DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

What Are Communication Networks?

If you are reading this lesson or if you have just checked your email, or working on a standalone
laptop but sent a document to print, communication networks in all these instances are at play.
This is how dependent our modern civilization is on communication networks. Communication
networks are at the bedrock of our society. A communication network is a network of a group of
devices comprising hardware and software connected together, whether in the same geographical
location or globally to facilitate communication and information sharing. So you name it: ultra
sound machines, cell phones, Internet communications, banking transactions, e-learning, border
security, transport networks, satellite imaging and the list goes on, are all made possible only
through communication networks. This modern society we live in cannot do without it.

Modern communication network consist of servers, clients, transmission media, data, operating
systems, switches, routers, cables, printers and various peripheral devices extending
communication between devices from local area network to globally covered networks Figure 1.

Communication Networks in Everyday Life

File sharing: Multimedia

This entails the sharing or distribution of computer data and files. Files could be as small as 25kb
size or as large as a movie files which can be 1.2 GB. The sharing could be with the same local
network or could be across various geographical locations in a wide area network setup. File
sharing for example has become huge in the movie industry with millions of movies and
documentaries and TV programs shared and distributed across various file sharing platforms.
The communications network in file sharing has almost overnight make older forms of media
storage and distributions go obsolete. Smart TVs and Mobile phones contain applications which
when connected to the internet via their ISP (Internet Service Provider) and network operators,
access a repository of movies. From video tapes and CDs to thousands of closed video renting
services communication networks has definitely defined its impact on our society. Electronic
commerce and electronic data interchange have transitioned organizations from libraries to
paperless offices.

Hardware Sharing: Backup and Recovery

Hardware technology is expensive. In a bid to curtail the high investments involved in owning
primary hardware devices like servers, the concept of cloud computing was birthed. Cloud
computing allows businesses to consume resources such as hardware storage, applications and
services like any domestic utility though a remote access to service hosts. Similar to accessing
electricity from the government run grid, rather than builder your personal electric dam and
generators to supply your household needs, you connect to the grip and pay service charges. This
hold true for shared backup and storage services via communication networking. There is no
need to incur the costs of building or acquiring physical proprietary infrastructure in data servers
and backup solutions. The responsibility of securing and maintain the integrity of your data and
information are in the hands of the service host. Using these remote services is not only
financially economical to companies and business but also allows them maintain the high
standards they need in the competitive world.

Telecommunication is communication at a distance using electrical signals or electromagnetic

waves. Learn about the components and properties of telecommunication systems.

Telecommunication Systems

Consider for a moment all the different communications that take place in an organization. Some
communications are face to face, but others use some type of technology. Think of email, phone
calls, text messaging, viewing pages on the Internet, downloading files. All of these
communications make use of a telecommunications system. A telecommunications system is a
collection of nodes and links to enable telecommunication. Telecommunication is
communication at a distance using electrical signals or electromagnetic waves.
Examples of telecommunications systems are the telephone network, the radio broadcasting
system, computer networks and the Internet. The nodes in the system are the devices we use to
communicate with, such as a telephone or a computer.
Components of a Telecommunication System

In its most fundamental form, a telecommunication system includes a transmitter to take

information and convert it to a signal, a transmission medium to carry the signal and a receiver to
take the signal and convert it back into usable information. This applies to any communication
system, whether it uses computers or not.

Most modern day telecommunications systems are best described in terms of a network. This
includes the basic elements listed above but also the infrastructure and controls needed to support
the system. There are six basic components to a telecommunications network.

1. Input and output devices, also referred to as 'terminals': These provide the starting and
stopping points of all communication. A telephone is an example of a terminal. In computer
networks, these devices are commonly referred to as 'nodes' and consist of computer and
peripheral devices.

2. Telecommunication channels, which transmit and receive data: This includes various types of
cables and wireless radio frequencies.

3. Telecommunication processors, which provide a number of control and support functions. For

example, in many systems, data needs to be converted from analog to digital and back.

4. Control software, which is responsible for controlling the functionality and activities of the
network

5. Messages represent the actual data that is being transmitted: In the case of a telephone
network, the messages would consist of audio as well as data.

6. Protocols specify how each type of telecommunication systems handle the messages. For
example, GSM and 3G are protocols for mobile phone communications, and TCP/IP is a
protocol for communications over the Internet.

While early telecommunication systems were built without computers, almost all systems we use
today are computerized in some way.

Computer Network
A computer network is a system of computers and peripheral devices that are connected
electronically. These connected computers can communicate with each other, which means that
they can share information. Each computer has its own network address, so it can be uniquely
identified among all the computers in a network. Computer networks are able to carry different
types of data and support different applications.

Computers are connected using a number of different types of communication channels. These
include both wired and wireless connections. Wired connections consist of an actual physical
cable, such as copper wire or fiber optics. Wireless connections do not use a physical cable but
transfer data using waves at a particular part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Why do we need a computer network? Transferring files between individual computers can be
accomplished using physical media, such as DVDs or external hard drives, but a computer
network makes it possible to transfer data between computers without having to use physical
media.

Some of the advantages of computer networks are:

• File sharing
• Internet connection sharing
• Sharing of peripheral devices
• Improved cost efficiency
• Increased storage capacity

The network itself can also carry out tasks that are difficult for any single computer to do. These
network services have become increasingly important as many different types of devices are
connected to each other.

Internet

The Internet is a worldwide system of computers and networks linked together. These computers
and networks, which are scattered across the globe, vary in shape and size. They cooperate with
each other in order to exchange data through a wide variety of network technologies. Words,
images, sound files and software can all be transmitted through the Internet via the telephone
system, copper wires, cables, optical fibers or radio waves. What is most unique about the
Internet is that no one owns it and there is no formal managing organization.

Linked ARPANET institutions in 1969

History of the Internet

The Internet began as a project for the Department of Defense in 1962. ARPA, or the Advanced
Research Projects Agency, was responsible for designing a computer network for military use.
The goal was to ensure functionality even if connections between computers were severed. The
idea was to create a network that could send and receive transmissions through different data
paths rather than just one. This network was called ARPANET.

When it was completed in 1969, the network linked the University of California at Los Angeles,
the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara and the University
of Utah. More and more networks were added to ARPANET. By 1981, another network was
developed for colleges that were not able to access ARPANET. This nationwide network was
called National Science Foundation Network or NSFNET.

By the early 1990's many networks were leaving ARPANET for NSFNET due to the enhanced
speed. NSFNET became known as the Internet.

Internet Protocol (IP) Address

Since the Internet is comprised of a global network of computers, there must be a way to identify
each computer and device connected. That's where Internet Protocol (or IP) comes in.
Everything connected to the Internet has an IP address. That includes computers, servers, cell
phones and any other equipment.

Each computer within the global network has a unique IP address

All of these have a unique IP address in order to connect to the Internet. The IP address allows
each computer connected to the Internet to be identified. The IP address is like your home
address. If someone wants to send you a letter, they need to know your full address. The IP
address will take the form of four sets of numbers. Each number must be between 0 and 255. For
example, 12.125.30.102 is a sample of an IP address.

Internet Service Provider

In order to connect to the Internet, your computer is routed through the Internet Service
Provider or ISP. An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet.

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company such as Safaricom, Telkom, JTL, or

AccessKenya that provides Internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users. ISPs
use fiber-optics, satellite, copper wire, and other forms to provide Internet access to its
customers.

The type of Internet access varies depending on what the customer requires. For home use, cable
or DSL (digital subscriber line) is the perfect, affordable choice. Bandwidth is the amount of
data that can be sent through an internet connection in a given amount of time. The speed for
home use usually varies from 14 kilobits per second to 100 megabits per second. For large
companies and organizations, their bandwidth requirements may be 1 to 10 gigabits per second,
which is both insanely fast and expensive!

The Internet Highway

ISPs connect to one another by forming backbones, which is another way of saying a main
highway of communications. Backbones usually consist of satellite, copper wire, or even
fiberoptic media. Media is a term that means cables or lines, and it's the physical means of
connecting your home to the internet.

Now, imagine these 'main highways' are like the major arteries that we have in our bodies. These
major arteries push an extreme amount of blood (or data) to our smaller blood arteries (cities).
Those smaller arteries then feed into blood vessels (neighborhoods) and then into tiny capillaries
(our individual homes).

ISPs provide the same service, except that they use different types of media to do so. ISPs bridge
distant locations between cities, states, and countries. Because of these high speed backbone
systems, we are able receive an email within seconds, stream our favorite movie without
interruption, and play online games with no lag whatsoever.

Communication (TCP/IP)

Once your computer connects to the Internet it must be able to communicate with other
computers and devices. Computer networks have rules for communication known as protocols.
They are necessary for proper communication to take place.

TCP/IP or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a communication protocol

suite that is particularly important for the Internet to function. Simply put, it establishes rules for
how information passes through the Internet. When you want to send and receive information
over the Internet, the TCP/IP protocol suite is what makes it possible.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The components of a URL

The Domain Name System or DNS is a distributed database comprised of all the websites on
the Internet and their corresponding IP addresses. Think of the DNS as a telephone book. Each
geographic area has a phone book in which you can look up the telephone number and address of
a person based on their name.

No one DNS server contains the entire database. A distributed database means that portions of
the database are divided and spread to many different servers on the Internet. If a DNS server
does not contain the domain name requested, it will redirect the request to another server.
What are Networking Standards?

A networking standard is a document that has been developed to provide technical

requirements, specifications and guidelines that must be employed consistently to ensure devices,
equipment and software which govern networking are fit for their intended purpose. Standards
ensure quality, safety and efficiency. Networks form one of many technology arms and there are
established organizations which maintain and create their standards. We will now discuss and
learn about some of the organizations behind these industry standards.

Organizations that Create Networking Standards

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a United States-based organization

responsible for US standards and assessment systems. The standards established by this group
are geared towards strengthening the US position in the international global economy. These
standards govern the computer and technology industry. ANSI is the main body responsible for
coordinating and publishing information on standards in the networking and technology Industry
in the United States. There about 13,000 standards under their control.

One of most common and long-standing standards they have established is the American
Standard Code for Information Exchange (ASCII). This standard is responsible for the codes
used to represent text used in computers, telecommunication equipment and other digital devices.
By reading this text, you are benefiting from the standards that govern the text represented on
your screen.

Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

Formerly known as the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), the Telecommunications

Industry Association (TIA) was formed to govern the electronic manufacturers industry in the
United States. It ensures the compatibility and interchangeability through structured cabling
between equipment from different manufacturers. Today the work of the EIA continues within
TIA as the EIA no longer exists.

The well-known unshielded twisted pair cable systems CAT3 through CAT5 which we
commonly use to today in our networks is governed by the TIA. Another example would be
standard TIA-568-C which governs telecommunications cabling standards. These are used by
nearly all voice, video and data networks. With the EIA no longer in existence, the naming
conventions of the various standards were also changed from RSR-232 to EIA-232, and then
again to TIA-232, now that the standards body has changed.

International Standards Organization (ISO)

The International Standards Organization (ISO) is another standards organization represented

internationally by 17 national standards organizations and is based in Geneva Switzerland. These
standards cover things like manufactured products in network technology. In networking where
Ethernet technology forms the foundation of most local area networks (LANs), the
ISO/IEC/IEEE 8802-3:2017, for example, governs the telecommunications and information
exchange between systems.

International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is an arm of the United Nations

consisting of three sectors:

• Radio Communication (ITU-R) which sets standards for fair use in radio frequency (RF)
• Telecommunication Standardization (ITU-T) which standardizes telecommunication
operations internationally
• Telecommunication Development (ITU-D) which manages communications operations in
developed countries.

The ITU formulates and publishes standards within the electronic communication and
broadcasting technologies, including the Internet.

Internet Society (ISOC)

The Internet Society (ISOC) is another non-profit international organization responsible for the
standards that govern the Internet as well as education and development policies. A typical
network standard under this organization is the SO/IEC 27033-1:2015. This provides an overall
document that describes and provides the concepts and guidelines that govern network security.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced as "eye-triple-e") is an

organization which was formed in 1963 in USA. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) is the world's largest association for Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) was formed by the merger of two other
technical organizations, American Institute of Electrical Engineers and Institute of Radio
Engineers in 1st January, 1963.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) develop and maintain standards in
every technology field related with electricity. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) develop and maintain Local Area Network (LAN) networking standards
including Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 family standards) and Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11 family
standards).

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) & Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA )

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN, pronounced "eye can") is
an international non-profit corporation which is in charge of Internet Protocol (IP) address
allocation (IPv4 and IPv6), Domain Names allocation (examples, omnisecu.com, msn.com,
google.com) Global public Domain Name System management, DNS Root Server maintenance,
Port Number allocation etc.

Previously Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) was in control of above functions.
Now above functions are under ICANN.

Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

Internet Architecture Board (IAB, pronounced "i-a-b") defines the architecture for the Internet.
The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) purpose is to provide oversight of the architecture for the
protocols and other procedures used by the Internet.

Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) & Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF, pronounced as "i-r-t-f") is a technology research
organization which is working on focused long-term research on technical topics related to
standard Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF, pronounced as "i-e-t-f") is another organization working
to develop the short-term issues of network engineering protocols and standards.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) develop the maintain high quality relevant technical
standards, mainly network protocols. The network protocol standards are developed under a
platform, called as Request for Comments (RFCs).

A Request for Comments (RFC) is a technical publication of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) and the Internet Society. Request for Comments (RFCs) are mainly used to develop a
network protocol, a function of a network protocol or any feature which is related with network
communication. All the standard network protocols (like, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, TCP, UDP, IP etc)
are defined as RFSs. Individuals may join the IETF working groups to help draft and develop
networking standards or network protocols.

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is global organization working to define technologies
related with World Wide Web like HTML, scripting languages, protocols for Web servers etc.