CELLS/ CELL

THEORY
LESSON 1
 History of the cell theory:
1.In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, studied a large number of plants and
found out that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells to
form tissues.
2.In 1839, Theodore Schwann, studied different types of animal
cells and observed that all animal cells had a thin outer layer
called a plasma membrane.
3.He also found out that plant cells have a cell wall that is absent in
animal cells.
4.Based on these studies he gave a hypothesis that all organisms
are made up of cells or products of the cells.
5.Later, in 1855, Rudolf Virchow explained that cells divide and new
cells arise from pre-existing cells, i.e., "Omnis cellula-e-cellula".
6.Then the cell theory was modified and the following postulates
were given.
 Postulates of Cell theory are:

1.All living organisms are made up of cells or the products of the

cells.

2.Cells are the fundamental building blocks of tissues, organs, and

entire functioning organisms.

3.New cells are formed through division in the pre-existing cells.

Cell Definition
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is
responsible for all of life’s processes.”
 Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions
essential to carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.
Cell Membrane
•The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
•The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
•By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.
•It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
•Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall

•The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made
up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
•The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost
layer of plant cells.
•It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
•It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical
shocks and injuries.
 Cytoplasm
•The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present
inside the cell membrane.
•Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this
cytoplasm.
•The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
 Nucleus
•The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
•It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
•The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA
from the rest of the cell.
•The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.
 Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the
cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids
and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.
 Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because
it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and
help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the
pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
 Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor
Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory
states that:
•All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
•A cell is the basic unit of life.
•All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory

was eventually formulated, and it contains the following postulates:
•Energy flows within the cells.
•Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
•The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an
organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:
1. Provides Support and Structure
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the
organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that
function to provide support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is
made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.
2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus,
the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
3. Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside
the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and
passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the
cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger
molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot
of energy to transport the substances.
4. Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
5. Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as
the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.
Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is
because they are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and perform several
functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes.
Who discovered the cell and how?

Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665. He observed a piece of cork under a

compound microscope and noticed minute structures reminiscent of small
rooms. Consequently, he named his discovery “cells.”
Mitochondria
Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which
contain pigments.
Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus is also termed as Golgi Complex. It is a membrane-bound organelle, which is mainly
composed of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae. This cell organelle is primarily
responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids to targeted destinations.
Golgi Apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and is present in both plant and animal cells.
Cytoskeleton
It is a continuous network of filamentous proteinaceous structures
that run throughout the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma
membrane. It is found in all living cells, notably in the eukaryotes.
The cytoskeleton matrix is composed of different types of proteins
that can divide rapidly or disassemble depending on the requirement
of the cells. The primary functions include providing the shape and
mechanical resistance to the cell against deformation, the
contractile nature of the filaments helps in motility during
cytokinesis.
Cilia and Flagella
Cilia are hair-like projections, small structures, present outside the cell wall and work like
oars to either move the cell or the extracellular fluid. Flagella are slightly bigger and are
responsible for the cell movements. The eukaryotic flagellum structurally differs from its
prokaryotic counterpart. The core of the cilium and flagellum is called an axoneme, which
contains nine pairs of gradually arranged peripheral microtubules and a set of central
microtubules running parallel to the axis. The central tubules are interconnected by a
bridge and are embedded by a central sheath. One of the peripheral microtubular pairs is
also interconnected to the central sheath by a radial spoke. Hence there are a total of 9
radial spokes. The cilia and flagella emerge from centriole-like structures called basal
bodies.
Centrosome and Centrioles
The centrosome organelle is made up of two mutually perpendicular
structures known as centrioles. Each centriole is composed of 9 equally
spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein, and the fibril is a set of
interlinked triplets. The core part of the centriole is known as a hub and is
proteinaceous. The hub connects the peripheral fibrils via radial spoke,
which is made up of proteins. The centrioles from the basal bodies of the
cilia and flagella give rise to spindle fibres during cell division.
 TYPES OF CELLS

PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC

CELLS
Prokaryotes And Eukaryotes
Biotic components of the environment include all forms of life from minute
bacteria to towering giant Sequoias. However, at the microscopic level, all living
organisms are made up of the same basic unit – the cell.

As a result, the cell is referred to as the structural and functional unit of all living
organisms. The word cell has its origins in Latin, and when translated, it means “small room”
and was first observed by Robert Hooke – an English natural philosopher in the year 1665.
He also compared his discovery to the cells in a honeycomb, as they showcase a similar
structure.
Prokaryotic Cell

The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“, (meaning: before) and
“karyon” (meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei.“

Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth, with
fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.
These prokaryotes thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up
chemical energy and others using the sun’s energy. These extremophiles thrived for
millions of years, evolving and adapting. Scientists speculate that these organisms
gave rise to the eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells are comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells.
The other defining characteristic of prokaryotic cells is that it does not possess
membrane-bound cell organelles such as a nucleus. Reproduction
happens through the process of binary fission.
Structurally, prokaryotes have a capsule enveloping their entire body, and it functions as
a protective coat. This is crucial for preventing the process of phagocytosis (where the
bacteria gets engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages) The pilus is a
hair-like appendage found on the external surface of most prokaryotes and it helps the
organism to attach itself to various environments. The pilus essentially resists being
flushed, hence, it is also called attachment pili. It is commonly observed in bacteria.
Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity
to the cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth, and this is
contained within the plasma membrane, which separates the interior contents of the cell
from the outside environment. Within the cytoplasm, ribosomes exist and it plays an
important role in protein synthesis. It is also one of the smallest components within the
cell.
Some prokaryotic cells contain special structures called mesosomes which assist
in cellular respiration. Most prokaryotes also contain plasmids, which contain small,
circular pieces of DNA. To help with locomotion, flagella are present, though, pilus can
also serve as an aid for locomotion. Common examples of Prokaryotic organisms
are bacteria and archaea. Also, all members of Kingdom Monera are prokaryotes.
Eukaryotic Cell
The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and
“karyon” (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.”
Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes. They include
almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom monera.
Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the
plasma membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it controls
the entry and exit of certain substances.
The nucleus contains DNA, which is responsible for storing all genetic information.
The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus exists
the nucleolus, and it plays a crucial role in synthesising proteins. Eukaryotic cells
also contain mitochondria, which are responsible for the creation of energy, which
is then utilized by the cell.
Present in only plant cells, chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of photosynthesis.
The endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of materials. Besides these,
there are also other cell organelles that perform various other functions and these
include ribosomes, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles
and centrosomes.
Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus
and all multicellular organisms.

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some
common characteristics. For instance, both possess cell membranes and
ribosomes, but the similarities end there. The complete list of differences between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is summarized as follows:
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and

multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm Size ranges from 10 μm –
– 2.0 μm in diameter 100 μm in diameter

Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically

complex in nature simple in nature

Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present

a nucleoid region in the cell

Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively

spherical in shape larger in size and linear in
shape

DNA arrangement Circular Linear

Mitochondria Absent Present

Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present

Endoplasmic Absent Present

reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
absent present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

 Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape
Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell Wall
Present Absent
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Present Present
Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell

Lysosomes
Present but are very rare Present

Golgi Apparatus
Present Present
Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm
Present Present
Ribosomes
Present Present
Plastids
Present Absent
Vacuoles
Few large or a single, centrally positioned Usually small and numerous
vacuole
Cilia
Absent Present in most of the animal cells

Mitochondria
Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous

Mode of Nutrition
Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic
End of part 1