bottom,
and 𝛼 particles move from left to right then, using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:

Fig. 10.2 – Deflection of emission in a magnetic field

Fission: The Nuclear Reactor

The splitting/decay of a large nucleus into numerous smaller nuclei (and neutrons) releasing
heat in the process is called nuclear fission. When electricity is generated in nuclear
reactors, a controlled fission reaction is initiated by the ‘capturing’ of a slow moving neutron
by uranium – 235.

235
92U → 141 94
56Ba + 36Kr

This cause the fission of the uranium nucleus, with the emission of radiation and other
neutrons – these other neutrons are captured by other nuclei and the fission process is
continuous. This is called a chain reaction.

Fig. 10.3 – A fission chain reaction


This generates a lot of heat (1 kg of uranium can produce the same amount of heat energy
as 20 000 tons of dynamite!). Most fissions reactions are controlled for example; the
reaction in a nuclear reactor is a self-sustained chain reaction.

Fig. 10.4 – A fission nuclear reactor

In the reactor, the thermal energy evolved during the fission boils water and the steam (at
high pressure) is used to turn turbines, generating electrical energy. The water is used is
used to cool down the system. The energy changes in the nuclear reactor are

𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

An uncontrolled fission reaction is the mechanism behind the nuclear bomb.

Fusion: Star Formation and the Sun

Fusion is the reverse of fission. It is the


process in which small nuclei (usually of
hydrogen and/or helium) combine to form
a bigger and heavier nucleus, generating
energy. The energy that is lost is in the
form of gamma rays, as well as positrons
and neutrinos, subatomic particles that
are beyond the scope of this syllabus.

Fig. 10.5 – The sun and other stars are


formed by fusion
Stars (including our sun) are formed by nuclear fusion. The fusion reaction of isotopes of
hydrogen to form helium in the sun is responsible for the heat and light energy produced.

1
1H + 21H → 32He + 00𝛾 + ∆

Have you noticed something? Unlike chemical reactions which involve the transfer of
electrons and do not affect the elements involved, nuclear reactions involve changing the
composition of the nucleus of an element during fission or fusion. This leads to the
formation of new elements as a nuclear reaction proceeds and it is therefore important that
we establish how the proton and neutron numbers change during these processes.

It is important to note that both nuclear fusion and nuclear fission produce heat energy.

Nuclear Equations

When dealing with nuclear reactions and their equations, we must keep two things in mind;

1. Proton numbers are conserved – the number of protons before and after a nuclear
reaction must be exactly the same.
2. Mass is always conserved – this means that the sum of nucleon numbers (that is,
mass number) of the reactants must be equal to the sum of the nucleon numbers of
the products. Remember that the nucleon number is the sum of the proton and
neutron numbers.

Alpha decay

During alpha-decay, an unstable nucleus disintegrates to form a daughter nucleus and an


alpha particle. The mass of the daughter nucleus is 4 less than that of the parent nucleus,
and the proton number is two less than the parent nucleus.

14
7N → 42𝛼 + 105B

Beta Decay

During beta-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron. The proton remains in
the nucleus and the electron is emitted as a beta particle. Note that the proton number
increases by one but the mass number remains the same.
14
7N → −10𝑒 + 148O

Gamma rays are produced in both alpha and beta decay.

Table 10.2 – Summary of Effect of Emission on the Composition of a Nucleus

Emission Effect on proton number Effect on nucleon number


𝜶 particle Decreases by 2 Decreases by 4
𝜷 particle Increases by 1 No change
𝜸 ray No change No change

Exercise 12A

1. Balance these nuclear equations and use your periodic table where applicable to
identify the unknown nuclide
1. 212
83Bi → AZX + 42He 6. 14
7N + −10e → AZX
95
2. 36Kr → −10e + AZX 7. 235
92U
90
+ 10n → 38Sr + 2 10n + AZX
A
3. ZX → 42He + 140
58Ce 8. A
ZX + 42He → 24 1
12Mg + 0n
12
4. 5B → 126O + AZX 9. A
ZX → 11H + 40
19K

5. 230
88Ra + AZX → 234
90Th 10. 2
1H + 21H → 32He + 10n + AZX

11. A nuclear reaction between oxygen – 16 and an alpha particle produces fluorine – 19
and a particle X.
1. What is particle X?
2. Where do we find particle X in an atom?
3. A zirconium nucleus having 100 nucleons emits a beta particle. The product nucleus
also emits a beta particle. What is the nuclide of the resulting nucleus of these two
decays?
4. Radon – 220 is radioactive and decays to polonium – 216 by emitting an alpha
particle.
1. Write a balance nuclear equation for this reaction
2. How many neutrons are in radon and polonium nuclei
3. Why does gamma radiation not result in a loss in mass?
4. Astatine – 217 undergoes alpha decay to form V. V undergoes alpha decay to
produce W. Nucleus W decays by beta emission to form X. Identify V, W and X.
5. A nucleus of bohrium has X nucleons. It undergoes decay to mendelevium – 255 by a
sequence of three alpha particle emissions:
X
YBh → dubnium + 𝛼 → lawrencium + 𝛼 → 255
101Md + 𝛼
1. How many nucleons are in a nucleus of bohrium
2. How many protons are there in bohrium
3. Write the nuclide notation of
1. Lawrencium
2. Dubnium

Half-life, 𝒕𝟏⁄𝟐

While radioactivity and radioactive decay are spontaneous and random, there is a constant
value that we can use in studying radioisotopes. This is called the half-life. The half-life is the
time taken for a radioactive material to decay to half its original number of atoms. This is
also the time for a substance to decrease to half its initial mass, activity or count rate.

When a radioactive substance disintegrates it is said to undergo exponential decay. This


1
means that the time taken for it to decay from X to 2 X is the same as the time to decay
1 1
from 2 X to 4 X and so on. If drawn on a graph the relationship between mass (or activity,
number of nuclei or concentration)and time produces an exponential decay curve.

For example if a 16 g mass of a radioisotope X with a half-life of 28 years, then the


exponential decay curve would appear like Fig. 24.6. In the event that the half-life is to be
determined, it can be found directly from the graph or by using equations as shown below:

Fig. 10.6 – Exponential decay curve of a radioactive substance

Determining Half-life
If the half-life of a radioisotope of original mass 𝑚0 is 𝑡1⁄2 and the nuclide decays to a new
mass 𝑚1 after time 𝑡, then:

𝒕
𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐟 − 𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝒏 =
𝒕𝟏⁄𝟐

and

𝟏 𝒏
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟎 ( )
𝟐

Example: the half-life of an isotope of phosphorous is 14 days. If the sample has a mass of
300g, find the mass that remains after

1. 7 days
2. 28 days
3. 140 days
4. How many days would have to pass for the decayed mass to be exactly 281.25g?

Solution:
𝑡
1. 𝑛=𝑡
1⁄2
7
𝑛=
14
𝑛 = 0.5
1 𝑛
𝑚1 = 𝑚0 ( )
2
1 0.5
𝑚1 = 300 × ( )
2
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝐠

𝑡
2. 𝑛=𝑡
1⁄2
28
𝑛=
14
𝑛=2
1 𝑛
𝑚1 = 𝑚0 ( )
2
1 2
𝑚1 = 300 × ( )
2
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟕𝟓 𝐠

𝑡
3. 𝑛=𝑡
1⁄2
140
𝑛=
14
𝑛 = 10
1 𝑛
𝑚1 = 𝑚0 ( )
2
1 10
𝑚1 = 300 × ( )
2
𝒎𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟑 𝐠

4. The remaining mass 300 − 281.25 = 18.75g


1 𝑛
𝑚1 = 𝑚0 ( )
2
1 𝑛
18.75 = 300 ( )
2
𝑛
18.75 1
= ( )
300 2
1 1 𝑛
=( )
16 2
𝑛=4
𝑡
𝑛=
𝑡1⁄2
𝑡 = 4 × 14
𝒕 = 𝟔𝟒 𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬

Exercise 12B

1. The half-life of iodine – 131 is 8 days. What fraction of a sample X will still be there
after
1. 16 days
2. 32 days
3. 64 days
4. Suppose that you start with 1g of a pure radioactive substance and 2 hours later you
determine that only 0.25g remaining. What is the half-life of this substance?
5. After a plant or animal dies, its carbon – 14 content decreases with a half-life of 5730
years. If an archeologist finds an ancient fire-pit containing partially consumed
firewood, and the carbon – 14 content of the wood is only 12.5% that of an equal
carbon sample from a present-day tree, what is the age of the ancient site?

Background Radiation
Sometimes when a radiation counter called a Geiger – Muller (GM) tube is used, it detects a
reading even in the absence of a radioactive sample in the area. This is because of the
existence of background radiation. This is radiation that occurs naturally. It is because of
the emission from plants, animals and other organisms in our environment. The reading of
background radiation fluctuates and this is also evidence that radioactivity is random.

Sources of background radiation

1. Cosmic rays and microwave radiation from the universe


2. Rocks
3. Decaying plant and animal matter
4. Radon gas
5. Nuclear fallout
6. The ground due to residual radiation from the Big Bang*

Safety Precautions When Handling Radioactive Materials

Radioactive substances can be dangerous to people and to the environment if there is a leak
or unprotected exposure. When handling radioactive materials, the nature of emission and
the time of exposure are important factors in determining the level of danger:

1. Alpha emission can cause burns on the skin but is more toxic when inhaled or
ingested. This is because 𝛼 particles cannot penetrate the skin and exit the body.
Beta particle and gamma ray emissions can cause damage to internal organs are
most dangerous if exposure is from outside the body as they can easily penetrate the
skin.

Important steps that should be taken when handling radioactive materials include:

1. Storing all materials in a lead box under lock and key (Lead stops all three types of
emission).
2. Using radiation counters to show the level of radioactivity for workers.
3. Wearing protective clothing. Lead – lined clothing that protects the body from
radiation and also notifies the level of exposure.

Modern techniques of handling radioactive substances make use of robotsto manipulate


highly reactive samples safely.
Fig. 10.7 – The use of robotic technology
in the handling of radioactive materials:
Conventional methods of protection, for
example using forceps and wearing
goggles, lab coats or gloves have no effect
on the level of exposure and have no use
in these cases. This is because radioactive
exposure is not dependent on physical
contact.

Revision Questions on Radioactivity

Questions on Radioactive Emission

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2010 qp.31)


Solution

1. Background radiation; the radiation is random hence the readings fluctuate.


2. (i) No radiation; the count rate detected at A is similar to the radiation when the
source is removed (count is same as background radiation).
(ii) Gamma radiation; gamma rays are uncharged and therefore undeflected the
magnetic field.
(iii) Beta particles; beta particles are negative, according to Fleming’s Left hand
Rule they are deflected to the bottom of the page, that is, to C

Worked Example: O Level (November 2006 qp.2 q.11)

Solution
b) (i) Gravity

(ii) Potential energy to kinetic energy to thermal energy

(iii) Nuclei are positive and so repel each other; high temperatures give them the
high speeds needed for them to coalesce (fuse).

(iv) 1 proton, 2 neutrons

(v) Helium

(vi) Heat produced causes the star to expand [this is called a supernova]. (The
heat also causes the star to lose mass and is used in overcoming gravitational
collapse.
Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2012 qp.32)

Solution

1. .
Possible deflection 𝛼-particles 𝛾-rays
No deflection 1.
Towards N pole of magnet
Towards S pole of magnet
Out of paper
Into paper 2.
3. 𝛼-particles ionise air, lose energy and will not travel far in air.
4. Lead absorbs radiation; radiation will pass through the small hole and this produces
a narrow beam of radiation.

June 2009 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2010 qp.21 (O Level)


June 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.33 (IGCSE)


November 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)

June 2012 qp.31 (IGCSE)


Questions on Half-life

Worked Example: O Level (June 2010 qp.21 q.11)


Solution

b) (i) Time taken for a substance to decay to half its original activity or count rate.
(ii) 𝛼-partciles cannot penetrate skin and therefore cannot leave the body,
damaging the body. 𝛾-rays easily penetrate the skin and can be detected
outside the body.
(iii) The isotope takes time to spread and for the experiment to detect it occurs. 6
minutes is too short because the activity will diminish significantly after a few
hours.
(iv) A half-life of 6 days would be too long; this could cause damage to the
patient.
c) (i) Radioactive emission is random
1 𝑛
(ii) using A𝑓 = A𝑖 (2)
1 𝑛
200 = 3200 ( )
2
1 1 𝑛
=( )
16 2
𝑛=4
t
using n = t
1⁄
2
t = n × t 1⁄
2
t = 4 × 13 = 52 days
(iii) Cosmic rays/rocks/nuclear fallout

June 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)


June 2012 qp.32 (IGCSE)

November 2011 qp.33 (IGCSE)


November 2010 qp.22 (O Level)
June 2011 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)


June 2012 qp.21 (O Level)
June 2012 qp.22 (O Level)
November 2011 qp.21
November 2011 qp.22
June 2011 qp.21
June 2011 qp.22

November 2010 qp.21


November 2010 qp.22

November 2004 qp.2


The Nuclear Atom
The Atomic Model

An atom is the smallest indivisible part of an element. It consists of:

1. A nucleus – which containsprotons and neutrons,


2. Space – in which electrons orbit around the nucleus in different energy shells (called
quantum levels)

Over hundreds of years the structure of the atom had been a topic of great debate and
research. In 1911 Ernest Rutherford (1871 – 1937) and his students Hans Geiger and Ernst
Marsden performed the alpha particle scattering experiment that established the model of
the nuclear atom.

The Geiger – Marsden Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

In this experiment, a thin layer of metal (gold) was bombarded by the positive and massive
alpha (𝛼) particles.

Fig. 10.8 – The scattering of 𝛼 particles in the


Geiger – Marsden experiment

The observations and deductions of this experiment are outlined below:

Table 10.3 – The Geiger – Marsden Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment


Observation Deduction
Most of the 𝜶 particles passed through the The volume of the nucleus is negligible
gold leaf undeflected compared to the volume of the whole atom
– an atom consists of a tiny nucleus and
‘space’. In fact, comparatively, if the nucleus
was the size of a pinhead, the rest of the
atom would occupy a football pitch!
The volume of the nucleus is small (few
A few 𝜶 particles where slightly deflected particles were deflected) and it has a
away from the nucleus positive charge (because of the repulsion
shown in the observation)
The nucleus is positive (repulsion between it
Very few 𝜶 particles were deflected at and the 𝛼 particles). The nucleus is massive
acute angles, returning along lines nearly – most of the mass and density of the atom
parallel to the incident path is in the nucleus (shown by how the 𝛼 were
repelled backward after collision)

The Nucleus

The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons. These are generically called
nucleons.
1. The protons are massive and positively charged.
2. The neutrons are also massive but have no charge. The word massive does not
connote size but rather mass (that is, amount of matter) and density. This means,
just like a shot-put is small but heavy, the nucleus contains nearly all the atoms
mass yet occupies a negligible volume.

Nuclide Notation

When refering to the composition of the nucleus we use the term nuclide. Every nuclide is
denoted by a representation called nuclide notation.

If an atom of an element with symbol X has nucleon number A and proton number number
Z, its nuclide notation is

𝑨
𝒁𝑿
Fig. 10.9– The nuclide notation

It is important to remember that for a nuclide:

1. The atomic/proton number (Z) is number of protons in the nucleaus of the atom
2. The nucleon number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and number of
neutrons
3. The number of neutrons is the difference between the nucleon and proton numbers
number of neutrons = A − Z
4. The number of electrons = number of protons. A nuclide is electrically neutral, that
is, no overall charge.
charge of protons + charge of electrons = 0

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having different neutron numbers.

Most students make an overcompensation by defining isotopes as atoms of the same


element having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. This is a
repetition because according to the definition of the atom, the number of protons
determines the element and so the underlined phrases mean the same thing. That would be
similar to saying exactlythe same thing. With this in mind isotopes can be defined in two
ways

Definition 1: atoms of the same element with different neutron numbers

Definition 2: atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.

The fusion of the two, while not being incorrect, is redundant.

Lets us look at the three isotopes of carbon: carbon – 12, carbon – 13 and carbon – 14.

Remember the number of neutrons is given by the equation, number of neutrons = A − Z

Table 10.4 – The Isotopes of Carbon


Nuclide Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝐂 6 6 6
𝟏𝟑
𝟔𝐂 6 7 6
𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝐂 6 8 6

Many other elements have isotopes as well. The isotopes of hydrogen are also important to
us because it is the only element whose isotopes are given different names,

Table 10.5 – The Isotopes of Hydrogen


Nuclide Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝟏𝟏𝐇 1 0 1
𝐃𝐞𝐮𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝟐𝟏𝐇 1 1 1
𝐓𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝟑𝟏𝐇 1 2 1

Properties of Isotopes

Table 10.6 – Properties of Isotopes


Similiarites Differences
1. Chemical properties 1. Physical properties – slight variation
2. Proton/atomic number including in density and molecular
3. Number of electrons mass
4. Electronic structure 2. Neutron number
3. Nucleon/mass number

Uses of Isotopes
Some isotopes are radioactive and have uses in agriculture, medicine and industry:

Table 10.7 – Uses of Radioisotopes


Uses
Radioactive Potassium – 40 Dating of ancient objects (about a million years
dating old), for example fossils

Carbon – 14 Dating of ancient organic matter (less than 50


000 years old), for example trees and bones

Uranium – 238 Dating of ancient objects (older than a billion


years old), for example rocks, determining the
age of the Earth and universe
Medicinal uses Cobalt – 60 Emits 𝜸 radiation used in the treatment of
cancer (radiotherapy) and sterilisation. It also
produces X – rays

Iodine – 123 Medical tracing – concentrates in the liver, and


certain parts of the brain. It is used to monitor
goitre and other thyroid problems as well as
liver and brain tumours

Plutonium – 238 Used to make artificial heart pacemakers


Sodium – 24 Medical tracing – is injected into the bloodstream
to follow the flow of blood and locate
obstructions in the circulatory system

Thallium –201 Concentrates in healthy heart tissue (highlights


unhealthy heart tissue)
Technetium – 99 Concentrates in abnormal heart tissue
Industrial uses Uranium – 238/ Nuclear fuel for generating electricity
Polonium – 210/
Californium –242 Sterilisation of surgical equipment (𝜸)
and 244
Testing for leaks in oil and water pipielines(𝜷)
Cobalt – 60 and thickness of paper(𝜶)

Gamma irradiation (irradiation means exposure


to radiation) of food keeps foods fresher for
longer by killing mould spores but does not
damage the food (it does not become
radioactive)
Agricultural uses Irradiation of male flies with 𝛾 rays sterilises them, eventually leading
to the disappearence of pests

Irradiation kills bacteria, for example E-coli in red meat. It also retards
the spouting of potatoes and onions allowing longer shelf-life. It also
retards food-borne illnesses

Fig. 10.11 – a scan of the radiation


released by radioactive iodine
concentrated in thyroid tissue gives an
image of the thyroid gland

Fig. 10.10 –𝛾 radiation is used in


radiotherapy and chemotherapy during
cancer treatment

Radioactive Dating
This is the determination of the age of an old object (fossilised plant or animal, or rocks)
using radioactive decay of the specimen. Of particular use is carbon – dating, that is used to
determine the age of archeological sites and bone fossils by determining how much of the
carbon – 14 remains in the specimen by checking the activity and comparing with similar
specimen that are alive today. This method together with the use of potassium – 40 and
uranium – 238 are used to determine ages of dinosaur fossils, rocks and even the Earth.

Revision Questions on the Nuclear Atom

Worked Example: O Level (November 2009 qp.2)

Solution

1. (i) 3

(ii) 208

(iii) 11

2. (i) 17

(ii) 20

Worked Example: IGCSE (November 2012 qp.33)


Solution
234 234
1. 90Th → 91Pa + −10β

2. (i)

(ii) β-particles are negatively charged so they are attracted to the positive plate
(repelled by the negative plate).

June 2008 qp.3 (IGCSE)


June 2010 qp.31 (IGCSE)

November 2010 qp.32 (IGCSE)


November 2011 qp.32 (IGCSE)

June 2009 qp.2 (O Level)


November 2012 qp.22 (O Level)
Answers to Revision Exercises
Exercise 1 A

Questions on Vernier callipers

1. 3. 2.13 cm
1. 3.64 cm 4. 1.37 cm
2. 2.37 cm 5.
3. 4.78 cm 1. 2.13 cm
4. 1.94 cm 2. 4.07 cm
5. 2.07 cm 3. 16.8 mm
6. 3.32 cm 4.
7. Zero error – 0.01 cm
1. 0.51 cm Measured length – 2.75 cm
2. 1.57 cm Actual length – 2.74 cm

Questions on Micrometre Screw Gauge

1. . 9.
1. 15.35 mm 1. 2.24 mm
2. 9.68 mm 2. 7.14 mm
3. 22.22mm 3.
4. 0.83mm Zero error – 1.24 mm
5. 11.01mm Measured length – 7.14 mm
6. 19.92mm Actual length – 5.90 mm
7. 5.27mm
8. 19.99mm

General questions on Measurement of Length

1. 6.
1. Micrometre screw gauge Diameter Instrument used
2. Vernier callipers 7.12 mm Micrometre
3. Rule/tape measure 7.0 cm Rule
4. Ruler 7.1 mm Vernier callipers
7.
5. Vernier callipers – internal and
1. Micrometre screw gauge
external diameters;
2. Measuring cylinder
Tape measure – length of pipe
3. Vernier callipers
Exercise 3 A

1. 3. 3. 3.70 s
1. 31.1 m/s2 1. 8.94 s
2. 97.2 m 2. 44.7 m/s

Exercise 12 A

1.
208 4 41
1. 81T𝑙 5. 2He 9. 20Ca
95 14 0
2. 37Rb 6. 6C 10. 0𝛾
144 144
3. 60Nd 7. 54Xe
0 21
4. −1𝛽 8. 10Ne
11.
12.
1
1. 1H; a proton
2. In the nucleus
100
3. 42Mo
4.
220
1. 86Rn → 216 4
84Po + 2He
2. Rn – 134; Po – 132
3. It is electromagnetic radiation (wave and therefore energy) and does not have a
mass
4. V – 213 209 209
83Bi; W – 81𝑇𝑙 ; X – 82Pb
5.
1. 267
2. 107
259
3. (i) 103Lr
(ii) 263
105Dubnium

Exercise 12 B

1.
1
1. 2
1
2. 16
1
3. 256
4. 1 hour
5. 17 190 years
Answers to Revision Questions

Chapter One: Measurement Techniques

Questions on Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement

1. N09/P31/Q1 (I)
(a) Micrometre screw gauge
(b) 2.73 mm
(c) Check zero error; close instrument on several sheets (about 50) of paper; use
ratchet to ensure it is not too tight; take reading on both scales; divide
reading by number of sheets.

2. N09/P31/Q2 (I)
(a) Use measuring cylinder with liquid; immerse statue and determined the
volume difference between the initial and final readings/use displacement
can; measure the volume of the displaced liquid.
(b) No

3. J12/P31/Q1 (I)
(a) Period: 1.81 s
(b) time 5 oscillations, divide result by the number of oscilations; repeat
experiment and find the mean to increase accuracy; check for zero error and
set watch at zero before start of each experiment; start experiment from
same position each time, for example at the amplitude after slightly
displacing the spring.

4. J09/P32/Q1 (I)
(a) Vernier callipers /micrometre screw gauge
(b) Check for zero error before any reading; measure thickness of several pieces
together and divide by the number of pieces; close instrument on plastic, not
too tightly; read off both scales; find the average of several readings.

5. N09/P32/Q1 (I)
(a) Half the distance between the highest points of the weight’s path along the
arc of its motion
(b) Use a protractor/ruler; measure maximum angle from vertical; avoid parallax
error.
Questions on Scalars and Vectors

1. J09/P31/Q4 (I)
(a)(ii) Magnitude: 5 500 – 5 700 N; direction: 28° – 32°
(b)(i) It has magnitude and direction
(ii) Any example

2. N10/P31/Q1 (I) 5. N01/P2/Q1 (I)


(b) 98 – 102 N (a) Acceleration and velocity
(c) Up/opposite W (b)(i) Forces in opposite
(d) 98 – 102N directions
(ii) Forces in same direction
3. N12/P31/Q2 (I) (iii)
(a) Magnitude and direction
(b) Res. speed: 94 – 96m/s;
Angle: 13.5° – 15.5°

4. N11/P33/Q3 (I)
(a)(i) Vector has direction
(ii) Any example
(b) 165 – 180N

Chapter Two: Kinematics


Questions on Distance/Displacement – Time Graphs

1. J12/P32/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) Constant speed of 2.5 m/s
(ii)

(b) Horizontal line

(c)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)


(d) Horizontal line at 0 m/s

Questions on Speed/Velocity – Time Graphs

2. J08/P31/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) 9.3 – 9.5 m/s
(ii) 42 – 44 m
(iii) 15 m/s
(b) Plastic ball is larger so air resistance and drag is more; air resistance cannot
balance the weight of the rubber ball which is much bigger so it keeps
accelerating; air resistance can balance weight of plastic ball so acceleration
becomes zero, speed becomes constant.
(c) 0.5N

3. J09/P31/Q3 (I)
(a)(i) Straight line
(ii) 0.75 m/s2
(b)(i) Decreases
(ii) Equal to the component of weight down the slope which is the forward
driving force
(iii)

4. J09/P32/Q3 (I)
(a) 10 m/s2
(b) Gradient decreased
(c) Air resistance/drag was increasing as speed was increasing
(d)(i) Constant
(ii) No resultant force
(e) B
(f) Larger air resistance/air resistance bigger than weight

5. N10/P33/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) 2.7 m/s2
(ii) 112 N
(iii) 7.7 m/s
(b) longer time to top speed; longer total time; lower top speed; lower finishing
speed; all speeds lower; less acceleration; greater deceleration

6. J10/P31/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) Decreases 7. N12/P31/Q1 (I)
(ii) Constant (a)(i) 2 430 m
(iii) Increases (ii) 1.8 m/s2
(b) 312 m (b) 1.98 × 105 N
(c) 1.5 m/s2 (c) Driving force = air
(d) Same gradient resistance/friction/drag

8. N11/P31/Q1 (I)
(a) Rate of change of velocity
(b)(i) 750 m
(ii)

9. N10/P32/Q1 (I)
(a)
(b)(i) Decreasing
(ii) Increasing
(c) Resultant force becomes zero
(d) Decreasing
(e) 216 N

Chapter Three: Dynamics and Forces

General Questions on Forces and Weight

1. J10/P31/Q3 (I)
(a) For a given force the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
(b) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
(c)(i) Nothing
(ii) Undergoes retardation
(iii) Moves in a curve (arc of a circle)
2. J11/P31/Q1 (I)
(a)
(b)(i) 1.1 – 1.3 N
(ii) Remains stationary
(d)(i) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
(ii) 5.7 kg
(e)

3. N08/P31/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) A resultant force acting to the left
(ii) To compensate for friction/resistance
(b) 0.8 kg
(c) 0.875 m/s2
(d)(i) 0.6 m/s
(ii) 0.36 m

4. N11/P33/Q1 (I)
(a) 650 N
(b) Gravitational; the Earth
(c)(i) 65 kg
(ii) 104 N
5. N11/P33/Q2 (I)
(a)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)
(b) Same times/negligible air resistance/same acceleration
(c) 25 m/s

6. J07/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i) 𝐴 = 𝐵
(ii) 𝐵>𝐴
(b) Towards centre of circle/corner
(c)(i) 0 and 8 – 9 s
(ii) Chemical potential energy to kinetic energy; thermal and internal energy also
produced.
(iii) 1.6 m/s2
(iv) 20 m
(d) Speed of car/friction with road/friction in engine/tyre condition and
pressure/wind speed/mass or inertia of car or passengers/slope of road.

7. N12/P33/Q1 (I)
(a)(i) 12.5 – 14.9 s
(ii) 0 – 2.5 s
(iii) 2.5 – 12.5 s
(b) Initially weight and air rsiatnce act; weight causes the mass to accelerate and
this increases the air resistnace; air resisynace becomes equal to weight, no
resultant force; mass reaches terminal velocity
(c) Upwards

8. J05/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i)
(ii) Acceleration = rate of change of velocity
(iii) Constant increased in speed per second
(iv) 2.5 m/s2
(b)(i) Weight – downwards; normal reaction – upwards; air resistance – backwards;
braking force – backwards; tractive force (thrust or driving force) – forwards
(ii) (1) Unbalanced – net forward force
(2) Balanced – forward force is equal to backward force
(3) Unbalanced – net backwards force
(c)

Question on Centripetal Motion

1. N10/P31/Q2 (I)
(a) Constant velocity must be in a straight line; in this case direction of motion is
changing.
(b)(i) If no force, then constant velocity in straight line; body moving in a circular
path is constantly changing direction (and therefore accelerating) so force is
needed.
(ii) Towards centre of circle/at right angles to motion
(iii) Friction between tyres and road/reaction from banking of track.

2. N12/P32/Q2 (I)
(a)
Airliner is changing direction due to the centripetal force causing it to
accelerate towards the centre of the circle.
(c) Direction changing therefore velocity is changing while the magnitude of the
speed is constant.

Questions on Hooke’s Law

1. N09/P31/Q3 (I)
(a) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (c)

(b) 3N
(d) Constant gradient/straight line; obeys Hooke’s Law
(e) Graph become nonlinear/bends
(f) Will have exceeded proportionality and elastic limits/will be permanently
deformed, no longer elastic or broken

2. N12/P33/Q2 (I)
(a) 54 N
(b)(i) The point where the proportionality between force and extension stops;
point beyond which Hooke’s law no longer applies
(ii) 3.6 kg
(iii) 800 kg/m3
(c) Air molecules further apart/oil molecules closer together

3. N12/P22/Q2 (O)
(a)(i) 4.5 kg
(ii)

(b) 23.4 N

Questions on Moments and Torque

1. J11/P32/Q3 (I)
(a) Force; perpendicular distance of force from the point
(b)(i) Download arrow at centre of bar
(ii) 0.50 m
(iii) 63 Nm
(iv) 315 N
(v) Make B longer

2. N10/P32/Q3 (I)
(a)(i) 1.2 Nm
(ii) 0.6 Nm
(iii) 3 N
(b) 18

3. N08/P31/Q2 (I)
(a)
(b) Disc does not rotate/is in equilibrium/is balanced
(c) Moment of first and second masses are both 0.24 Nm.
(d) 5N; 6N; 7N respectively for the three digrams in (a)

4. J12/P32/Q2 (I)
(a) 0.6 kg
(b) 21 N
(c)(i) Stays in position
(ii) Clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment; centre of mass at pivot; no
resultant moment; no resultant turning force; in equilibrium; relative
distances from pivot unchanged.

5. N12/P31/Q3 (I)
(a) No resultant force in any direction; no resultant moment/torque
(b)(i) 83.3 N
(ii) 23 100 Pa (pressure is force per unit area)

6. N12/P21/Q1 (O)
(a) 950 N; upwards
(b) 7.8 – 8.0 m/s

7. N12/P22/Q1 (O)
(a) Apparatus: ruler, weights, pivot
Action: balance weights on each side
Calculate moment of one side; vary distance and weights; repeat experiment.
(b) 1.2 Nm

8. N10/P33/Q2 (I)
(a) P – 40 N; Q – 40 N; R – 40 N; S – 40 N; Upwards
(b)(i) 734 N
(ii) P – 894 N; Q – 0 N; R – 0 N; S – 0 N

9. J08/P2/Q2 (O)
(a) 0.80 N
(b) 2.6 × 105 Pa
(c) Action and reaction are equal and opposite

10. N06/P2/Q9 (O)


(a) set wood swinging, allow to come to rest; use a plumbline from a hole; mark
line along plumbline on metal; hang from another hole; hang from third hole;
line intersection is centre of mass.
(b) Product of force and perpendicular distance from the pivot
(c)(i) Moment or turning effect are anticlockwise and clockwise respectively
(ii) Moments balance/weight inside base
(iii) Thicker more stable, thinner less stable

Chapter Four: Work, Energy and Power

1. J08/P31/Q3 (I)
(a) 12 600 J
(b) 16.7 m/s
(c) Energy lost/friction/air resistance

2. J08/P3/Q2 (I)
(a) Fusion of nuclei
(b) Radiant energy from the Sun raises temperature of water; rain water is
stored as potential energy in the clouds
energy output power output
(c)(i) /
energy input power input
30
(Ii) Efiiciency(hydroelectric) = 90 × 100 = 33%
25
Efiiciency(gas − fired) = × 100 = 25%
100
Efiiciency(hydroelectric) > Efiiciency(gas − fired)

3. J10/P31/Q2 (I)
(a) 405 000 J
(b) 60 000 J
(c) 60 000 W
(d) Chemical
(e) Energy is lost as heat, sound due to inefficiency; car may gain kinetic PE;
energy used within car

4. J10/P32/Q3 (I)
(a) 1 kg
(b) 8J
(c) 12 W
(d) 8 000 Pa

5. J12/P32/Q3 (I)
(a) 30 900 J
(b) 33.7%
(c)(i) From basin/to sea/from right/to left
(ii) Turbine design allows rotation in both directions

6. J11/P31/Q2 (I)
(a)
Quantity to be measured Instrument used for measurement
Height Tape measure/rule
Weight/load Newton-meter/force-meter
Time Stopwatch

(b) 11
(c) 32 000 J

7. J11/P32/Q2 (I)
(a)(1) Kinetic energy
(2) Thermal energy/heat
(3) Sound energy
(b) 864 J
(c) 196 W
(d) Mass is increased and power is constant; increase in PE of mass is
greater/work done is greater; speed is reduced/time is longer.

8. N10/P33/Q6 (I)
(a) 5.5 J
(b)(i) 1.5 J
(ii) Energy to deform ball or ground/strain energy stored in deformed ball or
ground/heat generated in deformed ball or ground
(c) 7.6 m/s

9. N11/P32/Q1 (I)
(a) 0.054 J
(b) 1.2 m/s
(c)(i) 1.1 m/s
(ii) Air resistance/friction/heat/thermal energy/experimental error
10. N11/P31/Q2 (I)

(a) Vapour rises and condenses; rain falls and is stored in lake; water falls through
pipes and turns turbines in a generator which generates electricity.

Energy changes: PE to KE then KE to electrical energy


(b)(i) 2.4 × 108 J
(ii) 1.96 × 107 J

11. N10/P31/Q5 (I) 12. N11/P33/Q5 (I)


(a)(i) 0.15 m/s (a)(i) 96 J
(ii) 100 J (ii) GPE → KE + heat + sound
(iii) 2.5 W (b)(i) 312 W
(b) Input greater/output less (ii) 2 600 W

13. N12/P32/Q1 (I)


(a) 23 m/s
(b) 20 m
(c) Changes to KE of water; PE of water; sound; heat/friction

14. N12/P33/Q3 (I)


(a)(i) 2.5 m/s2
(ii) 8.5 × 105 N
(b)(i) KE; GPE; heat/thermal energy/internal energy
(ii) Chemical energy
(iii) Thermal energy/sound is lost to the atmosphere/KE of air
(c) Perpendicular to path/towards centre of circle/centripetal

15. N12/P22/Q3 (O)


(a)(i) 1.5 × 104 J
(ii) 20 m/s
(b) PE and KE to elastic/strain energy
16. J11/P21/Q3 (O)
(a)(i) 120 W
(ii) Water after hitting turbine still moves/has KE/energy lost due to friction/heat
or thermal energy
(b)(i) Can be replaced/will not run out
(ii) Coal, oil, gas, peat, nuclear, uranium

Chapter Five: Density, Mass and Volume

Questions on Pressure
1. J11/P32/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Molecules move randomly at high speeds colliding with each other and with
the walls of the container
(ii) Force is caused by collision and rebound of molecules with the walls
(iii) 36 000 N
(b)(i) 600 kPa
(ii) Molecules collide with walls more often.

2. J08/P31/Q4 (I)
(a) Pushing rubber cover decreases volume, increasing pressure
(b) 20 cm3
(c) Speed of molecules is greater at high temperature; stronger and more
collisions with walls

3. J09/P31/Q7 (I)
(a)(i) Molecules gain more kinetic energy and overcome attractive forces
(ii) Greater surface area; more molecules escape in given time.
(iii) Increase temperature; blow air across surface; reduce humidity; decrease
pressure
(b) the cloth is always damp by soaking up water; water evaporates from cloth;
more energetic molecules evaporate; less energetic molecules left behind;
energy to evaporate taken from milk; evaporation produces cooling

4. N08/P31/Q3 (I) 5. N09/P31/Q6 (I)


(a)(i) 7.35 × 105 Pa (a)(i) Increases
(ii) 8.35 × 105 Pa (ii) 1.4 × 105 Pa
(b) 1.625 × 106 N (iii) 175 N
(c) Density is less (b)(i) Increases
(ii) No change
(iii) Extra weight
(iv) Increases
6. N10/P31/Q3 (I)
(a)(i) 100 kPa
(ii) 8 000 N
(b) 600 kg

7. N11/P31/Q4 (I)
(a)
(b) 99 280 Pa
(c) Abnormal weather/atmospheric conditions; air in space above mercury in
tube; barometer is in a high altitude location; space above mercury is not a
vacuum.

8. N11/P32/Q4 (I)
(a) Molecules/atoms move more slowly; fewer collisions; lower pressure
(b) Larger surface area of walls; fewer collisions with the walls of the balloon;
lower pressure

9. N12/P31/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Force exerted when molecules hit wall and rebound
(ii) Molecules/atoms collide with walls more often producing a bigger force
(b) 35 000 cm3

10. N12/P32/Q4 (I)


(a)(i)

(ii) Air molecules collide with piston and walls exerting a force on the piston;
greater force and therefore greater pressure on top than bottom; number of
gas collisions of gas molecules with piston increases and piston moves until
forces/pressures are equal.

(b)(i)
(ii) Molecules of gas move faster as the gain KE; more and harder collisions of
gas molecules with walls and piston; greater force and greater pressure on
bottom; pistons moves up until the pressures/forces are equal.

11. J12/P31/Q4 (I)


(a) 187.5 kPa
(b) Area of Y bigger than area of X so force is greater
(c) Work done by piston X = work done on piston Y; work = force × distance;
and F2 is greater than F1 so distance moved by Y is smaller than distance
moved by X
(d) air bubbles compress when pressure is applied, more movement of piston X
required for the same movement of piston Y/Y moves less for same
movement of X/driver must push the brake pedal further or do more
work/pressure reduced, force on Y reduced/ system is less efficient

12. N10/P32/Q5 (I)


(a) Racing car; wider base; lower centre of mass/gravity
(b) Larger area of contact
(c) 2 × 105 Pa

13. N12/P22/Q4 (O)


(a)(i) 2 300 N
(ii) 170.2 J
(b)(i) 62
(ii) 630.37 ℃

14. N12/P22/Q9 (O)


(a)(i) 1.5 × 105 Pa
(ii) 2.5 × 105 Pa
(b)(i) 0.12 m3
(ii) Molecules are further apart but their speed is unchanged; collisions with the
walls of the balloon are less frequent
(c) Water molecules are closer and move in clusters within the liquid; air
molecules are further apart and move individually throughout the container
(d)(i) Net resultant force upwards; resistance/friction downward increases until
downward force = upward force/equilibrium
(ii)

`
15. N11/P22/Q3 (O)
(a)(i) P1V1= P2V2
(ii) 4 500 m3
(b) Balloon inflates higher and burst if fully inflated on the ground as
atmospheric pressure is less higher up/greater upthrust and rises too high/
very quickly.

16. N05/P3/Q5 (I)


(a)(i) Random
(ii) Hit and rebound
(b)(i) Increase or further apart
(ii) Increase or move faster
(c)(i) Gas: random, fast; solid: vibration in solid
(ii) Gas: long way apart in gas; solid; very close or touching

Chapter Six: Thermal Physics

Questions on Temperature

1. N04/P3/Q4 (I)
(a)(i) Put hot junction in beaker of hot water; read temperature from
galvanometer using calibration
(ii) Very low/high temperatures for example −200 ℃ or 1 000℃; measuring
rapidly changing temperature; at a small site; at a point or remote place; in
control systems.
(b)(i) Raise the water temperature
(ii) Provides latent heat/or boils/evaporates water
2. N09/P31/Q7 (I)
(a) Copper; copper; constantan OR constantan; constantan; copper
(b) Galvanometer/millivoltmeter/milliammeter/digital ammeter/digital
voltmeter.
(c) rapid response; small area; can measure very high and very low
temperatures; remote reading; small thermal capacity; large range; data
logging/continuous monitoring possible; takes temperature of a surface

3. J10/P21/Q9 (O)
(a)(i) 120℃ / −10℃to 110℃
(ii) Longer thermometer/wider bore/less mercury/smaller bulb
(b)(i) Measures smaller change in temperature/smaller range for same
distance/larger expansion for same temperature rise.
(ii) Larger bulb/more liquid/narrow bore/use liquid that expands more
(c) constriction; mercury breaks at constriction, that is it is a maximum
‘thermometer’; range is different; more sensitive with divisions further apart;
triangular cross section; thinner bulb, it quickly responds to temperature
change.
(d)(i)

(ii) Measures low/high temperatures; greater range; measures rapidly


changing temperatures; measures temperature at a point; electronic
output; more robust; measures temperature at a distance

4. N11/P31/Q5 (I)
(a)(i)(1)Gas
(2) Solid
(ii) Change of pressure also causes change in volume of gas
(b)(i) Expands uniformly; remains liquid over required range; expands more than
glass; high sensitivity and expansion; low specific heat capacity; lower
freezing point than mercury
(ii) Make capillary tube narrower and longer/thinner bore/larger bulb
(c) Allows faster flow of heat to or from alcohol/allows fast response to
temperature change/glass is a poor conductor/heat transfer is more
efficient/glass takes up less heat
5. N12/P32/Q3 (I)
(a)

(b)(i)

(ii)(1) Metals do not melt/gives p.d. at high temperature/remote sensing


(2) Small heat capacity/mass

6. N12/P21/Q2 (O)
(a)(i) Output e.m.f. directly proportional to temperature difference.
(ii) 770 ℃
(b) Glass melts/liquid boils/no remote sensing, for example head in a surface

Questions on Thermal Properties

Questions on Thermal Expansion

1. N11/P32/Q4 (I)
(a) Molecules/atoms move more slowly; fewer collsions; lower pressure
(b) Larger surface area of walls; fewer collisions with walls on balloon; lower
pressure
2. J08/P31/Q5 (I)
(a) SOLID: higher temperature means higher energy/greater speed or molecules
or particles; vibrations get bigger and separation increases as greater
movement results in more space being occupied.
GAS: average speed of particles greater; average separation between
particles greater
(b) Liquids: slightly more; gases: much more.
(c) Uniform expansion/large expansitivity/non-toxic/low freezing and melting
point/measures low temperatures

Questions on Heat Capacity

1. N09/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i) 1.15 × 107 J
(ii) 4.42 × 103 s
(iii) Heat escapes/lost to kitchen/heat to heat the boiler/used as latent heat/not
all heat ends up in water/heat to cause evaporation.
(b)(i) Hot water expands and its density decreases and it rises; convection current
produced as cold water sinks; circulation mixes the water.
(ii) Metal/steel is a good conductor/poor insulator/plastic is a poor conductor;
more heat transferred through steel/less through plastic/heat transferred
more quickly through steel
(c)(i) Evaporation/condensation
(ii)
Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at surface Needs heat; Condensation releases heat
Occurs at any temperature Boiling: liquid to gas; condensation: gas to liquid
Produces cooling
No bubbles

2. N09/P31/Q9 (I)
(a) Quantity of energy required to raise temperature of 1 kg by 1 ℃
(b) Long time to heat up; long time to cool down; expensive to heat; takes a lot
of energy to heat up.
(c)(i) Rise – 1.8 ℃; fall – 77.1 ℃
(ii) 1 512 J
(iii) 392 J/kg K
(iv) Heat loss during transfer; boiling water not at 100 ℃; at 100 ℃ water is not
pure/not standard pressure; energy lost to cup/surroundings; thermometer
not accurate/sensitive enough/temperature/masses not accurately
measured.
3. N12/P32/Q6 (I)
(a) 798 000 J
(b) 4 896 000 J
(c) 16%
(d) Source not finite/will not run out
(e) Doesn’t work at night/cloud cover/no sun/variable output; high initial cost of
panels

4. N10/P32/Q4 (I)
(a)(i) Good conductor of heat
(ii) Black is good absorber/poor reflector
(iii) Reduce heat lost/conducted away from pipes/sheets
(iv) Air heated/glass reduces, prevents convection/greenhouse effect/glass
prevents warm air being blown away/traps air
(b) 9.24 × 107 J

5. N11/P33/Q6 (I)
(a)(i)
Electrical method
Mixtures method

(ii)
Electrical method Mixtures method
Initial and final temperatures of Initial and final temperatures of liquid
liquid Initial and final temperatures of added
Voltmeter reading solid/liquid
Ammeter reading Mass of liquid
Heating time Specific heat capacity of added sold/liquid
Mass of liquid

(b)(i) 276 432 J


(ii) 445.858 s

6. N10/P33/Q5 (I)
(a) Heat required to raise the temperature of a 1 kg mass by 1 ℃.
(b)(i) Darker colours absorb more/lighter or shiny surfaces absorb less
(ii) (1) 182
(2) 78 kg
(3) 0.00519 ℃/s

7. J03/P2/Q10 (O) 8. J10/P21/Q9 (O)


(c)(i) 2.268 × 106 J (e)(i) 24 000 J
(ii) 6.90 × 108 J (ii) 34°
(iii) 0.329%

Questions on Latent Heat

1. J10/P31/Q5 (I)
(a) Energy required to change the state/phase of a substance at constant
temperature
(b) 6 – 14 min/26 – 32 min
(c) Turns substance to gas; energy is used to bread bonds and overcome
intermolecular forces
(d)(i) 480 kJ
(ii) 6.34 kg

2. J11/P31/Q11 (I)
(a) 3 × 105 J/kg
(b)(i) Liquid
(ii) move around more rapidly; move further apart; break free from bonds and
evaporate; change state; convection current

3. J12/P31/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Freezing; solidification; condensation
(ii) No change
(b) Energy required to change the temperature of a body by 1 ℃.
(c)(i) 21 000 J
(ii) 21 000 J
(iii) 63.6 g

4. J11/P32/Q4 (I)
(a) 330 J of energy required to change 1 g of ice to water at constant
temperature (0 ℃)
(b)(i) B to C – melting; D to E – boiling
(ii) Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water is greater than specific latent
heat of fusion of ice
(iii)Specific heat capacity of ice is less than specific heat capacity of water; rate
of temperature rise of water is slower

5. N08/P31/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Funnel no longer giving heat to ice/ice at melting point or constant
temperature/heater reached maximum temperature
(ii) Inside of large pieces could be well below freezing point/ smaller gaps if
pieces are smaller/better contact between heater and ice/to ensure heat
from the heater only goes to the ice/larger surface area.
(b) Mass of beaker; mass of beaker and water.
(c) 338 J/g or 338 kJ/kg

6. J09/P2/Q3 (O)
(a) 10.2 kJ
(b) 3.29 × 105 J/kg
(c) Heat/time needed to warm the ice to its melting point (0℃)
7. J06/P3/Q4 (I)
(a)

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at constant temperature Occurs at any temperature
Occurs at the surface of the liquid only,
Occurs throughout the liquid occurs opposite the point of application of
‘heat’
Caused by gain in thermal energy of
May be caused by draught, wind or heating
molecules (by heating)
Particles possess the same energy The most energetic particles are located at
throughout the liquid the surface of the liquid*
Liquid is at the same temperature Liquid is at different temperatures at
throughout different points
Results in a change in state of the whole Only the most energetic molecules change
liquid state
Not affected by pressure but by humidity,
Affected by atmospheric pressure only surface area and temperature of
surroundings

(b) Energy required to separate molecules; used against forces of attraction


between water molecules; the kinetic energy of the molecules does not
increase.
(c) 2 400 J/kg

8. J07/P3/Q4 (I)
(a) Total mass before ice added; total mass after all the ice melted
(b)(i) Mass × specific heat capacity × change in temperature
(ii) Mass of melted ice × specific latent heat of fusion/enrgy gained by ice =
energy lost by water
(c) 427 J/kg or 426667 J/kg
(d) Heat gained from the surroundings; heat needed to cool beaker, stirrer and
thermometer; too much ice added; evaporation; stirring gives energy.

9. J09/P3/Q7 (I)
(a)(i) Some surface molecules gain more kinetic energy; overcome attractive forces
and break free.
(ii) Greater area; more molecules escape
(iii) Increase temperature; blow air across surface; reduce humidity; decrease
pressure
(b) Water evaporates rom cloth; molecules evaporate; less energetic molecules
left behind; energy to evaporate taken from milk; evaporation produces
cooling; the cloth is always damp by soaking up water
Questions on Thermal Transfer

1. N12/P33/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Water molecules hit copper; vibrating copper atoms hit neighbours and pass
on energy; electrons strike copper atoms and copper atoms hit air molecules
(ii) Smaller temperature difference or thermal gradient between tank and
air/reduce vibrations of copper atoms/water molecules possess less kinetic
energetic/reduced radiation emitted/less evaporation.
(b)

Two containers, one shiny and one black; containers filled with the same
volume of hot water; similar starting temperatures; measure final
temperature and compare temperature drop.

2. N12/P32/Q5 (I)
(a) Double cup not so hot to hold; less heat transfer/better insulation
(b)

(c) Reduces energy losses by convection; reduces energy losses by evaporation;


reduces energy losses by radiation

3. N12/P31/Q7 (I)
(a) More energetic molecules escape; molecules left in the liquid have lower
average kinetic energy, slower speed so temperature is lower/latent heat
needed to evaporate come from the remaining liquid.
(b)(i) Dull surface is better and faster radiator/shiny surface is poorer and slower
radiator
(ii) C hotter than A so evaporates at a faster rate in C
(iii) Less liquid in D/more liquid in A
(iv) E has greater surface area and shallower; greater rate of loss of heat by
evaporation, convection, conduction and/or radiation.

4. N10/P33/Q4 (I)
(a)(i) Conduction
(ii) Molecules at hot end vibrate more/possess more energy
(b) Copper is better conductor/iron is a poorer conductor
(c) Iron conducts heat slowly; above gauze – flame retains its energy; copper
conducts heat rapidly; above gauze – gas not incandescent above gauze.

5. J10/P31/Q4 (I)
(a) Matt black
(b)(i)

(ii) On black side more heat is absorbed/greater temperature rise/heats up


quicker; on black side greater expansion of air and therefore greater pressure

6. N11/P32/Q5 (I)
(a) Rod/target/anode
Copper/thickness of rod
Good conductor/increases amount of conduction
(b) Fins
Large surface area/number of fins/spaces between fins
Large contact with air/allows air to rise between fins
(c) Fins/black surface/end of rod
Black surface/large surface area
Good emitter/large radiating surface

7. J03/P2/Q10 (O)
(a)(i) Molecules of plastic case collide with water molecules and gain heat. They
collide with air molecules and transfer the heat to the air.
(ii) air molecules collide with grey plastic case, gain energy and rise; the cooler
air descend and the air molecules collide with the molecules in the grey
plastic case, gain energy and rise; circulation forms convection current
(b)(i) Insulation prevents contact and therefore prevents conduction between
water and plastic case; the where plastic case is a poor absorber of heat so
little energy is transferred by radiation. The air outside cannot absorb any
energy so no convection occurs just outside the case, decreasing heat loss.
(ii) Less energy lost; less electricity used in heating the water; cheaper;
environmentally sustainable; no need to reheat; saves energy

8. N12/P22/Q5 (O)
(a) Space is a vacuum; these methods need a physical medium/matter
(b) day – white is a poor absorber/good reflector of Infrared; day – less heat
absorbed/less heating of the house; night – white is a poor emitter/radiator
of Infrared; night – less heat emitted/ lost from the house.

Chapter Seven: Waves and Oscillations

Questions on General wave properties

1. N08/P31/Q7 (I)
(a)

(b) 8 Hz
(c) 8 Hz
2. N09/P32/Q1 (I)
(a) Half the maximum distance between the highest points of the weight
(b) Use protractor; note value of maximum angle and consequently maximum
distance from vertical; avoid parallax error

3. N06/P3/Q7 (I)
(a) The waves are straight not circular; do not have the same wavelength; the
waves should extend into the shadow area more
(b)

(c) 9.6 cm/s

4. J11/P32/Q6 (I)
(a)(i) Shake end of the rope from side to side or up and down
(ii)(1)

(2)

(iii) Increase rate of shaking end of rope (to increase frequency)


(b) In shallow water wavelength is smaller; frequency is constant;
Speed = frequency × wavelength; smaller wavelength, slower speed.

5. J10/P31/Q6 (I)
(a)(i) Unchanged
(ii) Reduced
(iii) Reduced
(b) 1.5 Hz
(c)

6. J12/P31/Q7 (I)
(a) Molecules move up and down
(b)(i)

(ii) Diffraction
(c) 8.57 Hz

7. J08/P2/Q10 (O)
(a)(i)
Transverse Longitudinal
Vibration at right angles Vibrations along the wave
Crests and troughs Compressions and rarefactions

C – compression
R – rarefaction
(ii) Compression – are of higher pressure/density layers are closer to each other;
rarefaction – lower pressure, molecules further apart
(b)(i)

(ii)

(c)(i) 1.5 m
(ii) 0/5 Hz
(iii) 0.75 m/s

8. J12/P32/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) CD
(ii) wavefront changes direction/refracted/wavefront bends; in Q distances
travelled by waves a shorter/smallest wavelengths; waves spread in region Q
from B; all points on wavefront AB move to corresponding points on CD; in
same time end of wave AB moves to C and end B moves to D
(b) Regions P and Q have the same depth/P and Q are now one medium; same
wavelength/same wavefronts travel same speed/distance in each region; no
refraction/change in direction; no bending of waves.

Questions on Light

Questions on Reflection and Refraction


1. J12/P32/Q4 (I)
(a)(i) 50°
(ii) Total internal reflection
(b) 1.556
(c)

(d)

2. J08/P31/Q7 (I)
(a)
(b)(i) 2 × 108 m/s
(ii) 38.7895°

3. N12/P31/Q8 (I)
(a)(i)

(ii) 1.603
(b) Ray undergoes total internal reflection because the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle of the glass/the ray travels along the plane if
the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle.

4. N06/P3/Q6 (I)
(a)

(b) Virtual; inverted; same size as the object


(c) Angle of incidence is zero/right angles/along normal
(d) 2 × 108 m/s
(e) Angle of incidence is greater than critical angle so total internal reflection
occurs/angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection = 45°, so ray turns
through 90°.
5. J09/P2/Q5 (O)
(a)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)

(iii) The angle between the incident ray and the normal at the point of contact.
(b)

6. J10/P21/Q5 (O)
(a)(i)

(ii) Orange; yellow; green


(b)(i) Total internal reflection/ angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
(ii) All colours reflected at the same angle
7. N10/P33/Q10 (I)
(a)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)

(b)

8. N08/P31/Q6 (I)
(a) Light of one frequency/wavelength
(b) 48.2°
(c)

(d) A spectrum of colours would appear/range of angles/dispersion/rays split up


(e) 80 – 90 °
(f) Total internal reflection
9. N08/P32/Q6 (I)
(a)(i) Light of one frequency/wavelength
(ii) 58.68° – 60°
(iii)

(b)(i) Total internal reflection; angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
(ii)

10. N11/P32/Q6 (I)

(a) (b)(ii)
(c) (d)

11. N10/P33/Q9 (I)


(a)(i) Reduced
(ii) Reduced
(b) 2.03 × 108 m/s
(c)

12. N11/P33/Q9 (I)


(a) Single frequency/wavelength
(b) 1.613
(c) 45°
(d)(i) Less/slower/smaller
(ii) More/faster/greater

13. J11/P31/Q8 (I)


(a)(i) Total internal reflection; angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
(ii)

(b)(i) Bends easily/less likely to break/smaller pixels/more detail/greater


resolution/see smaller objects/wider field of view
(ii) Light travels down along fibres
(iii) Image returns up along fibres

14. N12/P22/Q10 (O)


(a) 4.3 × 10−7 m
(b) Use pins and a mirror; place two pins; place two more pins in line with image;
measure angles of incidence and reflection; repeat the experiment
(c)(i) 83°
(ii) Total internal reflection; angle of incidence exceed critical angle
(d)(i)

(ii) 0.19 m
(iii) Less/no light wasted; hall brighter

15. N10/P21/Q9 (O)


(a)(i)

(ii) For horizontal ray, angle in water equal critical angle.


(iii) 1.32501
(iv) Decreases
Questions on Dispersion of light

1. N08/P2/Q6 (O)
(a) Red
(b)(i) Equal to
(ii) Less than
(c)

2. N08/P31/Q6 (I)
(a) Light of one frequency/wavelength
(b) 48.2°
(c)

(d) A spectrum of colours would appear/range of angles/dispersion/rays split up


(e) 80 – 90 °
(f) Total internal reflection

3. J06/P3/Q6 (I)
(a)

(b) 25°
(c)(i) 3 × 108 m/s
(ii) 3 × 108 m/s

Questions on Lenses

1. J08/P31/Q6 (I)
(a)

(b) Virtual; upright; enlarged; further from lens than object

2. N09/P31/Q8 (I)
(a), (b) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (c)

3. J11/P32/Q7 (I)
(a) Distance from the principal focus to the centre of the lens
(b)(i) Image: can be formed on a screen; is formed by rays of light meting; is
formed on the opposite side of the lens from the object

(ii)
(iii)(1) Reduced
(2) Smaller

4. N10/P32/Q9 (I)
(a) Refracts/bends towards F1/changes direction; speed changes/reduces on
entering glass; splits into colours as it meets surface at an angle;
(b)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)

(c)(i)

(ii) Virtual; upright; enlarged; same side of the lens as object; further from the
lens than object

5. N12/P33/Q7 (I)
(a)(i)

(ii) Virtual; upright; magnified; further form the lens than the object; dimmer;
same side of the lens as the object
(b)(i) Diagram not to scale
(ii) Magnifying glass

6. N12/P32/Q7 (I)
(a)

(b)(i) Cannot be formed on the screen/rays diverge away from the image/rays do
not meet to form image
(ii) Magnifying glass

Questions on the Electromagnetic Spectrum


1. J03/P2/Q4 (O)
(a)

(b) 3 × 108 m/s


(c) Cooking using stoves; television remote control; intruder alarms; fibre optics;
reflexology and muscle therapy

2. N06/P2/Q11 (O)
(a)(i) 0.002 s
(ii) Similarities – same speed in a vacuum; travel in a vacuum; travel in straight
lines; refract/reflect/diffract/interfere; carry energy; transverse/polarisable
Differences – wavelength; frequency; microwaves received by aerials

3. J04/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i)
Gamma X rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Microwaves Radio
rays light waves

(ii) Reflection of infrared radiation from shiny material; more energy hits food;
cooks food faster; avoids wasting energy; avoids heating outer case or
burning hand; more efficient

4. N05/P2/Q4 (O)
(a)

(b) Sunbeds; fluorescent tubes; sterilisation; illuminating marks on property


(phosphors)
(c) Transverse; same speed; will diffract, reflect, refract, interfere; travel in a
vacuum

5. J08/P2/Q5 (O)
(a)
(b)(i) Fluorescent screen; photographic plate; GM tube; photoelectric tube
(ii) X-rays stopped by bone/do not penetrate bone; less absorption as they pass
through flesh and skin; travel in straight lines; photo black on development.

6. N07/P3/Q7 (I)
(b)(i)

(ii) Radio waves


(iii) 3 × 108 m/s

7. N12/P21/Q6 (O)
(a) Infrared and microwaves are reversed; visible light is omitted; ultrasound is
not electromagnetic; ultraviolet is missing
(b)
Use Explanation
Detecting cracks in metal More X-rays pass through crack/poor weld
Checking welds Image of crack on film/screen
Astronomy Hot stars emit X-rays
Crystallography Diffraction reveals pattern of atoms
Fluorescence Substances re-emit different energies
Airport/border security Contents of luggage/lories revealed
Paintings investigated Underpainting revealed

8. J05/P3/Q7 (I)
(a)(i) X-rays/gamma rays
(ii) Infrared/radio waves
(b) 3 × 1020 Hz
(c) 3 × 108 m/s

Questions on Sound
1. J03/P2/Q11 (O)
(a) Sound waves with frequency greater than 20kHz
(b)(i) 50 000 Hz
(ii) 0.1 s
(iii) 150 m
(c)(i) their intensity/volume will decrease – they lose energy as they travel longer
distances; timbre/quality decreases – interference with water will distort
sound; more spread out – due to changes in temperatures with depth,
diffraction, refraction and dispersion will cause the signal to be lost.
(ii) To produce clear and distinct sound without interference of waves

2. N08/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i) Vibration of cone; vibrations of air molecules; molecules pass on vibrations;
compressions and rarefactions are formed in longitudinal movement of
particles.
(ii) Loud – large amplitude; low pitched – low frequency
(iii) 0.0017 s
(iv) Speed of sound greater in liquid; less time taken in liquid/hear sooner
(b)(i) 1.65 m
(ii)

C – Compression
R – Rarefaction

3. J09/P2/Q6 (O)
(a) Sound with frequency above 20 kHz
(b) 1 250 000 Hz
(c) Vibrate/oscillate; vibration parallel to wave
(d) Pressure increase and decreases forming compressions and rarefactions as
particles come closer together and move apart respectively.

4. N09/P2/Q5 (O)
(a)(i)
(ii) Distance between adjacent compressions or adjacent rarefactions (diagram
not to scale)
(iii) 𝑣 = 5.1 × 103 × answer to (ii)
(b) Longitudinal: vibration is parallel to energy travel; cannot be polarised

5. J10/P22/Q10 (O)
(a) sound produced by a gun/clapping of hands/metal; time from hearing initial
sound to hearing echo is measured suing a stopwatch; distance from the
observer to the wall is measured using a tape measure/rule; calculate speed
2𝑑
using formula 𝑣 = where 𝑑 is the distance dfrom the observr to the all, 𝑡
𝑡
is the tim between th initial sound and the echo and 𝑣 is the speed of sound;
ensure no wind; repeat and average using large distance of about 200 m;
repeat experiment in opposite directions to eliminate wind, air movements
(b)(i) Sound with frequency higher than 20kHz
(ii) 166 667
(iii) Not all sound is reflected from back surface, some passes through the back;
some energy absorbed by metal; sound spreads out in other directions and
travels a greater distance
(iv)

(v) 5.0 × 10−4 m

6. N11/P31/Q6 (I)
(a)(i)(1) Compressions and/or rarefactions closer together
(2) Layers closer together at compressions; layers further apart at
rarefactions/compressions narrower; rarefactions wider
(ii)

(b) 5 128 m/s

7. N11/P32/Q7 (I)
(a)(i) 320 – 350 m/s (330 m/s)
(ii) 3 × 108 m/s
(b) 267 – 292 Hz (275 Hz)
(c)(i) 1 536 – 1 680 (1 584 m)
(ii) Light travels instantaneously/distance of thunderstorm same as distance
travelled by sound/thunder and lightning caused by the same event

8. J10/P31/Q7 (I)
(a) Light travels much faster than sound
(b)(i) 4.0 min
(ii) Always a measurable time difference/never zero time difference
(iii) 333.3. m/s
(iv) Light travels instantaneously/no wind/lightning at ground level/no
obstruction of sound
(c)
Light waves Sound waves
Longitudinal 1.
Transverse 1.
Electromagnetic 2.
Mechanical 3.

Chapter Eight: Electricity and Magnetism

Questions on Electrostatics

1. J03/P2/Q5 (O)
(a) Electron
(b)(i) Positive and negative charges can spark, igniting petrol vapour
(ii) Earthing/grounding the pipe
2. J10/P32/Q8 (I)
(a) Like charges repel; unlike charges attract
(b) The person or the car are charged by friction; electrons going through the
person
(c)(i) Electrons, which are negative, move towards the rod
(ii) Opposite charges attract
(iii) Electrons flow up from earth wire and the ball becomes negatively charged.

3. N10/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)(i)

(ii) Positive charge on A attracts electrons; electrons move to towards A to end


X; the positive chares are left at Y
(iii)Each electron leaves behind an equal unbalanced proton in nucleus/B has no
net charge/B is neutral/B has not gained or lost any charges
(b)(i) Nothing
(ii) Positive charge neutralised by electrons flowing up from the earth

4. J12/P31/Q8 (I)
(a)(i) Electrons
(ii)

(iii)Connect S to earth with rod in place; remove connection of S to earth;


remove R
(b)(i) 0.25 A
(ii) 4.5 × 107 J
5. J12/P32/Q7 (I)
(a)(i)
(ii)

(b)(i)

(ii) Direction of the electric field and electric force on a point positive charge.

6. N12/P32/Q8 (I)
(a) Electrons removed from balloon and moved to hair so that the hair becomes
negatively charged; the balloon remains with a net positive charge.
(b)

(c)
Negative charges in water stream attracted by charges on balloon
(d) Metal good conductor/has free electrons

Questions on Practical Electricity

1. J05/P2/Q6 (O)
(a)

(b) Smaller resistance


(c) Heater uses more than 3A; causes fuse to melt/blow

2. J04/P2/Q9 (O)
(b) Connected to the outer metal case; if live touches case; earth allows current
to flow into the ground be earthed; blows fuse and disconnects circuit; no
current flows through person; n electrocution/electric chock
(c)(i) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
(ii) 1 900 W
(iii) Current halves; power decreases to ¼

3. N06/P2/Q10 (O)
(a) yellow-green to earth; blue to neutral; brown to live; tighten screws; cable
and outer cover under grip; no bare metal on wires; earth wire longest; put
cover back on
(b)(i) Earth

(ii)Plastic/lamp/base made from insulator/ does not conduct electricity; double


insulated/cannot electrocute/shock
(iii) 100 J used per second
(iv) 0.5/1.0/2.0/3.0A
(v) 180 000 J

4. N05/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)(i) Protects the circuit if current is too large; fuse melts and stops current/breaks
circuit
(ii) Heating elements fault allows water to conduct electricity; with earth
connected, if a fault occurs, currents flows to earth; no current through water
to person; no electric shock
(b)(i) 720 000 J
(ii) 0.2 kWh
(iii) 1.6 c
(c) Fast energetic molecules escape; remaining molecules possess less kinetic
energy; molecules separate; molecular bonds are broken; escaping molecules
have greater potential energy

5. N02/P2/Q4 (O)
(a)

(b) Air conditioner


(c) 6 357.7 kWh
(d) the thicker the wires the less the resistance; thin wires in the lights means
less current goes to the light compared to the water heater.

6. N01/P2/Q5 (O)
(a) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
(b)(i) 1.25 mm
(ii) A very thin wire has a high resistance; this produces great heat losses that
can cause a fire/ damage wiring.
(c) Build-up in current in live wire/due to short-circuit
Questions on Current of Electricity

1. J10/P31/Q11 (I)
(a)(i) 4 Ω
(ii) 437.4 J
3
(b)(i) 37.5% /
8

2. J11/P31/Q4 (I)
(a) Rheostat/variable resistor; control/vary/limit/change
current/resistance/power/voltage across heater
(b)(i) 1.25 A
(ii) 1.92 Ω
(c) Battery running down/going flat/energy of battery used up/e.m.f. less/
increasing resistance of heater
(d)(i) Transformer/potential divider/potentiometer
(ii) Diode/rectifier/LED

3. J11/P31/Q5 (I)
(a)(i) Potential difference/e.m.f
(ii) Frequency
(iii) Power
(b)(i) Case/frame/outside/base/parts that can be touched
(ii) Electric shock/electrocution/death by electricity; live wire touches case
(c)

or

4. J08/P2/Q6 (O)
(a) 1 200 Ω
(b) decreases to stable value of 0.2 A
(c) onger/thiner/hotter/material made of poorer conductor (higher resistivity)

5. J11/P32/Q8 (I)
(a) energy supplied/work done per Coulomb to drive charge round a complete
circuit; p.d./voltage across a battery/power source
(b)(i) 0.25 A
(ii) 960 Ω
(c) p.d across A – 237 V; p.d. across B – 2.96 V; p.d. suits both bulbs; Y is correct
6. N11/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)(i) 1 – Resistance is constant; 2 – resistance increases
(ii) 7V
(b) 0.65 Ω

7. N10/P33/Q7 (I)
(a) Increases as current increases at an increasing rate
(b)(i) 25 Ω
(ii) 1.75 V
(iii) 0.12 W
(c)(i) 1.75 V
(ii) 12.5 Ω

Question on Electric Circuits

1. N10/P31/Q8 (I)
(a) Capacitor/capacitance/condenser
(b)(i) 5 Ω
(ii) 4Ω
(c) Ammeter reading falls to zero as capacitor charges/no current reading; P
already charged/does not conduct
(d) 400 s

2. J09/P2/Q9 (O)
(a)

Voltmeter and ammeter readings


(b)(i) P – 0.632 A; Q – 1.263 A; R – 1.895 A
(ii) 127 Ω
(c)(i) 0.42 A
(ii) 80 V or 79.8 V
(d) One lamp goes out/blows/fuses while the others stay on; lamps are working
to correct/more brightness/voltage/current/power; voltages of 240 V across
each lamp

3. J12/P32/Q9 (I)
(a)(i) 0.75 A
(ii) 4.5 W
(b) 8

4. J10/P32/Q9 (I)
(a) Diode
(b)(i) 2 Ω
(ii) 6Ω
(c) Current is zero; diode reverse biased/wrong polarity
(d) B

5. J09/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)

(b)(i) A
(ii)

6. N08/P31/Q8 (I)
(a) Changes AC to DC/rectifies AC/allows current t flow one way only/prevents
current flowing backward
(b) 86 400 C
(c) 12 J of energy delivered per Coulomb in driving charge through a circuit
(d)(i)

(ii) 1.33 A
(iii) 57 600 J

7. N11/P33/Q7 (I)
(a)(i) 4 V
(ii) 12 V
(b)(i) 6 Ω
(ii) 2Ω
(c) 6A
(d)(i) Stays same
(ii) Decreases

8. N11/P32/Q9 (I)
𝑅 𝑅
(a)(i) 𝑅𝑃 = 1 2
𝑅 +𝑅 1 2
(ii) 1.5 Ω
(b)(i)

(ii) 2.4 V
(c) Reduced

9. N12/P32/Q10 (I)
(a) 12 Ω
(b)(i)

(ii) Current in 24 Ω resistor – 0.25 A; current in other resistor – 0.5 A

10. N12/P31/Q10 (I)


(a)(i) Current
(ii) p.d./potential difference/voltage
(b) 6.75 V
(c) In fire, temperature of thermistor rises and its resistance falls; current
through thermistor and relay coil rises; magnetic field of relay closes switch
and bell rings

11. J04/P2/Q6 (O)


(a)(i) Voltage past 3 V/outside range/off scale/voltage past maximum
(ii) Reading less accurate or sensitive/not far up scale or smaller deflection
(b)(i) 0.33 A
(ii) 9.9 – 10 V

12. N07/P2/Q10 (O)


(a) Electrical circuit containing source, ammeter, lamp, bell and component
under test; no current measured when using insulator; current measured
when using conductor.
Conductor – any metal/carbon/graphite/impure water
Insulator – plastic/paper/wood, any sensible non-conductor
voltage
(b)(i)
current
(ii) Resistance increases at higher p.d.
(iii) Filament lamp/bulb/thermistor
(iv) Temperature changes; higher current/voltage produces higher temperatures
(c)(i) Both 1.0 A
(ii) 8.0 V
(iii) 8 V
(iv) 13.3 Ω
13. N08/P2/Q7 (O)
(a) 12.0 V
(b)

(c) 2 400 J (2 370 – 2 410 J)

14. N06/P2/Q8 (O)


(a) 0V
(b)(i) 8 Ω
(ii) 2A
(iii) 12 V

15. J06/P2/Q11 (O)


(a) Fuse – limits the current; switch – turns current/circuit/bulb on and off
(b)(i) 0.25 A
(ii) 0.17 A
(iii) 960 Ω
(c)(i)

(ii) Smaller than; higher resistance in series/lamps have less than 240 V across
them
(d) 1 920 Ω

16. J02/P2/Q5 (O)


(a) Variable resistor/rheostat
(b)(i) 0.05 A
(ii) 0.0125 A
(iii) 0.0625 A
17. J05/P2/Q8 (O)
(a) 4.5 V
(b) 0.3 A
(c) Provides smaller internal resistance/lasts longer/less lost voltage/when one
cell fails others work/less energy lost

Questions on Electromagnetism

1. J11/P32/Q9 (I)
(a)(i)

(ii) Magnetic fields due to current and magnet interact with each other/current
produces magnetic field/wire contains moving charges which experience a
force in a magnetic field
(iii) Direction of force unchanged
(b)(i) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ii)

2. J11/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)(i) Down; anticlockwise
(ii) BC is parallel to the field/doesn’t cut field
(b) Continues moving/turning due to momentum/inertia/kinetic energy
(c) more turns/several coils; iron core; increase voltage; stronger magnet;
smaller air gap; curved poles; more efficient brushes; poles closer; use split-
ring commutator

3. J08/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)
(b)(i) Reduced
(ii) Same
(c)(i) Thin wire is a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field; field produced
by current in thick wire/both wires produce a magnetic field; fields interact
(ii) Inwards/towards thick wire/to right
(iii) Smaller force

4. J12/P31/Q11 (I)
(a) Transistor
(b) Resistor/variable resistor/rheostat
Light-dependent resistor/LDR
Resistor
(c) Thermistor; thermistor in gap A and resistor in gap B

5. N11/P33/Q8 (I)
(a)(i)

(ii) Anticlockwise
(b)(i) Faster
(ii) Faster/the same
(iii) Faster
(c) Increasing back/opposing e.m.f

6. N11/P32/Q11 (I)
(a) Magnetic flux changes/rod cuts magnetic field; e.m.f induced
(b)(i) Deflection increases; rate of change of flux increases; more magnetic field
lines cut/stronger magnetic field cut
(ii) Deflection increases; rate of change of flux increases; rod moves faster/field
lines cut faster
(iii) No deflection and no magnetic field lines cut/no change of flux linkage

7. N12/P33/Q10 (I)
(a)(i) Light-dependent resistor/LDR
(ii) In bright light resistance of Z falls; current rises and more p.d. across R; relay
coil magnetises and switch closes completing second circuit.
(b) Thermistor replaces LDR

8. N12/P22/Q11 (O)
(a)(i) 2.5 A
(ii) Decrease resistance of variable resistor; increase current in solenoid
(iii) 1 – Force on PQ moves; movement out of page
2 – Forces/speed/acceleration larger
(b)(i) 900 W
(ii) Thick wires have low resistance; thick wires not as hot/do not melt
(c) Current to relay/coil/solenoid/electromagnet;
core/relay/coil/solenoid/electromagnet magnetised; connections made in
motor circuit

Questions on Electromagnetic Induction

1. N10/P32/Q8 (I)
(a) Alternating current in primary coil induces magnetic flux in the core; changing
magnetic field; field cut secondary changing flux change in secondary;
induced e.m.f/current in secondary coil
(b) Step up; more/increasing turns on secondary; less/decreasing turns on
primary
(c) 720 A
(d) Less heat/energy/power loss; more efficient energy transfer; thinner/smaller
cables; less metal used; less massive pylons

2. J12/P32/Q8 (I)
(a)(i) Milliammeter deflects/shows reading/current; change of flux/field lines
cut/e.m.f/current produced
(ii) Greater deflection/current; rate of change of flux linkage, for example more
magnetic field lines cutting coil per second or field cut faster
(b)(i) Upwards/opposite to magnets direction of travel
(ii) Current in coil causes a magnetic field; force caused by overlapping magnetic
fields

3. N08/P31/Q9 (I)
(a) Pump water to higher level/heat water/charge accumulators or batteries
(b) Less/no energy/power/heat loss; reduce current; to allow thinner cables;
more efficient
(c) 𝐼2𝑅
(d) 34 909
(e) 25 A

4. N10/P33/Q8 (I)
(a) Fig. 8.1 – nothing seen/no deflection/no voltage/no current
Fig. 8.2 – deflection of needle/current in mV/voltage induced
Fig. 8.3 – deflection of needle/current in mV/voltage induced; same direction
as in Fig. 8.2
(b) Increase speed; increase turns of wire/more coils; increase magnet strength

5. N11/P31/Q8 (I)
(a) Use a stronger magnet; increase the number of coils in the solenoid/turns of
solenoid closer together; move the magnet faster; place iron core in solenoid;
use thicker wire/lower resistance wire for solenoid
(b)(i) 6.0 V
(ii) 2.0 A

6. N12/P33/Q9 (I)
(a)(i) Changing magnetic field in coil/field lines cuts coil; e.m.f/current induced
(ii) Smaller deflection/current/reading/voltage or deflection lasts longer; rate of
cutting field lines/change in magnetic field is reduced
(iii) Deflection/current in opposite direction
(b) Alternating/changing current in primary coil; alternating/changing magnetic
field in core; field channelled from primary to secondary by core; induced
e.m.f in secondary

7. J07/P2/Q10 (O)
(a) Resistance of cables; power/energy/heat loss or voltage drop or current low
in cables
(b) Lower current in line or less voltage drop/power/heat/energy loss; A steps
voltage up or increases voltage or reduces current; B steps voltage down or
decreases voltage or increases current
(c)(i)

(ii) Alternating current input; alternating magnetic field produced in core;


induced e.m.f/voltage/current in secondary coil
(d)(i) 3 A
(ii) 414 kJ

8. N03/P2/Q8 (O)
(a) Increasing number of turns in secondary; bringing closer together; reducing
air gap between ends
(b)(i) 1.5 A
(ii) 0.15 A

9. N04/P2/Q7 (O)
(a) To step down/reduce the voltage
(b)

(c)(i) Less energy/power/heat loss; current is reduced/low


(ii) Resistance decreases; since 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅, resistance decrease results in power
decreases/resistamce inversely proportional to area, larger area smaller
resistance
10. J06/P2/Q3 (O)
(a) Coil cuts lines of magnetic field
(b) Pass current/connect boil to output/prevents wires tangling
(c) Induced voltage or current opposed the change producing it.
(d) Larger coil, stronger magnet, iron inside coil; more turns in coil

Chapter Nine: Digital Electronics

Questions on Transistors and their applications

1. N11/P31/Q10 (I)
(a)(i) Thermistor
(ii) Lamp is ON at 20 ° (a low temperature) and OFF at 100 ° (a high
temperature); as temperature rises p.d. across B falls; transistor acts as a
switch for the lamp at a certain temperature.
(b) Switch on a warning light when temperature becomes is too low/switch off a
warning light when temperature becomes too high, for example an incubator
or freezer.

2. N09/P32/Q11 (I)
(a) NOT
(b)(i) Thermistor
(ii) Resistance increases
(c)(i) LOW/0/off
(ii) Much large/higher
(iii) Low temperature
(d) To allow adjustment of the temperature at which the relay will close/heater
comes on
(e) Automatic control of heating system/air-conditioning/auromatic room
heater/thermostat

Questions on Logic Gate Circuits

1. J11/P32/Q10 (I)
(a)
(b) Output is LOW if both inputs are LOW; output is HIGH of one or both inputs
are HIGH
(c) Switches in doors are on if doors are open or vice versa; swichtes in doors
provide inputs for gate; output is connected to a buzzer/warning light/alarm.

2. N11/P32/Q10(I)
(a) Decreases
(b)(i) Light: High/1; dark: LOW/0
(ii) P: High/1; Q: Low/0
(c) AND gate
(d) Transistor
(e) Transistor switches on; yes it would work

3. J08/P31/Q10 (I)
(a)

(b) If either input is 1, output 0; if both inputs are 1, output 0; if both inputs are
0, output 1.
(c)(i) One input is high and output is low
(ii)(1) On
(2) Off

4. J03/P2/Q7 (O)
(i)

A and B – inputs; y – output


(ii)
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
5. N11/P33/Q10 (I)
(a)(i) NOT
(ii) AND
(b)(i) LOW
(ii) HIGH
(c) B cannot provide enough power to light lamp
(d) Security lamp/intruder alarm/beach lighting/fridge alarm (something that
switches on when hot and dark)

6. N09/P31/Q11 (I)
(a) A – NOT; B – NOT
(b)(i) A – HIGH; B – LOW
(ii) A – HIGH; B – HIGH
(iii) A – LOW; B – LOW
(c)(i) B cannot provide enough power for lamp
(ii) The second one/dark and warm/HIGH
(iii) Warning if temperature in a closed/dark space (for example, refrigerator or
kiln) reaches too high a value.

7. N10/P32/Q6 (I)
(a) Analogue: any reading possible having continuous variation of value of
quantity
Digital: existing in only two states, HIGH and LOW with no values in between.
(b) If both inputs are HIGH, output is high; if either or both inputs are LOW,
output LOW.

8. N05/P3/Q9 (I)
(a)

A and B – inputs; y – output


(b)(i) LOW
(ii) LOW

(c)(i)
(ii) No change

9. N09/P2/Q11 (O)
(c)(i)
In Out
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

(ii) Both inputs 0, output 1


(iii) A and B inputs 1, output 0.

10. N07/P3/Q10 (I)


(a)(i) LOW
(ii) LOW
(b)(i)

(ii)

11. J04/P3/Q10 (I)


(a) Analogue: continuously increasing/decreasing readings
Digital: readings increase/decrease by one unit
(b)(i) Transistor and other components like resistors
(ii)

A and B – inputs; y – output

(iii)If either or both inputs are LOW, output LOW; if both inputs HIGH, output
HIGH

12. N04/P3/Q10 (I)


(a)(i) Switch, relay or amplifier
(ii) vary base current, transistor switches on for Vbe>0.6V/small change in base
current produces a large change in collector/emitter current/vary potential
divider connected to transistor base, transistor switches on for V be>0.6V.
(b)(i)

A and B – inputs; y – output

(ii) When one or both inputs are 1, out is 1; when both inputs are 0, output is 0.

13. J08/P3/Q10 (I)


(a)

A and B – inputs; y – output

(b) If either or both inputs is 1, output 0; if both inputs 0, output 1.


(c)(i) One input is HIGH and output is LOW
(ii)(1) ON
(2)OFF

Questions on Cathode Rays


1. N05/P2/Q5 (O)
(a)(i)

(ii) Louder means larger amplitude; higher pitch means a higher frequency
(b) Electrical changed to chemical

2. J08/P2/Q8 (O)
(a) Thermionic emission/hot filament
(b)(i) Attracted by the anode/repelled by the filament
(ii) No obstruction or interference/electrons can reach screen without colliding
with atoms and losing energy.
(c) 1.28 × 10−4 A

3. J11/P31/Q10 (I)
(a) Release of electrons due to heating
(b)

(c) Change current in filament/change temperature of filament/change cathode-


anode p.d./change voltage of grid.
(d)(i) 1.9 mA
(ii) 190 J

4. N08/P31/Q11 (I)
(a) A – cathode/electron gun; B – Y plates/vertical deflection plates; C – X
plates/horizontal deflection plates; D – screen/fluorescent
(b) A – releasing electrons/thermionic emission; B – moves the electron beam
vertically.
(c)(i) Y plates/B
(ii) X plates/C

5. N12/P31/Q9 (I)
(a)(i) Downward; faster
(ii) No voltage/current induced; current induced in each half of XY are equal and
in opposite directions.
(b)(i) Y plates
(ii) Up and down repeatedly
(iii) Off/zero

6. J09/P2/Q11 (O)
(a)(i)

(ii) Induction of voltage/current due the magnetic flux change caused when the
filed lines are cut by the rotating coil.
(b)(i) Attach generator to voltmeter; measure voltage and measure trace height;
clear 2V moves up by 1 division
OR
Observe trace line with no input; apply voltage; measure voltage applied;
check distance moved up or down for voltage supplied, for example 2V
moves up 1 division.
(ii) Y gain changed to expand trace vertically; time base changed to expand trace
horizontally; y shift used to move trace up
(iii)By thermionic emission due to a hot filament; electrons are attracted to and
accelerated by an anode.

7. J10/P32/Q10 (I)
(a)
(b)volt setting – increased/decreased by factor 2; time base – no change

8. N10/P31/Q11 (I)

9. N12/P22/Q6 (O)
(a)(i) Electrons
(ii) Heated filament
(iii) To allow electrons to reach the screen without colliding with atoms and
molecules in air.
(b) 3 × 1016

10. N10/P22/Q5 (O)


(a) 1 250 Hz
(b) Same pitch/frequency; original note is softer/quieter; different
timbres/qualities; more frequencies/harmonics/overtones in S

Chapter Ten: Atomic Physics

Questions on Radioactivity
Questions on Radioactive Emission

1. J09/P31/Q11 (I)
(a)
Deflected Deflected
Not Large Small
towards towards
deflected deflection Deflection
top of page bottom of page
𝛼-particles 1. 2.
𝛽-particles 3. 4.
𝛾-rays 5.

(b) Perpendicular to magnetic field (in the plane of the page); from top to
bottom of the page

6. J10/P21/Q11 (O)
(a)
Type of radiation Nature of radiation Charge
Alpha-particle Two protons and two neutrons Positive
Beta-particle Electron Negative
Gamma-ray Electromagnetic Neutral

7. J10/P32/Q11 (I)
(a)

(b) Into the paper

8. N10/P33/Q11 (I)
(a) Radioactivity is random/cannot be predicted
(b)(i) Background
(ii) Radiation from surroundings; radiation from soil/rocks/Sun; Earths cosmic
radiation; radon

9. N12/P31/Q11 (I)
(a)(i) Alpha
(ii) Beta
(iii) Gamma
(b)(i) Repulsion between the alpha-particle and gold nucleus
(ii) Nucleus is very small compared to size or the atom/most of the atom is
space; nucleus is positive/nucleus has all the positive charge of the atom;
nucleus is heavy/nucleus has most of the mass of the atom

10. J12/P31/Q10 (I)


(a)(i)

(ii)

(b)(i) Geiger counter/Geiger tube and ratemeter/photographic plate/scintillation


counter/cloud chamber/luminescent or phosphorescent plate.
(ii) Out of the plane of the paper
(iii) Path is a curve
(iv) Air molecules are ionised

Questions on Half-life
ddddd

1. J11/P32/Q11 (I)
(a)(i) Proton
(ii) Proton and neutron
(b) Number of protons = 47; number of neutrons = 60
(c)(i) 8 hours (between 7.75 and 8.25 hours)
(ii)Any points from:
Time/hrs Counts/s
16 80
24 40
13.5 100
21.5 50
16.5 75

2. J12/P32/Q11 (I)
(a) Background radiation; which varies randomly/rate of decay is very
small/sample nearly all decayed
(b) Background radiation = 13 – 15; Half-life = 1.2 – 1.8 days
(c) Alpha-particles have short range in air and will not reach researcher; gamma-
rays have a long range, will reach researcher.

3. N11/P33/Q11 (I)
(a)
Outcome for
Test Outcome for beta
alpha
Absorption by
Absorbed Not absorbed
paper
Deflection in Slightly Deflection significantly larger than alpha-
magnetic field deflected particle and in opposite direction.

(b)(i) 6; 14
(ii) 3 half-lives; 17 190 years

4. N10/P22/Q7 (O)
(a) Nuclear radiation always present in the environment and atmosphere due to
cosmic radiation or radiation from the Sun, space, Earth or rocks
(b)
Activity How activity produces increase
Nuclear test Fallout/radioisotopes spread
Nuclear power Disposal of nuclear waste
Water leaks traced Disposal of radioisotopes/absorption of radiation
Radioactive ore mining Isotopes exposed
Smoke detector Disposal of radioisotopes
Industrial use Disposal of radioisotopes
Nuclear medicine Disposal of radioisotopes/absorption of radiation
5. J11/P31/Q6 (I)
(a) A and C
(b)(i) 4.2 × 1010 years
(ii) It decays changing proton number/changes into another nuclide/ emits alpha
or beta radiation
(iii)Insignificant change in activity; very long half-life so it takes a long time to
decay

6. N12/P22/Q7 (O)
(a) Use a lead barrier between the source and a GM tube or scintillation counter
(spinthariscope). If there is a difference between the count rate before and
after the barrier is placed, the readings show that gamma rays are stopped.
Or
Place a lead barrier between source and photographic film; the film develops
when exposed to radiation.
Or
Use a diffusion cloud chamber; a track is seen when gamma-rays pass
through.
(b) Use tongs/robotic arms/carry in a large box; wear lead suit/lead gloves/use
lead boxes or shield; reduce time of exposure/wear a radiation badge.

7. J12/P21/Q11 (O)
(a) Gamma produces little ionisation; passes out of detector; requires shielding;
reaches people
(b)(i)

(ii) Alpha positively charged; repelled by positive plate/attracted by negative


plate; deflected down toward negative plate.
(c) Gamma rays are uncharged; path is undeviated; straight line
1
(d)(i)
8
(ii) Decays too fast; have to replace source often; current falls too quickly;
detector only works for a short time
(iii)(1) Number of protons; number of electrons; charge on nucleus
(2)Number of neutrons; nucleon/mass number

8. J12/P22/Q10 (O)
(a)(i) A helium nucleus
(ii) High frequency electromagnetic wave
(b)(i)(1) Alpha particles have very short range in air; easily stopped by air and
may not reach detector
(2) To keep rate of emission constant; a very small half-life means the
radioisotope quickly decays; and the counter readings decrease even
without the barrier
(ii) use protective clothing, lead gloves, lead suit; use lead shield or box to carry
source; wear radiation badge, minimise time of exposure.
(c)(i) Yes; count rate decreases when paper barrier (which absorbs alpha) is used.
(ii) No; no change in radiation after aluminium (which absorbs beta) is used.
(iii) Yes; radiation goes beyond aluminium barrier not alpha or beta.
(d) Radiation from Earth/Sun/rocks/soil; cosmic radiation; nuclear fallout.
(e) Cell mutation; cancer; deformities

9. N11/P21/Q8 (O)

131
(a) 53I → 131 0
54Xe + −1𝛽
(b)(i)

(ii)
(c) Direction/space of emission; time/frequency of emission; nucleus that decay is
unpredictable; period between emissions; different counts in same time.

10. N11/P22/Q11 (O)


(a) Nuclear fission
(b)(i) 1 – 143; 2 – 36; 3 – 141
(ii) 2.79 × 10−11 J (use𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 )
(c)

Splitting produces kinetic energy of neutrons; further splitting results in a chain


reaction; heat produced from reactor heats the coolant which transfers the energy to
the boiler and the water boils.
(d)(i) Time for radioactivity/count rate/number of atoms or nuclei to halve.
(ii) Short exposure time; safety/protective suit/gloves/clothes; lead boxes; large
distance/forceps/tongs; robotic/mechanical handling; film badge

11. J11/P21/Q11 (O)


(a)(i) 24
(ii) Charges cancel; protons and electrons have the same size of charge but opposite
in sign.
(b)(i) Nuclear to kinetic
(ii) 24
11I → −10𝛽 + 24
12Mg
(c)(i)

(ii) Emission is random/not predictable


(iii) 4 800 counts per minute
(iv) GM tube/solid state detector/cloud chamber/ratemeter/data logger and
stopwatch

12. J11/P22/Q8 (O)


(a) Fission
(b) Neutron hits U nucleus; nucleus splits to form daughter nuclei and emits
neutrons and energy
(c)(i) Emits particles/emits nuclear radiation/spontaneous emission of
radiation/nucleus decays
(ii) Decays slowly /long time to decay to half the count rate, emissions, number of
nuclei, number of atoms or activity.

13. N10/P21/Q10 (O)


(a)(i) 15
(ii) 32
(b)(i) 32 0
15P → −1𝛽 + 16S
32

(ii) High speed electron emitted from the nucleus


(iii) Measure and record background radiation using a GM counter; interpose paper
less than 5 cm and no change in in GM reading. Interpose 5 mm aluminium and
reading on GM changes.
(c)(i) Time for some measurable quantity to decay to halve the number of atoms,
nuclei, activity or count rate.
(ii) 28.6 days

14. N10/P22/Q8 (O)


Gravitational collapse of hydrogen cloud due to loss in GPE as gravity pulls cloud
together; temperature increases; fusion of hydrogen and hydrogen and helium; energy
released and pressure increases.

15. N04/P2/Q10 (O)


(a)(i) 53 protons; 78 neutrons; 53 electrons in orbit
(ii) 131 131 0
53I → 54Xe + −1𝛽
(b)
Comparison Example
Nature Beta-electron; gamma-electromagnetic wave
1
Mass Beta-small 1840; gamma-zero
Charge Beta-negatively charged; gamma-neutral
Ionising effect Beta larger than gamma
Penetrating effect Beta penetrates than gamma
9
Speed Beta-fast about 10 speed of light; gamma at the
speed of light
Deflection in electric and Beta-deflected; gamma undeflected
magnetic fields
Tracks in cloud chamber Beta-thin or wavy lines; gamma-no tracks appear

(c)(i) Emission is random; sample takes time to circulate and each other arm
(ii) 38.5
(iii) 7 480 cm3
(iv) 10
(d) Keep distance/use tongs/wear a radiation badge or detectors/store in lead
containers/use lead gloves, suits or aprons

Questions on the Nuclear Atom

1. J08/P31/Q11 (I)
(a)
Nucleon number 35 Nucleon number 37
Number or protons 17 17
Number of neutrons 18 20
Number of electrons 17 17

(b) alpha, beta, gamma


(c)(i) Any correct use
(ii) Simple correct explanation

2. J10/P31/Q10 (I)
(a) proton number/atomic number/number of electrons/position in periodic
table/chemical properties
(b) mass number/nucleon number/number of neutrons
(c)(i) Mass number/number of nucleons
(ii) Proton number/atomic number/number of neutrons

3. N10/P32/Q10 (I)
(a)
(b)(i) Deflection > 90°/the bottom one
(ii) Positive
(iii) Electrons in space

4. N11/P32/Q12 (I)
(a)(i) x= 88; y = 38
(ii) 50
(iii) 38
(b) Different numbers of neutrons/nucleons; strontium 90 has 2 more neutrons

5. J09/P2/Q8 (O)
(a) number of protons and neutrons; protons and neutrons are found in thenucleus
of an atom
(b)(i) 2
(ii) 4
(iii) 90
(iv) 234

6. N12/P22/Q8 (O)
(a) oxygen-15
(b)(i) Carbon-12 and carbon-14
(ii) Carbon-14 and nitrogen-14
(iii) Nitrogen-14 and oxygen-15

7. W10/P32/Q11 (I)
(a) 11 protons, 11 electrons
(b) 24
(c) Same
(d) 14

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