Geoscience Frontiers 12 (2021) 495–504

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Research Paper

Geochemistry of core sediments from the southeastern Bay of Bengal:

Inferences on weathering and early diagenetic changes
A. Prajith, Abhishek Tyagi, P. John Kurian *
National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Headland Sada, Vasco-da-Gama, 403 804, Goa, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Sohini Ganguly A sediment core (ABP24/05), collected at a water depth of 3520 m from the southeastern Bay of Bengal was
studied to determine the change in chemical weathering during the last glacial to deglacial periods and the factors
Keywords: of sedimentary environment which controlled earliest diagenetic changes in the sediment after its deposition.
Bay of Bengal High ratios of K/Rb, Ti/Al and Zr/Rb during ~45 to ~18 cal kyr B.P. in the core sediments may be attributed to
Trace elements
the stronger physical erosion and turbidity currents activity during this period. This might have brought a higher
Chemical weathering
quantity of unaltered minerals to the study area. Low ratios of K/Rb, Zr/Rb, and Ti/Al and increase of SiO2/TiO2,
Summer monsoon
Mn-oxides Rb/Al and Cs/Al from ~18 cal kyr B.P. to present may be indicating an increase in the rate of chemical
weathering during this period. The time of increased chemical weathering in the study area is consistent with
deglaciation warming in the tropical Indian Ocean and strengthening of river runoff into the Andaman Sea.
Climate change during the interglacial period by increased solar insolation thereby strengthened the summer
monsoon which might have led to intensified chemical weathering in the source region since ~18 cal kyr B.P. The
low organic carbon (OC), high Mn/Al, Fe/Al and the Mn-oxides minerals precipitation indicate prevailing of oxic
conditions during ~11 cal kyr B.P. in the core sediments, which is contradictory to suboxic conditions developed
in the deep ocean sediments in the western Bay of Bengal and the equatorial Indian Ocean. The low terrigenous
influx and export of less OC to the bottom sediments might have created a favorable condition for the formation of
Mn-oxides in the study area during Holocene.

1. Introduction the turbulent wind-driven vertical mixing to a shallow depth of <20 m

(Prasanna Kumar et al., 2002). This stable stratification leads to less
The Bay of Bengal (BoB) and Andaman Sea receive large quantities of nutrient availability and less bioproductivity in the BoB (Prasanna Kumar
sediments from the Himalayas, Peninsular India and Indo-Burman ranges et al., 2002). During the winter monsoon, the freshwater influx is less
through the major rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, compared to the summer monsoon period, which weakens the stratifi-
Godavari, Cauvery, Irrawaddy and Salween (Colin et al., 1999, 2006; cation in the water column resulting in increased mixing, nutrient
Ahmad et al., 2005; Kessarkar et al., 2005; Tripathy et al., 2011; availability and productivity (Prasanna Kumar et al., 2004). The
Mazumdar et al., 2015). At present, the BoB and Andaman Sea regions paleo-productivity studies conducted in the BoB have also reported
are characterized by the seasonal reversal of the atmospheric and oceanic enhanced bioproductivity during the weaker monsoon periods (colder
circulation pattern. During the winter monsoon, the temperature differ- periods) (Phillips et al., 2014; Da Silva et al., 2018; Panmei et al., 2018).
ence over the continent and ocean induces northeast dry winds, blowing Studies conducted on the sediments indicated that the intensity of
from the continent towards the ocean. In summer monsoon, southwest summer monsoon varied with the different climatic changes in the
winds blow from the ocean towards the continent carrying moisture and northern hemisphere (Kudrass et al., 2001; Prajith et al., 2018). During
precipitation over land. Heavy precipitation during summer monsoon the Holocene period, the summer monsoon was more intense while the
over the land transports a large volume of sediment and freshwater into winter monsoon was active during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)
the BoB. This enormous freshwater flux into the BoB during summer (Sarkar et al., 1990; Rashid et al., 2011). These changes in monsoon in-
monsoon leads to a strongly stratified surface layer thereby restricting tensity during the Late Quaternary were mainly forced by the cyclical

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P.J. Kurian).
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.011
Received 11 December 2019; Received in revised form 26 June 2020; Accepted 13 August 2020
Available online 15 September 2020
1674-9871/© 2020 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Prajith et al. Geoscience Frontiers 12 (2021) 495–504

changes in solar insolation (Kutzbach, 1981; Clemens et al., 1991; Liu reported stronger physical erosion in the Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau and
et al., 2006; Mohtadi et al., 2016). Thus, the climate change during the Indo-Burman Ranges during the glacial stages. The stronger physical
glacial to de-glacial period due to the increased solar insolation in the erosion and low sea level during glacial periods induced a higher quan-
northern hemisphere influenced the rate of chemical weathering in the tity of unaltered minerals into the BoB and Andaman Sea without any
south Asian region which might have controlled the mobile and immo- noticeable changes in sedimentary sources through time (Colin et al.,
bile metals supply to the BoB and Andaman Sea (Colin et al., 2006; 1999, 2006).
Lupkar et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2019). Apart from the changing intensity of The geochemistry of deep-sea sediments in the BoB reported diage-
summer monsoon, the freshwater stratification, turbidity, sedimentation netic formations of Mn oxides and Mn micronodules in the bottom sed-
and productivity variation in different climatic periods has also influ- iments (Bejugam and Nayak, 2017; Li et al., 2017; Prakashbabu and
enced the behavior and distribution of metals in the BoB and the Anda- Ramaswamy, 2018). Chauhan et al. (1994) and Chauhan and Rao (1999)
man Sea sediments (Chauhan et al., 1994; Colin et al., 1999, 2006; also reported enhanced growth of manganese micronodules in the
Phillips et al., 2014; Joussain et al., 2016; Bejugam and Nayak, 2017; Li eastern BoB core-top sediments. Studies on Fe–Mn crust formations on
et al., 2017; Da Silva et al., 2018; Prakashbabu and Ramaswamy, 2018; top of Northern Ninety East Ridge noticed an increased rate of Fe–Mn
Liu et al., 2019). The drastic climatic changes during the LGM to crust growth to the northern side and high influence of the Himalayan
de-glacial periods also generated different assemblages of clay minerals, River system in the detrital material (Hein et al., 2016). The studies in the
metals and magnetic mineral grain size in the BoB and Andaman region Andaman backarc basin indicated that the main sediment sources were
sediments. This is directly related to the changing physical and chemical the detrital inputs from the Irrawaddy River and additional input from
weathering conditions in the Himalayan, Peninsular Indian region and the altered products of volcanic rocks (Kurian et al., 2008; Kameshraju
Indo-Burman Ranges (Colin et al., 1998; Lupkar et al., 2013; Tripathy et al., 2012).
et al., 2014; Joussain et al., 2016; Miriyala et al., 2017; Prajith et al., This study reports for the first time the major and trace metals
2018; Liu et al., 2019). geochemistry of core sediments from the southeastern Bay of Bengal to
The studies on core sediments indicated relatively low sedimentation determine the change in the rate of chemical weathering during the last
rates and hemipelagic deposits in the BoB and the Andaman Sea during glacial to de-glacial periods and its linkage to climate change.
interglacial periods (Joussain et al., 2016). During glacial periods, the Geochemical proxies are also applied to interpret the factors of sedi-
higher sedimentation rates occurred in association with strong activity of mentary environment that controlled the earliest diagenetic changes in
turbidity currents (Joussain et al., 2016). Colin et al. (1999, 2006) the sediment after its deposition.

Fig. 1. Location of the gravity core (ABP 24/05) from the southeastern Bay of Bengal (a), circulation pattern during northeast (b) (Shetye et al., 1993), and southwest
monsoon (c) (Vinayachandran et al., 1999). The sediment cores discussed in the text are also shown (SK 218–1, Naidu and Govil, 2010; Pattan et al., 2013; SK
304A-05, Chandana et al., 2017; SK 168, Gebregiorgis et al., 2016; Miriyala et al., 2017). Bathymetric depth contours are in meters. Bathymetry data are from GEBCO
2014 global terrain models for ocean and land (https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry_data/).

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2. Materials and methods Table 1

Range and mean values of metals in the sediment core ABP24/05.
A gravity core of 3.06 m long collected at 3520 m water depth (Fig. 1; Range Average
ABP24/05) from the southeastern BoB (08
28.420 N and 90
40.970 E) on
%
board RV-Akademik Boris Petrov is used for the current study. Top 65 cm Na 0.88–1.91 1.63  0.17
of the sediment core is represented by dark brown sandy silt, the interval K 1.20–3.11 2.14  0.45
between 65 and 110 cm consists of light grey silty clay and the bottom of Mg 0.83–1.92 1.48  0.25
the core sediment is represented by dark grey clayey silt (Fig. 3). The top Al 4.62–10.73 7.84  1.68
Fe 3.14–6.63 4.71  0.73
100 cm of the sediment core was sub-sampled at 1 cm interval, 100–200 Ti 0.23–0.52 0.38  0.08
cm at 2 cm interval and 200–306 cm at 5 cm interval. These sub-samples Mn 0.04–1.01 0.15  0.15
were then dried at <40
C. For radiocarbon age calculations, planktonic μg/g
foraminifera, Globorotalia menardii collected from five specific sediment V 65.8–136.8 110.7  21.4
Cr 58.3–134.9 106.9  22.1
intervals of the core sediments were analyzed in the Accelerator Mass
Ba 280–915 537  194
Spectrometer (AMS) at the University of Arizona, USA (Fig. S1; Prajith Ni 42.4–123.9 89.4  21
et al., 2018). CALIB 7 (MARINE 13) was used to calibrate these radio- Cu 23.7–72.4 44.4  12.9
carbon ages to calendar ages (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993). A standard Sr 74.1–724.4 289.1  197.3
marine reservoir correction of 400 years was applied in all the radio- Co 15.1–27.2 22.1  3.2
Li 46.3–104.4 86.6  18.2
carbon ages. Powdered bulk sediments samples were used for total Zr 46.6–151.5 105  28
inorganic carbon (TIC) analyses (71 samples). TIC was determined by Rb 67.2–101.7 90.4  9.7
using a TOC-V series SSM-5000A Shimadzu elemental analyzer. To Cs 4.60–6.60 5.87  0.50
measure TIC, samples were placed in ceramic sample sockets and 0.5 mL Mo 0.08–2.31 0.47  0.52
Ga 7.7–23.6 16.1  3.4
of 85% phosphoric acid was added to remove the organic content. CaCO3
Zn 71.9–781.4 132.2  117.8
(%) values were calculated by multiplying a factor 8.333 with TIC. The Pb 9.22–21.1 14.3  2.1
accuracy of the TIC analysis was better than 5%. Th 5.96–8.04 7.19  0.53
For geochemical analysis, 10 mL of an acid mixture (HF, HNO3 and U 0.77–2.71 1.27  0.36
HClO4) in the ratio 7:3:1, respectively was added into ~50 mg of the
powdered sediments in Teflon beakers. This mixture was then kept
overnight and later dried on a hot plate at 190
C until samples in the Table 2
beakers were completely digested. 2 mL of 1:1 of Milli-Q water and HNO3 Factor analysis matrix after varimax rotation for sediment core from the Bay of
was added to dissolve the final residue. This residue was made up to 50 Bengal.
mL by using Milli-Q water. Reference standard SGR-1 and NIST 2702 and Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
blank (without sediment) were also digested along with the sediments.
Eigen value 18.30 2.69 1.76 1.52
The digested sample solutions were analyzed for major and trace metals % variance 63.11 9.29 6.06 5.25
in ICP-MS and ICP-OES at NCPOR, India. The accuracy of the analyses for Na 0.17 0.93 0.15 0.04
major and trace metals used in this study was better than 10%. The SiO2 Mg 0.76 0.58 0.04 0.16
in sediments was measured using powdered carbonate free lithogenic K 0.77 0.56 0.08 0.21
Al 0.84 0.44 0.13 0.17
fraction of the sediments, in a Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence
Ti 0.85 0.42 0.15 0.19
Spectrometry (WDXRF, Axios, PANalytical). The standard JSD 1 Fe 0.91 0.09 0.12 0.14
(Geological Survey of Japan) was used for quality control and the accu- V 0.90 0.04 0.23 0.22
racy of the analyses was better than 5%. To avoid biogenic silica (excess Cr 0.93 0.02 0.25 0.15
silica) in total SiO2 content of core sediments, the excess silica is sub- Co 0.93 0.02 0.20 0.11
Li 0.93 0.03 0.24 0.20
tracted from the total SiO2 (The excess silica calculated using the formula Ga 0.79 0.32 0.01 0.06
SiO2excess ¼ SiO2  3.38  Al2O3, see Nath et al., 1989). Rb 0.93 0.02 0.29 0.10
Statistical methods of factor analyses (Table 2) and principal Cs 0.89 0.10 0.32 0.04
component analysis (PCA; Fig. 2) were used to characterize the metal Zr 0.81 0.15 0.23 0.21
Pb 0.33 0.19 0.00 0.12
associations in the sediment core. PCA and factor analyses help to
Th 0.87 0.07 0.33 0.02
differentiate metals contributed from various sources and also to identify U 0.57 0.33 0.36 0.11
groups of metals that behaved similarly in a particular geochemical Mn 0.16 0.00 0.02 0.94
environment. To confirm the manganese oxides in the sediment intervals, Mo 0.62 0.05 0.06 0.67
5 samples were analyzed using Schottky Field Emission Scanning Elec- Ca 0.97 0.04 0.14 0.17
Ba 0.89 0.05 0.15 0.32
tron Microscope (FESEM-EDS, JSM-7610) to capture images of Mn pre- Sr 0.96 0.03 0.16 0.18
cipitates and to perform elemental analysis on Mn precipitates. Cu 0.77 0.04 0.06 0.44
Ni 0.92 0.07 0.20 0.07
3. Results Zn 0.19 0.29 0.13 0.01
CaCO3 0.93 0.04 0.19 0.18
Corg 0.16 0.41 0.29 0.58
Based on five 14C dates, the 3.06 m long sediment core covers the past Clay 0.54 0.33 0.46 0.02
~46 cal kyr B.P. (Fig. S1). The average sedimentation rate in the sedi- Silt 0.35 0.03 0.83 0.05
ment core ABP24/05 is 6.7 cm/kyr which is comparable with the average Sand 0.50 0.12 0.83 0.04
sedimentation rates of earlier published records in the southeastern BoB
(5.3 cm/kyr during last 60 kyr, Raza et al., 2017; 4.2 cm/kyr during last
35 kyr, Raza and Ahmad, 2013). The sedimentation rate was high during until ~18 cal kyr B.P. and these values drastically decreased from ~18
~24 to ~11 cal kyr B.P. (9–11.5 cm/kyr) whereas low sedimentation rate cal kyr B.P., whereas ratios of SiO2/TiO2, Rb/Al and Cs/Al values
was observed during ~11 cal kyr B.P. to present (4 cm/kyr) (Fig. 3). increased from ~18 cal kyr B.P. in the core sediments (Fig. 4). The OC
The range and mean concentrations of major and trace elements in (data from Prajith et al., 2018) and CaCO3 values decreased during last
core sediments are given in Table 1. The metal ratio values of K/Rb, Zr/ ~11 cal kyr B.P. (0.5% and 10%, respectively) and high values were
Rb, and Ti/Al (avg: 0.26, 1.3 and 0.049, respectively) were consistent noticed during the ~24–18 cal kyr B.P. (~1% and 22%, respectively) and

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Factor analysis and PCA revealed that 4 major factors accounted for
84% of total variance in the core sediments, with eigen value greater than
one (Table 2). The factor 1 explains 63% of the total variance and is
primarily loaded with elements such as Al, Ti, K, Mg, V, Cr, Zr, Th, Co, Fe,
Rb and Cs, and the negative relationship of these elements with CaCO3,
Ba, Sr and Cu indicate two groups of different sources. In factor 1, metals
are primarily loaded with Ti and Al indicating that the metals K, Mg, V,
Cr, Zr, Th, Co, Rb and Cs in the core sediments are mainly controlled by
terrigenous input (Shimmield et al., 1990; Murray and Leinen, 1996;
Pattan et al., 2003). The CaCO3, Ba, Cu and Sr showed strong loadings in
PCA and factor analysis and anti-correlation on terrigenous proxies
(Fig. 2, Table 2), indicating association of these metals and its indepen-
dent biogenic origin (Sirocko et al., 2000; Tribovillard et al., 2006).
Factor 4 is primarily loaded with Mn and Mo, and a negative relationship
with OC (Table 2).

4. Discussions

4.1. Inference on chemical weathering

The clay mineral assemblage in the core sediments indicates high

percentage of illite (23%–36%) and chlorite (18%–37%), and low
Fig. 2. Principal component analyses (PCA) of metals in the core ABP 24/05. kaolinite content (7%–16%), which signify the dominance of weathering
Each variable (metals) is represented by a vector, and the direction and length of products from the Himalayan and Indo-Burman ranges (Prajith et al.,
the vector indicates how each variable contributes to each other. 2018). The high K content (2.14%  0.45%) and K/Al ratio (range: 0.24%–
0.32%; avg: 0.28%  0.02%) in the present study also support the domi-
Younger Dryas event (YD) (~0.9% and 24%, respectively) periods nance of sediment influx from the Irrawaddy and Ganga-Brahmaputra
(Fig. 5). (G-B) Rivers into the study area (Table 1, Fig. 3) (Colin et al., 2006; Tri-
The Mn and Mo concentrations show direct correlation (Fig. 2; Table 2) pathy et al., 2014; Li et al., 2017). The Irrawaddy and G-B River sediments
and similar Al-normalized down-core variations with very high values to- are enriched by the K-bearing minerals, which may be produced due to the
wards the core top (Fig. 5). The Mn/Al and Mo/Al values were higher than intense physical/mechanical and chemical weathering in the Himalayan
the Continental Crust values since ~11 cal kyr B.P. to present (Wedepohl, and Indo-Burman regions (Rao et al., 1988; Segall and Kuehl, 1992; Colin
1995) (Fig. 5). High Mn and Mn/Al values were noticed during early Ho- et al., 1999; Garzanti et al., 2011, 2016). The reported average values of K
locene (~11 cal kyr B.P.) sediments (1% and 12  102, Fig. 5). The FESEM and K/Al in the Irrawaddy River is 1.9%  0.47% and 0.36  0.1; Ganga
images and EDS spectrum of sediment intervals at ~11 cal kyr B.P. confirm River is 2.3%  0.5% and 0.29; Brahmaputra River is 2.6%  0.3% and
the presence of manganese oxides during this period (Fig. 7). The 0.33 (Garzanti et al., 2011, 2016); Godavari-Krishna River system is
redox-sensitive metal ratios of V/Cr, U/Al and U/Th were observed to be 1.67%  0.01% and 0.21 (Pattan et al., 2008); Andaman continental shelf
low in the Holocene sediments compared to the period from ~25 to 11.5 cal area is 1.3%  0.4% and 0.21 (Damodararao et al., 2016). The element
kyr B.P. (Fig. 6). The productivity parameters CaCO3, Ba/Al, Cu/Al and concentration of La and Th in sediments is widely used to identify the
Sr/Al showed similar down-core variations in the core sediments (Fig. 5). potential sediment sources in the marine sediments (Liu et al., 2019;

Fig. 3. Down-core variations of mean sediment grain size (lithogenic fraction of grain size data from Prajith et al., 2018), Al%, Mg/Al, K/Al and Linear Sedimentation
Rate (LSR) in the core ABP 24/05.

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Fig. 4. Down-core variations of K/Rb, Zr/Rb, Ti/Al, SiO2/TiO2 (SiO2 ¼ SiO2total  SiO2excess, the excess silica calculated using the formula SiO2excess ¼ SiO2  3.38 
Al2O3, see Nath et al., 1989), Rb/Al, Cs/Al, atmospheric CO2 concentration (Barnola et al., 2003) and solar insolation. Vertical dotted line is the metals ratio of the
Continental Crust (Wedepohl, 1995).

Fig. 5. Down-core variations of CaCO3, organic carbon (OC data from Prajith et al., 2018), Ba/Al, Sr/Al, Cu/Al Fe/Al, Mn/Al, Mo/Al and Ce-anomaly (Ce-anomaly
calculated following equation of Bau and Dulski (1996), Ce/Ce* ¼ CeN/(0.5LaN þ 0.5PrN) in the core ABP 24/05 (this study)). Mn/Ti from a sediment core collected
from the equatorial Indian Ocean (SK 304A-05, Chandana et al., 2017) and Mn/Al from a sediment core collected from the western BoB (SK 218–1, Pattan et al.,
2013). Vertical dotted line is the Al-normalized ratio of the Continental Crust (Wedepohl, 1995).

Sebastian et al., 2019). The discrimination plot of La and Th concentra- sediments (Lo et al., 2017, and reference therein). The K/Rb is a reliable
tions in the core sediments may indicate that the dominant source is from indicator of changing chemical weathering intensity over short time
the Irrawaddy River (Fig. S2) (Liu et al., 2019, and reference therein). scales rather than CIA and K/Al (Hu et al., 2012, 2016; Lo et al., 2017).
From the rock magnetic study of the core sediments, the magnetic grain Hu et al. (2016) suggested that K/Rb represents leaching of K, because
size distributions are noticed to be mainly controlled by the chemical isomorphous Rb is retained in the lattices so that K/Rb is a more sensitive
weathering caused by the changing intensity of summer monsoon rather chemical weathering proxy. The K/Rb values in the ABP24/05 core
than dissolution/authigenic/biogenic processes (Prajith et al., 2018). In sediments were high and consistent during the period from ~45 to ~18
this study, metal ratios of K/Rb, Zr/Rb, Ti/Al, SiO2/TiO2, Rb/Al and Cs/Al cal kyr B.P. and low values noticed during later period, indicating that
are used to determine the time of intensification of chemical weathering the increased rate of chemical weathering started from ~18 cal kyr B.P.
during the last glacial to deglacial periods (Fig. 4). The PCA and factor (Fig. 4). The trend to the lowest values of K/Rb observed during ~11.5 to
analysis indicates that these metals in the core sediments are mainly ~8.5 cal kyr B.P., may be due to the faster erosion in the land by the
controlled by the terrigenous supply (Fig. 2, Table 2). strengthening of summer monsoon during this period. Such similar trend
The intensity of chemical weathering usually changes the bulk of K/Rb during ~11.5 to ~8.5 cal kyr B.P. period is also reported in
geochemistry of marine sediments (Clift et al., 2014). The widely used sediments from South China Sea (Hu et al., 2012; Clift et al., 2014).
chemical weathering proxies in the marine sediments are chemical index Various paleoclimatic records indicated the intensification of summer
of alteration (CIA), Si/Al, K/Al, K/Rb, Ti/Al and Zr/Rb (Hu et al., 2012, monsoon during this early Holocene period (Overpeck et al., 1996;
2016; Clift et al., 2014; Phillips et al., 2014). The CIA and Si/Al in sed- Kudrass et al., 2001; Bookhagen et al., 2005; Rashid et al., 2007; Kes-
iments are usually controlled by the provenance and texture of the sarkar et al., 2013; Sijin Kumar et al., 2016; Prajith et al., 2018). Lupker

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in core sediments may be attributed to the stronger physical erosion and

activity of turbidity currents during this period which might have
brought in a higher quantity of unaltered minerals to the BoB and
Andaman Sea. The low values of Zr/Rb in the sediments since ~18 cal
kyr B.P. may be reflecting an intensification of chemical weathering
during this period (increase of secondary minerals). Phillips et al. (2014)
observed a similar Zr/Rb trend in the western BoB, the Zr/Rb ratio was
high in glacial sediments and values decreased in the interglacial sedi-
ments due to reduced rate of chemical weathering which was related to
the changing intensity of southwest monsoon in the south Asian region.
Liu et al. (2004) suggested that the ratio of Zr/Rb in loess deposits is
closely linked with the chemical weathering. They observed relatively
high values of Zr/Rb during cold and dry periods were associated with
stronger winter monsoon and low values during interglacial periods. Liu
et al. (2004) and Chen et al. (2006) noticed Zr/Rb has a good relation to
the mean grain size of bulk samples in loess deposits. They reported that a
positive correlation between Zr/Rb and grain size is due to the increased
abundance of heavy minerals in coarser sediments. The distribution of
the mean grain size in the core sediments shows that the coarser material
accumulating during ~25–18 cal kyr B.P. and finer from ~18 cal kyr B.P.
to ~14 cal kyr B.P. (Fig. 3). The mean grain size of core sediments
increased from ~14 cal kyr B.P., which is correlated with the moving of
Fig. 6. Down-core variations of redox-sensitive parameters (V/Cr, U/Al and U/
high energy turbidites from the Himalayan Rivers to the BoB due to the
Th) in the core sediments. Vertical dotted line is the metals ratio of the Conti- strengthening of the summer monsoon and ice-melting in the Himalaya
nental Crust (Wedepohl, 1995). (Prajith et al., 2018).
The decrease of K/Rb, Zr/Rb, and Ti/Al and increase of SiO2/TiO2,
Rb/Al and Cs/Al at ~18 cal kyr B.P. in the core sediments may be
et al. (2013) reported a decrease in K content along with an increase in indicating an enhancement of chemical weathering during this period.
the intensity of weathering over the last 21 cal kyr B.P. without any Physical weathering was stronger during the period of glacial conditions
changes in the sedimentary sources. They suggested that change in the because of the weakening of summer monsoon, and chemical weathering
degree of weathering is attributed to the variation in climate forcing in was intensified along with the intensification of the summer monsoon
the Indo-Gangetic floodplain because of the increased precipitation and and increased solar insolation during the Late Quaternary de-glacial
temperature after the deglaciation. period (Colin et al., 2006). The time of the increase in the rate of
The metal Ti is abundant in heavy minerals and is usually concen- chemical weathering in the study area is consistent with deglaciation
trated in the coarse-grained heavy fraction of the sediments (Reichart warming in the tropical Indian Ocean (Naidu and Govil, 2010) and
et al., 2002). Phillips et al. (2014) noticed total Ti increase in the glacial strengthening of river runoff into the Andaman Sea (Gebregiorgis et al.,
BoB sediments and suggested that it is due to the presence of heavy 2016) (Fig. 8). Miriyala et al. (2017) reported an increase in the rate of
minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, sphene and titanomagnetite which are chemical weathering at ~17.7 cal kyr B.P. in core sediments from the
formed by the physical fragmentation during glacial stages. The high Andaman Sea (Fig. 8). Gebregiorgis et al. (2016) reported summer
Ti/Al in core sediments up to ~18 cal kyr B.P might be formed by the monsoon over Irrawaddy started strengthening gradually after the last
stronger physical erosion in the Himalaya and Indo-Burman ranges. The glacial period during ~18 cal kyr B.P. Studies in the northern Indian
stronger physical erosion and low sea level with high water turbidity Ocean suggest deglacial warming started at 18–19 cal kyr B.P., which is
during glacial periods induced a higher quantity of unaltered minerals in contemporary with deglaciation warming in the Antarctic and the
the BoB and Andaman Sea (Colin et al., 1999, 2006). The low values of Southern Ocean and is either concurrent with or up to 1 kyr before the
Ti/Al ratio since ~18 cal kyr B.P. reflect a high rate of chemical atmospheric CO2 rise (Naidu and Govil, 2010; Saraswat et al., 2013). The
weathering during de-glacial period suggesting an increased input of de-glacial rise in atmospheric CO2 concentration reported at 17.5 kyrs
secondary minerals. The rapid rise of SiO2/TiO2 from ~18 cal kyr B.P. in (Barnola et al., 2003; Shakun et al., 2012), is consistent with the noticed
core sediments is similar to observed fall of Ti/Al and K/Rb changes intensified rate of chemical weathering in the core sediments (Fig. 4). In
which may be due to the increased chemical weathering after ~18 cal kyr conclusion, the combined influence of increased precipitation thereby
B.P. (Fig. 4). Tripathy et al. (2014) noticed change in Ti/Al ratio in a strengthened river runoff and increased temperature directly controlled
sediment core from the western BoB during glacial to de-glacial periods weathering rate of minerals after ~18 cal kyr B.P. and the conditions
and observed the high values of Ti/Al in glacial sediments. This was during the glacial periods (low precipitation thereby weakened river
explained by the weakening of summer monsoon and large extent of runoff and decreased temperature) were less favorable for the intense
glaciation over the Himalaya which reduced the exposed area of weathering in the land (Lupker et al., 2013).
weathering during the LGM.
The immobile element Zr enriches heavy stable mineral zircon, which 4.2. Prevailing of oxic conditions in the bottom water in the southeastern
undergoes less chemical weathering and is thus used to calculate the part of the Bay of Bengal at Early Holocene and factors controlling the
depletion rate of other elements (Fralick and Kronberg, 1997; Mason and enrichment of manganese and/or OC in the core sediments
Jacobs, 1998). On the contrary, Rb and Cs are closely linked to the
products of chemical weathering such as fine-grained clay minerals and Manganese oxides may be precipitated in the deep-sea sediments via
mica, and usually adsorb onto them in the weathering zone (Nesbitt diagenetic, hydrogenous and hydrothermal processes. The diagenetic Mn
et al., 1980; Chen et al., 1999). The Zr/Rb ratio in the core sediments is usually formed within the sediments by early diagenesis. In oxygenated
(range: 0.67–1.5; avg: 1.15  0.23) are lower than the ratio in the Irra- waters, soluble Mn2þ converts to insoluble Mn4þ and this leads to pre-
waddy River (2.7), Ganga River (2.6), Brahmaputra River (2.5) (Garzanti cipitation from overlying water to sediments (Canfield, 1989; Schnetger
et al., 2011, 2016) and Godavari-Krishna River system (2.6) (Pattan et al., 2000). The surface enrichment of diagenetic Mn is also caused by
et al., 2008). The higher values of Zr/Rb during ~45 to ~18 cal kyr B.P. the upward migration of Mn2þ ions through the sediment column due to

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Fig. 7. The FESEM-EDS analysis of manganese precipitates from the depth of 11 cal kyr B.P.

a diffusive gradient into the oxic zone where precipitation occurs (Calvert low at ~11 cal kyr B.P. to present (4 cm/kyr) and relatively high during
and Prince, 1972; Ergin, 1994). Kurian et al. (2008) reported a high Mn ~24 to ~11 cal kyr B.P. (9–11.5 cm/kyr) (Fig. 3). The negative
content of hydrothermal origin in the upper sediment zone in the Ce-anomaly (<1) towards the core top may also be indicating a decrease
Andaman backarc basin. They observed a strong correlation of Mn with in terrigenous sediments (low sediments influx) and the presence of more
Ba and Cu in the sediments mainly due to hydrothermal activity and also calcareous sediments during the Holocene (Nath et al., 1992; Pattan
noticed Ba and Cu showed a lack of correlation with the bioproductivity et al., 2005) (Fig. 5). In the western, eastern and mid-BoB regions vari-
parameter (CaCO3). The PCA and factor analysis from the present study ations in sedimentation rates during the last glacial to Holocene periods
indicated a lack of correlation between Mn and Ba, while the biological were observed (Pattan et al., 2013; Joussain et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2019).
parameters (CaCO3, Sr and Cu) showed a good correlation with Ba Similar variations in the study area might be attributed to the changes in
(Fig. 2, Table 2). A sharp peak of Mn is observed during last ~11 cal kyr climate, sea level and circulation pattern in the BoB and the Andaman Sea
B.P. in the core sediments indicating the formation of diagenetic during the Late Quaternary. The stronger physical erosion and low sea
Mn-oxides, which is similar to the diagenetic Mn-oxides observed in the level during glacial periods brought a higher quantity of detrital material
deep-sea BoB sediments (Chauhan et al., 1994; Chauhan and Rao, 1999; into the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea (Colin et al., 2006). At present,
Li et al., 2017; Prakashbabu and Ramaswamy, 2018). High peaks of the current in the northern Indian Ocean during summer monsoon is
Mn/Al, Fe/Al and Ce-anomaly, suggest prevailing of oxic conditions in generally towards the east, called southwest monsoon current (SMC)
the bottom waters during ~11 cal kyr B.P. (Calvert and Prince, 1972; (Fig. 1c; Vinayachandran et al., 1999). The SMC occurring at summer
Tribovillard et al., 2006) (Fig. 5). The abundance of Mn-oxides minerals monsoon might have intensified at Holocene (trend to the lowest values
in this sediment layer supports the assumption that the formation of of K/Rb observed), and sea level have been stabilized at a certain height
manganese minerals occur under oxic conditions (Fig. 7). during this period, this may carry less sediment to the study area. Liu
The rate of sedimentation in the ocean bottom usually controls the et al. (2019) reported low sediment supply through submarine channels
preservation of OC and formation of Mn-oxides in marine sediments into the deep-water environments in the BoB during Holocene when the
(Muller and Suess, 1979; Pedersen and Calvert, 1990; Sarkar et al., 1993; sea level reached a certain depth. The low sedimentation since ~11 cal
Chauhan and Rao, 1999). The sedimentation rate in the sediments was kyr B.P. to present might have enhanced the formation of Mn-oxides in

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salinity stratification. This may have diminished mixing of water column

and less nutrient availability causing less productivity during the early
Holocene. The low productivity during this period exported less OC to
the bottom sediments. When organic matter accumulation and degrad-
ability rates are low, Mn oxides can be preserved till considerable burial
depths (Finney et al., 1998; Schenau et al., 2002).
The similar down-core variations of Mn/Al and Mo/Al (higher peaks
towards the core top) (Fig. 3), positive loadings in factor analysis
(Table 2, Factor 4) and direct correlation (r ¼ 0.69, p < 0.001) indicated
the association of these elements in the BoB sediments. Molybdenum is
usually linked to Mn-oxyhydroxides in the oxic sediments and it is
preferentially adsorbed onto the MnO2 phase (Shimmield and Prince,
1986; Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Morford and Emerson, 1999). Mo-
lybdenum is a redox-sensitive trace metal that tends to be more soluble
under oxidizing conditions and precipitate during reducing conditions
and it usually enriches in the oxygen-depleted marine sediments (Calvert
and Pedersen, 1993; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Pattan et al., 2013). In the
studied core sediments, redox-sensitive parameters such as V/Cr, U/Al,
U/Th, OC and Fe/Al (Figs. 5 and 6) do not show any signals of reducing
conditions during Holocene, supporting adsorption of Mo to
Fig. 8. Comparison of K/Rb (ABP 24/05, this study), chemical index of alter-
Mn-oxyhydroxides rather than the anoxic precipitation of Mo from the
ation in a sediment core from the Andaman Sea (SK 168, Miriyala et al., 2017),
Ba/Ca in G. Sacculifer tests (a proxy for riverine runoff and sea surface salinity water column. Contrarily, the simultaneous enrichment of Mo/Al and
changes related to monsoon precipitation on land) in a sediment core from CaCO3 towards the core top can be attributed to the affinity of Mo to
Andaman (SK 168, Gebregiorgis et al., 2016) and record of sea surface tem- CaCO3 in marine sediments (Tribovillard et al., 2006).
perature in the BoB (SK 218/01, Naidu and Govil, 2010). The diagenetic modification in the marine sediments due to change in
deep water circulation in the past has been recorded in various paleo-
climatic events (Sarkar et al., 1993; Schulte et al., 1999; Pattan et al.,
the sediments. The high bottom water oxygenation at ~11 cal kyr B.P. 2013; Chandana et al., 2017). The low Mn content (avg: 990 μg/g) and
recognized in the study area is incompatible to suboxic conditions re- Mn/Al ratio (Fig. 5) in the deeper subsurface sediments may be indi-
ported in the western BoB and in equatorial Indian Ocean (Pattan et al., cating the diagenetic dissolution of Mn under suboxic conditions. Sarkar
2013; Chandana et al., 2017) (Figs. 1 and 5). Pattan et al. (2013) reported et al. (1993) noticed high content of OC and low Mn during LGM where
suboxic conditions existed during the early Holocene in the western BoB low content of OC and high Mn in Holocene sediments in the south-
deep ocean sediment (3307 m). They suggested the enormous terrestrial eastern part of the Arabian Sea, which is similar to the results of present
material supply (sedimentation rate: 15.13 cm/kyr), caused by the study. Chandana et al. (2017) also reported similar conditions during
intensified summer monsoon. The high amount of labile organic matter, LGM. They observed high content of OC during LGM is related to the
sinking rapidly to the seafloor began to decompose and consumed dis- preservation of OC under suboxic conditions due to the change in deep
solved oxygen, that lead to the development of suboxic condition in the water circulation. During LGM, the contribution from North Atlantic
bottom waters during this period. In the equatorial Indian Ocean, the Deep-water circulation (NADW) was reduced and an increased influx
enhanced preservation of OC and the low Mn content in the sediment from Southern Ocean deep waters which is poor in O2 and rich in CO2
were observed and explained by the high sedimentation rate (13.8 was noticed (Sarkar et al., 1993; Chandana et al., 2017). In addition,
cm/kyr) in the early Holocene (Chandana et al., 2017). The Mn-oxides relatively high OC and high peaks of productivity parameter may be
precipitation observed in the present study is consistent with the suggesting high productivity during LGM and YD periods (YD event was
enhanced growth of manganese micronodules within the core-top sedi- recognized in the core sediments from the BoB and the Andaman Sea on
ments from the eastern BoB where the sedimentation was low (Chauhan the base of climate proxy changes, reported by Prajith et al., 2018).
et al., 1994). In conclusion, the enormous supply of terrestrial material Several studies reported that the intensity of summer monsoon was
with labile organic matter in the western BoB created suboxic conditions weaker in LGM and YD colder periods, and river water influx to the BoB
in the bottom water during last ~11 cal kyr B.P (Pattan et al., 2013). was consequently decreased during these periods (Kudrass et al., 2001;
whereas low sedimentation in the southeastern BoB created a favorable Rashid et al., 2011). The decreased freshwater influx during these cold
condition for the formation of Mn-oxides in the sediments. events (YD and LGM) might have diminished the stratification in the BoB,
The other reason for the formation of abundant Mn-oxides minerals in which may have facilitated increased mixing and nutrient availability
the early Holocene sediments may be due to the export of less marine OC (Da Silva et al., 2018). Phillips et al. (2014), Da Silva et al. (2018) and
in the bottom sediments. Phillips et al. (2014) observed a decrease in Panmei et al. (2018) also reported higher bioproductivity in the BoB
bioproductivity and denitrification of sediments in the western BoB during the weak summer monsoon cold periods.
during the period of intensified summer monsoon in the Holocene. The
OC content in the sediments at ~11 cal kyr B.P. is ~0.5%, which is 5. Conclusions
comparable with the OC content in the manganese nodules bearing
sediments in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (Nath and Mudholkar, The temporal variations of mobile and immobile metal ratio proxies
1989). The low OC content during last ~11 cal kyr B.P. may be influ- in the sediment core recovered from the southeastern BoB provide a good
enced by the negative change in bioproductivity, terrestrial organic record of chemical weathering intensity during the Late Quaternary
fluxes and the rates of the organic matter decomposition. Low OC values glacial to deglacial periods. High ratios of K/Rb, Zr/Rb, and Ti/Al and
and productivity parameters (CaCO3, Ba/Al, Sr/Al and Cu/Al) during the low ratios of Rb/Al and Cs/Al might be formed by the stronger physical
~11 cal kyr B.P. rather suggest a decrease in bioproductivity (Fig. 5), erosion in the Himalaya and Indo-Burman ranges during ~45 to 18 cal
which may be correlated to low productivity reported in the western BoB kyr B.P. whereas the low ratios of K/Rb, Zr/Rb and Ti/Al and high ratios
(Phillips et al., 2014). The summer monsoon was intensified at early of SiO2/TiO2, Rb/Al and Cs/Al suggest an increase in the rate of chemical
Holocene (Overpeck et al., 1996; Kessarkar et al., 2013; Prajith et al., weathering from ~18 cal kyr B.P. to present. This variation is closely
2018). This led to more freshwater influx into the BoB, resulting in strong related with the Late Quaternary glacial to de-glacial climate change in

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South Asia. The formation of Mn-oxides observed during last ~11 cal kyr Clift, P.D., Wan, S., Blusztajn, J., 2014. Reconstructing chemical weathering, physical
erosion and monsoon intensity since 25 Ma in the northern South China Sea: a review
B.P. in the southeastern BoB (present study) is contradictory to suboxic
of competing proxies. Earth Sci. Rev. 130, 86–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/
conditions reported in the deep-sea sediments from western BoB and the j.earscirev.2014.01.002.
equatorial Indian Ocean. The low terrigenous influx and export of less OC Colin, C., Kissel, C., Blamart, D., Turpin, L., 1998. Magnetic properties of sediments in the
to the bottom sediments might have created a favorable condition for the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea: impact of rapid North Atlantic ocean climatic
events on the strength of the Indian monsoon. Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 160, 623–635.
formation of Mn-oxides in the study area during the Holocene. Colin, C., Turpin, L., Bertaux, J., Desprairies, A., Kissel, C., 1999. Erosional history of the
Himalayan and Burman ranges during the last two glacial-interglacial cycles. Earth
and Planetary Science 171, 647–660.
Declaration of competing interest Colin, C., Turpin, L., Blamart, D., Frank, N., Kissel, C., Duchamp, S., 2006. Evolution of
weathering patterns in the Indo-Burman Ranges over the last 280 kyr: effects of
sediment provenance on 87Sr/86Sr ratios tracer. G-cubed 7 (3), 1–16. https://doi.org/
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 10.1029/2005GC000962.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Da Silva, R., Mazumdar, A., Mapder, T., Peketi, A., Joshi, R.K., Shaji, A., Maha, P.,
the work reported in this paper. Sawant, B., Naik, B.G., Carvalho, Molletti, S.K., 2018. Salinity stratification controlled
productivity variation over 300 ky in the Bay of Bengal. Sci. Rep. 8 (1), 6038. https://
doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14781-3.
Acknowledgements Damodararao, K., Singh, S.K., Rai, V.K., Ramaswamy, V., Rao, P.S., 2016. Lithology,
monsoon and sea-surface current control on the provenence, dispersal and deposition
of sediments over the Andaman Continental Shelf. Frontiers in Marine Science 3, 118.
We gratefully acknowledge Director, NCPOR for the encouragement https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2016.00118.
and support provided in undertaking this work. We thank Dr. M. Tiwari Ergin, M., 1994. Possible sources and mechanisms of manganese enrichment in the deep-
sea sediments of the Marmara Trough depressions (NE-Mediterranean, Turkey).
and Mr. Vikash Kumar for their help with ICP-OES facility, Dr. W. Rah-
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man for ICP-MS facility, Ms. Sahina Gazi for FESEM-EDS analyses, Mr. Finney, B.P., Lyle, M.W., Heath, G.R., 1988. Sedimentation at MANOP site H (eastern
Ashish for TIC analyses, Mr. Deepak Kumar Agarwal and Mr. Chan- equatorial Pacific) over the past 400,000 years: climatically induced redox variations
drakant Rathore for XRF analyses, Mr. Bijesh and Dr. Vidya for support in and their effects on transition metal cycling. Paleoceanography 3, 169–189.
Fralick, P.W., Kronberg, B.I., 1997. Geochemical discrimination of clastic sedimentary
preparation of sediment core location and circulation map. This work rock sources. Sediment. Geol. 113, 111–124.
was undertaken as part of the EEZ mapping program funded by MoES Garzanti, E., Ando, S., France-Lanord, C., Censi, P., Vignola, P., Galy, V., Lupker, M., 2011.
(Grant No. MoES/EC/EEZ/32/2012-PCII). This is NCPOR contribution J- Minerological and chemical variability of fluvial sediments 2. Suspended-load silt
(GangaBrahmaputra, Bangladesh). Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 302, 107–120.
59/2020-21#. Garzanti, E., Wang, J.G., Vezzoli, G., Limonta, M., 2016. Tracing provenance and
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Appendix A. Supplementary data
Gebregiorgis, D., Hathorne, E.C., Sijinkumar, A.V., Nath, B.N., Nürnberg, D., Frank, M.,
2016. South Asian summer monsoon variability during the last ~54 kyrs inferred
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. from surface water salinity and river runoff proxies. Quat. Sci. Rev. 138, 6–15.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.02.012.
org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.011.
Hein, J.R., Conrad, T., Mizell, K., Banakar, V.M., Frey, F.A., Sager, W.W., 2016. Controls
on ferromanganese crust composition and reconnaissance resource potential,
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