STATISTICAL PROCESS ' CONTROL (SPC) REFERENCE MANUAL os oe \ < ‘Second Edition, Issued July 2005 D Issued 1992, Second Printing March 1995 (new cover only) Copyright © 1992, © 1995, © 2005 DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors Corporation ee ee 2 esSTATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL SPC FOREWORD to Second Edition ‘This Reference Manual was developed by the Statistical Process Control (SPC) Work Group, sanctioned by the DaimlerChrysler/Ford'General Motors Supplier Quality Requirements Task Foree, and under the auspices of the American Society for Quality (ASQ) and the Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG). ‘The Work Group responsible for this Second edition was prepared by the quality and supplier assessment staffs at DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Delphi Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation, Omnex, Inc. and Robert Bosch Corporation working in collaboration with the Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG). ‘The Task Force charter is to standardize the reference manuals, reporting formats and technical nomenclature used by DaimlerChrysler, Ford and General Motors in theit respective supplier assessment systems. Accordingly, this Reference Manual can be used by any supplier to develop information responding to the requirements of either DaimlesChrysler’s, Ford’s or General Motors’ supplier assessment systems. This sezond edition was prepared to recognize the needs and changes within the ‘automotive industry in SPC techniques that have evolved since the original manual was published in 1991, ‘The manual is an introduction to statistical process control, It is not jatended to limit evolution of SPC methods suited to particular processes or commodities. While these guidelines ere intended to cover normally occurring SPC system situations, there will be questions that arise. These questions should be directed to your customer's Supplier Quality Assurance (SQA) activity. If you are uncertain as to how to ‘contact the appropriate SQA activity, the buyer in your customer's purchasing office can help. ‘The Task Force gratefully acknowledges: the leadership and commitment of Vice Presidents Peter Rosenfeld at DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Thomas K. Brown at Ford Motor Company and Bo ‘Andersson of General Motors Corporation; the assistance of the AIAG in the development, production and distribution of the manual; the guidance of the Task Force principals Hank Gryn (DaimlerChrysler Corporation), Russ Hopkins (Ford Motor Company), and Joe Bransky (General Motors Corporation). ‘Therefore this manual was developed to meet the specific needs of the automotive industry. ‘This Manual is copyrighted by DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors ‘Corporation, all rights reserved, 2005. Additional manuals can be ordered from AIAG and/or ‘permission to copy portions of this manual for use within supplier organizations may be obtained from AIAG at 248- 358-3570 or http:/hvww.siag.org,ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS wt Second Edition ‘The joint consensus on the contents of this document was effected through Task Team Subcommittee Menabers representing DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and General Motors, respectively, whose approval signatures appear below, and who gratefully acknowledge the significant contribution of Gregory Gruska of Omnex Inc., Gary A. Hiner of Delphi Corporation, and David W. Stamps of The Robert Bosch Corp. ‘The latest improvements were updating the format to conform to the current AIAG/ ISO/TS 16949:2002 documentation, more clatificaion and examples to make the manual more user friendly and additional areas which where not included or did not exist when the original manual was written. ‘The current re-write subcommittee is chaired by Mike Down from General Motors Corporation and consists of Todd Kerkstra and Dave Benham from DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Peter Cvetkovski from Ford Motor Company, Gregory Gruska, as a representative of the Omnex Inc. and ASQ, Gary A. Hiner of Delphi Corporation, and David W. Stamps of The Robert Bosch Corp. Michael H. Down ‘Todd Keskstra General Motors Corporation DaimlerChrysler Corporation Peter Cvetkovski David R. Benham Ford Motor Company, DaimlerChrysler Corporation iiip STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL SPC FOREWORD to First Edition This Reference Manual was prepared by the quality and supplier assessment staffs at Chrysler, Ford and General Motors, working unde: the auspices of the Automotive Division of the American Society for Quality Control Supplier Quality Requirements Task Force, in collaboration with the Automotive Industry Action Group, The ASQCIAIAG Task Force charter isto standardize the reference manuals, reporting formats and technical nomenclature used by Chrysler, Ford and General Motors in their respective supplier assessment systems: Supplier Quality Assurance, Total Quality Bxcellence and Targets for Excellence. Accordingly, ths Reference ‘Manual can be used by any supplier to develop information responding to the requirements of either Chiysier’s, Ford's or General Motors’ supplier assessment systems. Until now, there has been no unified formal approach in the automotive industry on statistical process control, Certain manufacturers provided methods for their suppliers, while others had no specific requirements. Jn an effort to simplify and minimize ‘variation in supplier quality requirements, Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors agreed to develop and, through AIAG, distribute this manual. The work team responsible for the Manual’ content was led by Leonard. A. Brown of General Motors. The manual should be considered an introduction to statistical process control It is not intended to limit evolution of statistical methods suited to particular processes or commodities nor is it {intended to be comprehensive ofall SPC techniques. Questions on the use of alternate methods should be referred to your customer's quility activity. . ‘The Task Force gratefully acknowledges: the senior leadership and commitment of Vice Presidents Thomas T. Stallkamp at Chrysler, Clint D. Lauer at Ford, and Donald A. Pais at General Motors; the technical competence and hard work oftheir quality and supplier assessment teams; and the invaluable contributions of the Automotive Industry Acion Group (under AIAG Executive Director Joseph R. Phelan) in the ‘development, production and distribution of this Reference manual. We also wish to thank the ASQC reading team led by Tripp Martin of Peterson Spring, who reviewed the Manual and in the process made valuable contributions to intent and content. Bruce W. Pince ‘Task Force Coordinator ‘Sandy Corporation ‘Troy, Michigan December, 1991 ‘This Manual is copyrighted by Chrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation, all rights reserved, 1991, Additional copies can be ordered from A.L.A.G., and/or permission to copy portions ‘of the Manual for use within supplier organizations may be obtained from A.I.A.G. at (248) 358-3570.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10 First Edition ‘The joint consensus on the contents of this document was effected through Task Team Subcommittee Members representing General Motors, Ford, and Crysler, respectively, whose approval signatures appear below, and who gratefully acknowledge the significant contribution of Pete Jessup of the Ford Motor ‘Company, who was responsible for developing the majority of the material found in Chapters I, II, and I, and the Appendix of this document. Harvey Goltzer of the Chryslet Corporation contributed concepts relative to process capability and capability studies, found in the introduction section of Chapter 1. Jack Herman of Du Pont contributed some of the concepts relative to capability and performance indices énd the importance of measurement variability, found in portions of Chapters Il and IV, respectively. ‘The General Motors Powertrain Division contributed the discussion and examples relative to subgrouping and process over-adjustment. The section in Chapter Il which provides understanding of process capability and related issues was developed by the General Motors Corporate Statistical Review Committee, This committee also contributed to the development of Chapter IV, Process Measurement Systems Analysis, as well as to some ‘Appendix items. Finally, valuable input to all sections of the manual was provided by ASQC representatives Gregory Gruska, Doug Berg, and Tripp Martin. Leonard A. Brown, Victor W. Lowe, Jr David R. Benham, Ford ChryslerTABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I... ‘Continual Improvement and Statistical Process Control Introduction. Six Points... CHAPTER I — Section A seem Prevention Versus Detection (CHAPTER I - Section B seven ‘A Process Control System... CHAPTER 1- Section C... Variation: Common and Special Causes (CHAPTER I Section D.... Local Actions And Actions On The System. CHAPTER I~ Section E... Process Control and Process Capability. Control vs. Capability. Process Indices CHAPTER I — Section F. Introduction:.. Variables Control Charts... Attributes Control Charts Elements of Control Charts = ee CHAPTER I1- Section A... ay Control Chart Process . eset Preparatory Steps. Control Chart Mechanics. Establish Control Limis.... Interpret for Statistical Control Final Comments Extend Control Limits for Ongoing Control CHAPTER It - Section B .. Defining “Out-of-Control” Signals... Point Beyond a Control Limit. Patterns or Trends Wjthin the Controt Limits. Special Cause Criteria. Average Run Length (ARL) CHAPTER II - Section C. Control Chart FormulaVariables Control Charts . i) ‘Average and Range Charts (X, R) ... ae) Average and Standard Deviation Charts (x, . s) foe e we 83 Modian and Range Caars (2, R) 85 Individuals and Moying Range Charts (X MR) woo Attributes Control Charts Control Charts for Nonconforming Items. Proportion Nonconforming (p Chart) ‘Number of Nonconforming Chart (np Chart)... Number of Nonconformities per Unit Chart (u Char). ‘Number of Nonconformities Chart (¢ Chr). CHAPTER Wl.. Other Types of Control Chars. Introduction. Probability Based Chants Short-Run Control Chats... Charts for Detecting Small Changes Non-Normal Charts Multivariate Other Charis. Regression Control Charts Residual Charts.. Autoregressive Charts Zone Charts CHAPTER IV... Understanding Process Cepability and Process Performance for Vari Introduction “ CHAPTER IV - Section A semnnnnnn Definitions of Process Temns... Process Measures for Predictable Processes. Indices ~ Bilateral Tolerances. Indices — Unilateral Tolerances CHAPTER IV - Section B. Description of Conditions. Handling Non-Normal and Multivariate Distributions Relationship of Indices and Proportion Nonconforming. Non-Normal Distributions Using Transformations... ‘Non-Normat Distributions Using Non-Normal Forms Multivariate Distributions... CHAPTER TV - Section Cosersnseans ‘Suggested Use of Process Measures The Loss Function Concept Alignment of Process ta Customer Requirements. APPENDIX A. ‘Some Comments on Sampling Effects of Subgrouping... »Autocorrelated Dat .nnose ‘Multiple Stream Process Example Efjects of Sample Size on Indices. APPENDIX B. ‘Some Comments on Special Causes Over-Adjustment. Time Dependent Processes Repeating Patterns.. APPENDIX Con Selection Procedure for the Use of the Control Charts Described in APPENDIX Den Relationship Between Cym and Other Indices APPENDIX EB nnn Table of Constants and Formulas for Control Chatts APPENDIX F ern Capability Index Calculations Example.. Data Set: Analysis. Diameter Statistics: Conelusion:... APPENDIX G. Glossary of Terms ‘Terms Used in This Manual. Symbols as Used in This Manual. APPENDIX Hn References and Suggested Reading: APPENDIX... Standard Normal Tebles INDEX... S.P.C. Manual User Feedback Process .LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1.1: A Process Control System ...e:nn Figure 1.2: Variation: Common Cause and Special Cause. Figure 13: Process Control and Process Capability. igre 14: The Process Improvement Cycle Figure 1.5: Control Charts : Figure ILI: Variables Data Figure 11.2: Attributes Data... Figure IL3: Elements of Control Chat..cvsnsoassnsnsonenn Figure Il-4a: Sample Control Chart (Front side) Figure IL4b: Sample Control Chart (back side) — Event Log, Figure IL5: Extending Conttol Limits Figure 116: Control Limits Recalculation... : Figure 11.7; Extend Control Limits for Ongoing Control Figure IL8: Process Variation Relative to Specification Limits Figure 119: Points Beyond Control Limits Figure 11.10: Runs in an Average Control Chart Figure I1-L1: Runs in a Range Control Chart BRREL Figure 11-16: Individual and Moving Range Chi Figure 1117: Proportion Noaconforming Chart... Figure 11.18: Number of Nonconforming Chart Figure 11.19: Number of Nonconforming per Unit Chatt 7 Figure 11.20: Number of Nonconformities Chat nnn Figure IL1: Control Charts... Figure 111.2: Stoplight Contol Figure IIL3: Pre-Control Figure I.4: DNOM Control Chart. Figure IIL: CUSUM Chart with V-Mask Figure 111.6: X, MR Chat... Figure Il Figure IIL8: X, MR Chart of Viscosity. Figure IV 2: Cyeand Pye Comparison... Figure IV.3: Comparison between a Predi Figure IV.4: Gok and Ppk Values Produced by a Predictable and Immature Process Figure IV.5: “Goal Post” vs, Loss Function . Figure IV.6: Comparison of Loss Function and Specifications... Figure IV.7: Comparison of Loss Functions. Figure IV.8: A Process Control System. Figure IV.9: Process Alignment to RequirementsCHAPTER | Continual Improvement and Statistical Process Control «‘This page intentionally left blank ) ):CHAPTER ‘Continua provement snd Statstia! Process Contol . Introduction To prosper in today’s economic climate, we - automotive manufacturers, suppliers and dealer organizations — must be dedicated to continual improvement. We must constantly seek more efficient ways to produce products and services. These products and services must continue to improve in value. We must focus upon our customers, both internal and | extemal, and make customer satisfaction a primary business goa. ‘To accomplish this, everyone in our organizations must be committed to improvement and to the use of effective methods. This manual describes several basic statistical methods that can be used to make our efforts at i improvement more effective. Different levels of understanding are i needed to perform different tasks. This manual is aimed at practitioners and managers beginning the application of statistical methods. It will also serve as a refresher on these basic methods for those who are now using more advanced techniques. Not all basic methods are included here. Coverage of other basic methods (such as check sheets, floweharis, Pareto charts, cause and effect diagrams) and some advanced methods (such as other control charts, designed experiments, quality function deployment, ete.) is available in buoks aad booklets such es those referenced in Appendix H. ‘The basic statistical methods addressed in this manual include those associated with statistical process control and process capability analysis. Chapter I provides background for process control, explains several Dd important concepts such as special an common causes of variation. It also introduces the control chart, which can be a very effective tool for anal ing and monitoring processes. Chapier IJ describes the construction and use of control charts for both variables! data and attributes data. (Chapter III describes other types of control charts that can be used for specialized situations ~ probability based charts, short-run charts, charts for detecting small changes, non-normal, multivariate and other chars. Chapter TV addresses process capability analysis. The Appendices address sampling, over-adjustment, a process for selecting control charts, table of constants and formulae, the normal table, a glossary of terms and symbols, and references. DD 1 The term “Variables”, although awkward sounding, is used in order to distinguish the difference ‘between something that varies, and the control chart used for data taken from a continuous variable,CHAPTER ‘Continual Improvement and Statsical Process Contol Six Points ‘Six points should be made before the main discussion begins: 1). Gathering data and using statistical methods to interpret them are not ends in themselves. The overall aim should be increased : understanding of the reader's processes. It is very easy 10 become technique experts without realizing any improvements. Increased knowledge should become a basis for action. 2) Measurement systems are critical to proper data analysis and they should be well understood before process data are collected. When such systems lack statistical control or their variation accounts for 2 substantial portion of the total variation in process data, inappropriate decisions may be made, For the purposes of this ‘manual, it will be assumed that this system is under control and is not a significant contributor to total variation in the data. The reader is referred to the Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA) Manual available from ATAG for more information on this topic. 3) The basic concept of studying variation and using statistical signals to improve performance can be applied to any area. Such areas can bbe on the shop floor or in the office. Some examples are machines (performance characteristics), bookkeeping (error rates), gross sales, waste analysis (scrap rates), computer systems (performance characteristics) and materials®management (transit times). This ‘manual focuses upon shop floor applications. The reader is encouraged to consult the references in Appendix H for administrative and service applications. 4) SPC stands for Statistical Process Control, Historically, statistical ‘methods have been routinely applied to parts, rather than processes. “Application of statistical techniques to control output (such as parts) should be only the first step. Until the processes that generate the ‘output become the focus of our efforts, the full power of these methods to improve quality, increase productivity and reduce cost may not be fully realized. 5) Although each point in the text is illustrated with a worked-out example, real understanding of the subject involves deeper contact ‘with process control situations. ‘The study of actual cases from the reader's own job location or from similar activities would be an ‘important supplement to the text. There is no substitute for hands-on experience. 6) This manual should be considered a first step toward the use of statistical methods. It provides generally accepted approaches, which work in many instances. However, there exist exceptions ‘ where it is improper to blindly use these approaches, This manual does not replace the need for practitioners to increase their knowledge of statistical methods end theory. Readers are encouraged to pursue formal statistical education. Where the reader's processes and application of statistical methods have(CHAPTER ‘Continual improvement and Statistical Process Control advanced beyond the material covered here, the reader is also encouraged to consult with persons who have the proper knowledge ‘and practice in statistical theory as to the appropriateness of other techniques. In any event, the procedures used must satisfy the customers requirements.CHAPTER 1— Section A Prevention Versus Detection 0) | __THE NEED FOR PROCESS CONTROL | Detection - Tolerates Waste Prevention — Avoids Waste 0 \ | | | | |(CHAPTER I~ Section A Prevention Versus Detection @ CHAPTER! -SectionA Prevention Versus Detection In the past, Manufacturing often depended on Production to make the produet and on Quality Control to inspect the final product and screen ut items not meeting specifications. In administrative situations, work is often checked and rechecked in efforts to catch errors. Both cases involve a strategy of detection, which is wasteful, because it allows time ‘and materials to be invested in products or services that are not always usable. It ig much more effective to avoid waste by not producing unusable ‘output in the first place ~ a strategy of prevention. A prevention strategy sounds sensible - even obvious ~ to most people. It is easily captured in such slogans as, “Do it right the first time”. However, slogans are not enough, What is required is an understanding of the elements of a statistical process control system, The remaining seven subsections of this introduction cover these elements and can be viewed as answers to the following questions: ‘© What is meant by a provess control system? + How does variation affect process output? S ‘How can statistical techniques ell whether a problem is local in nature or involves broader systems? ‘© What is meant by a process being in statistical control? ‘What is meant by a process being capable? ‘* What is a continual improvement cycle, and what part can process control play in it? ‘* What are control charts, and how are they used? © What benefits can be expected from using control charts? As this material is being studied, the reader may wish to refer to the Glossary in Appendix G for brief definitions of key terms and symbols.(CHAPTER I- Section B ‘A Provess Control Systema PEOPLE EQUIPMENT MATERIALD MeTHops > MeAsUREMENTD ENVIRONMENT). QW INPUTS: WITH FEEDBACK VOICE OF THE PROCESS STATISTICAL METHODS THE WAY WE WORK! PRopucTs BLENDING OF Seneca SERVICES xa a PROCESSISYSTEM OUTPUTS VOICE OF THE CUSTOMER PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM MODEL CUSTOMERS IDENTIFYING CHANGING NEEDS AND EXPECTATIONS. | Figure 1.1: A Process Control System a © iceeaeeee — r-(CHAPTER 1 - Section B |A Prooses Control System DB CHAPTER! - Section B A Process Control System A process control system can be described as @ feedback system. SPC is cone type of feedback system. Other such systems, which are not + statistical, also exist. Four elements of that system. are important to the discussions that will follow: 1. The Process — By the process, we mean the whole combination of suppliers, producers, people, equipment, input materias, methods, and environment that work together to produce output, and the customers who use that output (see Figure 11). The total performance of the process depends upon communication between supplier and customer, the way the process is designed and implemented, and on the way it is operated and managed. The rest of the process control systema is useful only if it contributes either to maintaining a level of excellence o to improving the total performance of the process. 2, Information About Performance ~ Much information about the actual performance ofthe process can be lenmed by studying the process ‘output. The most helpful information about th performance of a process comes, however, ftom understanding the process itself and is internal Variability Process characteristics (ouch a8 temperatures, cycle times, Teed rates, absenteeism, turover, tardiness, or number of iteraptions) Dd should be the ultimate focus of our &fforts. We need to determine the target values for those characteristics that result in the most productive operation ofthe process, and then monitor how near to oF far from those target values we are, If this information is gathered and intexpreed Correctly, itean show whether the process is acting in usual er unusual Tanner. Proper actions can then be taken, if nceded, to corect the process ofthe justproduced output. When sction is noodod it must be fimely and appropriate, or the information-gathering effort is wasted. 3. Action on the Process — Action on the process is frequently most economical when taken to prevent the important characteristics (process or output) from varying too far from their target values. This ensures the stability and the variation of the process output is maintained within acceptable limits. Such action might consist of: ‘© Changes in the operations Y operator training Y changes to the incoming materials + Changes in the more basic elements of the process itself the equipment Yow people communicate and relate the design of the process as a whole — which may be vulnerable . to changes in shop temperature or humidity The effect of actions should be monitored, with’ further analysis and » action taken if necessary.CHAPTER I~ Section B {A Frocess Control System 4, Action on the Output — Action on the output is frequently least economical when it is restricted to detecting and correcting out-of- specification produet without addressing the underlying process problem. Unfortunately, if current output does not consistently meet customer requirements, it may be necessary to sort all products and to scrap or rework any nonconforming items. This must continue until the necessary corrective action on the process has been taken and verified. It is obvious that inspection followed by action on only the output is a poor substitute for effective provess management. Action on only the ‘Output should be used strictly as an interim measure for unstable or capable processes (see Chapter I, Section E). Therefore, the discussions that follow focus on gathering process information and analyzing it so that action can be taken to correct the process itself. ‘Remember, the focus should be on prevention not detection. 107 ‘This page intentionally left blank (CHAPTER I Section B ‘A Process Coatral System(CHAPTER I Section € ‘Varition: Common snd Special Causes PIECES VARY FROM E/CH OTHER, eee ee eae we ee BUT THEY FORM A PATTERN THAT, IF STABLE, CAN BE DESCRIBED AS A DISTRIBUTION ms LN ‘se——> ae sze——> DISTRIBUTION CAN DIFFER I \W ONLY COMMON CAUSES OF VARIATION ‘ARE PREGENT. THE OUTPUT OF APROCESS. Fonts A DISTRIBUTION THAT STABLE OVER "TMB AND 18 PREDICTASLE see—> IF SPECIAL CAUSES OF VARIATION AE PRESENT, THe PROCESS OUTPUT IS NOT STABLE GvER THE: Common Cause and Special Cause Figure 12: Variation: 12 )(CHAPTER I~ Section ‘eration: Common and Special Causes CHAPTER | - Section C Variation: Common and Special Causes In order to effectively use process control measurement data, it is important to understand the concept of variation, a illustrated in Figure 12 ‘No two products or characteristics are exactly alike, because any process contains many sources of variability. The differences among products may be large, or they may be immeasurably small, but they are always present. The diameter of a machined shaft, for instance, would be susceptible to potential variation from the machine (clearances, bearing wear), tool (strength, rate of wear), material (diameter, hardness), operator (part feed, accuracy of centering), maintenance (lubrication, replacement of worn parts), environment (temperature, constancy of power supply) and measurement system. Another example is the time required to process an invoice could vary according to the people performing various steps, the reliability of any equipment they were Using, the accuracy and legibility of the invoice itself, the procedures followed, and the volume of other work in the office. Some sources of variation in the process cause short-term, picce-to-piece differences, eg., backlash and clearances within a machine and its fixturing, or the accuracy of a bookkeeper’s work. Other sources of variation tend to cause changes in the output only over a longer period of time. ‘These changes may occur eithér gradually as with tool or machine ‘wear, stepwise as with procedural changes, or irregularly as with environmental changes such as power surges. Therefore, the time period and conditions over which measurements are made are critical since they will affect the amount of the total variation that will be observed. While individual measured values may ail be different, as a group they tend to form a pattem that can be described as a distribution (see Figure 1.2). This distribution can be characterized by: ‘+ Location (typical or “central” value) * Spread (span or “with” of values from smallest to largest) ‘Shape (the pattem of variation ~ whether itis symmetrical, skewed, etc.) From the standpoint of minimum requirements, the issue of variation is * often simplified: parts within specification tolerances are acceptable, parts beyond specification tolerances are not acceptable; reports on time 4 are acceptable, late reports are not acceptable. However, the goal should be to maintain the location to a target value with minimal variability. To ‘manage any process and reduce variation, the variation should be traced { back to its sources. ‘The first step is to make the distinction between +‘ common and special causes of variation. Common causes refer to the many sources of vatiation that consistently, acting on the process. Common causes within a process protfice a stable and repeatable distribution over time. This is called “in a state of 13CHAPTER I Section © ‘Variation: Common snd Special Causes statistical control,” “in statistical control,” or sometimes just “in contro.” Common causes yield a stable system of chance causes. If only common ‘causes of variation are present and do not change, the output of a process is predictable. Special causes (often called assignable causes) refer to any factors ‘causing variation that affect only some of the process output. ‘They are often intermittent and unpredictable. Special causes are signaled by one ‘or more points beyond the control limits or non-random patterns of points within the control limits. Unless all the special causes of variation are identified and acted upon, they may continue to affect the process output in unpredictable ways. If special causes of variation are present, the process output will not be stable over time, ‘The changes in the process distribution due to special causes can be cither detrimental or beneficial. When detrimental, they need to be understood and removed. When beneficial, they should be understood and made a permanent part of the process. With some mature processes”, the customer may give special allowance to nan a process with @ consistently occurring special cause. Such allowances will usually require that the process control plans can assure conformance to customer requirements aid protect the process fiom other special causes (see Chapter I, Section EF). ? Processes that have undergone several cycles of continual improvement. 4(CHAPTER I Section C ‘Vacation: Common and Special Causes This page intentionally left blank 1CHAPTER I Seation D Local Actions And Actions On The System LOCAL ACTIONS AND ACTIONS ON THE SYSTEM | Local Actions * Are usually required to eliminate special causes of variation | * Can usually be taken by people close to the process | * Gan correct typically about 15% of process problems | Actions on the System * Are usually required to reduce the variation due to common causes | * Almost always require management action for correction | : * Are needed to correct typically about 85% of process problems | + | | 16CHAPTER I Section D Local Actions And Actions On The System DB CHAPTER | - Section D Local Actions And Actions On The System ‘There is an important connection between the two types of vari discussed and the types of action necessary to reduce ther.” ‘Simple statistical process control techniques can detect special causes of variation. Discovering a special cause of variation and taking the proper action is usually the responsibility of someone who is directly connected with the operation. Although management can sometimes be involved to correct the condition, the resolution of a special cause of variation usually requires local action, ie., by people directly connected with the ‘operation. This is especially true during the early process improvement efforts. As one succeeds in taking the proper action on special causes, ‘those that remain will often require management action, rather than local action. just These same simple statistical techniques oan alco indicate the extent of common causes of variation, but the causes themselves need more detailed analysis to isolate. The correction of these common causes of variation is usually the responsibility of management. Sometimes people directly connected with the operation will be in a better position to identify them and pass them on to management for action. Overall, the resolution of common causes of varigtion usually requires action on the system, Only a relatively small proportion of excessive process variation — industrial experience suggests about 15% — is correctable locally by people directly connected with the operation. The majority ~ the other 85% — is correctable only by management action on the system. Confusion about the type of action to take is very costly to the organization, in terms of wasted effort, delayed resolution of trouble, and aggravating problems. It may be wrong, for example, to take local action (eg., adjusting a machine) when management action on the system is required (eg, selecting suppliers that provide consistent input materials) Nevertheless, close teamwork between management and those persons directly connected with the operation is a must for enhancing reduction of common causes of process variation. > Dr. W. E, Deming has treated this issue in many articles; eg., see Deming (1967). ‘These observations were first made by Dr. J. M. Juran, and have been borne out in Dr. Deming’s experience, 7(CHAPTER I~ Section B Process Control and Process Capability PROCESS CONTROL CONTROL (SPECIAL CAUSE ELIMINATED) see —> our oF contro (SPECIAL CAUSES PRESENT) PROCESS CAPABILITY 1W CONTROL AND. CAPABLE OF MEETING “SPECIFICATIONS (WARIATION FROM COUMON ‘causes HAS BEEN REDUCED} | CONTROL BUT NOT CAPABLE 'OF MEETING SPECIFICATIONS. (VARIATION FROM COMMON CAUSES 1S EXCESSIVE) Figure 1.3: Process Control and Process Capability 18I | ® CHAPTER | - Section E CHAPTER Section E Process Control and Provess Capability Process Control and Process Capability Control vs. Capabi § See TS 16949, ‘The process control system is an integral part of the overall business management system.” As such, the goal of the process control system is ‘to make predictions about the current and future state of the process. This leads. to economically sound decisions about actions affecting the process. These decisions require balancing the isk of taking action when action is not necessary (over-control or “tampering”) versus failing to ‘take action when action is necessary (under-control).” These risks should be handled, however, in the context of the two sources of variation ~ special causes and common causes (see Figure 13). A process is said to be operating in statistical control when the only sources of variation are common causes. One function of a process control system, then, is to provide a statistical signal when special causes of variation are present, and to avoid giving false signals when they are not present. This allows appropriate action(s) to be taken upon those special causes (either removing them or, if they are beneficial, making them permanent). ‘The process control system can be used as a one-time evaluation tool but the real benefit of a process control system is realized when itis used as continual leaming tool instead of a conformance tool (good/bad, stable/not stable, eapable/aot capable, etc.) ‘When discussing process capability, two somewhat contrasting concepts, need to be considered: + Process capability * Process performance Process capability is determined by the variation that comes from ‘common causes. It generally represents the best performance of the process itself. This is demonstrated when the process is being operated in a state of statistical control regardless ofthe specifications. Customers, internal or external, are however more typically concerned with the process performance; that is, the overall output of the process ‘and how it relates to their requirements (defined by specifications), irrespective of the process variation. © See W. E. Deming, (1994), and W. Shewhart, (1931). 19(CHAPTER I—-Section E Process Control and Process Capability In general, since a process in statistical comtrol can be described by @ predictable distribution, the proportion of in-specification parts can be estimated from this distribution. As long as the process remains in statistical control and does not undergo a change in location, spread or shape, it will continue to produce the same distribution of in- specification pars ‘Once the process is in statistical control the fitst action on the process should be to locate the process on the target. If the process spread is unacceptable, this strategy allows the minimum number of outof- specification ‘parts to be produced. Actions on the system to reduce the ‘Variation from common causes are usually required to improve the ability of the process (and its output) to meet specifications consistently. For & more detailed discussion of process capability, process performance and the associated assumptions, refer to Chapter IV. ‘The process must frst be brought into statistical control by detecting and ‘acting upon special causes of variation. Then its performance is predictable, an apabilty To" mest customer expectations can be ‘assessed, This is @ basis for continual improvement. Every process is subject to classification based on capability and control. A process can be classified into 1 of 4 cases, as illustrated by the following chart: Statistical Control In-Control Out-of-Control Acceptable | Case Case 3 Capability | | ‘Unacceptable Case 2 Case 4 ‘To be acceptable, the process must be in a state of statistical control and the capability (common cause variation) must be less than the tolerance. ‘The ideal situation is to have a Case 1 process where the process is in statistical control and the ability to meet tolerance requirements is acceptable. A Case 2 process is in control but has excessive common ‘cause variation, which must be reduced, A Case 3 process meets tolerance requirements but is not in statistical control; special causes of variation should be identified and acted upon, In Case 4, the process is not in control nor is it acceptable. Both common and special cause variation must be reduced. Under certain circumstances, the customer may allow a producer to run a process even though it is a Case 3 process, These circumstances may include: ‘© The customer is insensitive to variation within specifications (see discussion on the loss function in Chapter IV). 20 eltProcess Indices CHAPTER I- Section E Process Control and Process Capability ‘+ The economics involved in acting upon the special cause exceed the benefit to any and all customers. Economically allowable special causes may include tool wear, tool regrind, cyclical (seasonal) variation, et. ‘© The special cause has been identified and has been documented as consistent and predictable, In these situations, the customer may require the following: ‘© The process is mature, ‘© The special cause to be allowed has been shown to act in a consistent ‘manner over a known period of time. ‘+ A process control plan is in effect which will assure conformance to specification of all process output and protection from other special causes or inconsistency in the allowed special cause, See also Appendix A for a discussion on time dependent processes. ‘The accepted practice in the automotive industry is to calculate the capability (common cause variation) only afler a process has been demonstrated to be in a state of statistical control. These results are used as a basis for prediction of how the process will perform. There is little value in making predictions based on data collected from a process that is not stable and not repeatable over time. Special causes are responsible for changes in the shape, spread, or lotation of a process distribution, and thus can rapidly invalidate prediction about the process. That is, in order for the various process indices and ratios to be used as ‘Dredictive tools, the requirement is that the data used to calculate ‘them are gathered from processes that are in a state of statistical control. Process indices can be divided into two categories: those that are calculated using within-subgroup estimates of variation and those using ‘otal variation when estimating a given index (see also chapter IV), Several different indices have been developed because: 1) No single index can be universally applied to all processes, and 2) No given process can be completely described by a single index. For example, it is recommended that C, and Cx both be used (see Chapter IV), and further that they be combined with graphical techniques to better understand the relationship between the estimated distribution and the specification limits. In one sense, this amounts to comparing (and ‘trying to align) the “voice of the process” with the “voice of the customer” (see also Sherkenbach (1991)). Al indices have weaknesses and can be misleading. Any inferences drawn from computed indices should be driven by appropriate interpretation of the data from which the indices were computed. aCHAPTER I~ Section E Process Control and Process Capability Automotive companies have set requirements for process capability. It is the reader’s responsibility to communicate with their customer and determine which indices to use. In some cases, it might be best to use n0 index at all, It is important to remember that most capability indices include the product specification in the formula. If the specification is inappropriate, or not based upon customer requirements, much time and effort may be wasted in trying to force the process to conform. Chapter IV deals with selected capability and performance indices and contains advice on the application of those indices.(CHAPTER I~ Section E rogess Control and Process Capab This page intentionally left blank B(CHAPTER I— Section F The Process Improvement Cycle snd Process Contol STAGES OF THE CONTINUAL PROCESS IMPROVEMENT CYCLE 1, ANALYZE THE PROCESS 2, MAINTAIN THE PROCESS = What should the process be doing? = Monitor process performance = What can go wrong? - Detect special cause ~ What is the process doing? Variation and act upon it ~ Achieve a state of statistical contro. Determine capability PLAN, bo act ‘sTuy 3. IMPROVE THE PROCESS Change the process to better oe understand common cause variation Reduce common cause variation Figure 1.4: The Process Improvement Cycle 24.(CHAPTER I~ Section F “The Process Improvement Cyele and Process Control CHAPTER | - Section F The Process Improvement Cycle and Process Control In applying the concept of continual improvement to processes, there is a | three-stage cycle that can be useful (see Figure L4). Every process is in | one of the three stages of the Improvement Cycle. | I | | 1. Analyze the Process ‘A basic understanding of the process is a must when considering process ‘improvement, Among the questions to be answered in order to achieve a better understanding of the process are: ‘+ What should the process be doing? Y Whats expected at each step of the process? ¥ What are the operational definitions of the deliverables? * What can go wrong? What can vary in this process? What do we already know about this process’ variability? What parameters are most sensitive to variation? + What isthe proces ding? i Is this process producing scrap or output that requires rework? Does this process produce oytput that is in a state of statistical control? Is the process capable? Is the process reliable? @ SK 86 Many techniques discussed in the APQP Manual” may be applied to gain a better understanding ofthe process. These activities include: + Group meetings © Consultation with people who develop or operate the process (subject matter experts”) ‘+ Review of the process” history ‘© Construction ofa Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) Control charts explained in this manual are powerful tools that should be used during the Process Improvement Cycle. These simple statistical methods help differentiate between common and special causes of Variation. The special causes of variation must be addressed. When a state of statistical control has been reached, the process’ current level of long-term capability can be assessed (see Chapter IV). DW Gime rete ccattis 058, 25(CHAPTER I~ Section F ‘The Process Improvement Cyclesnd Process Control 2. Maintain (Control) the Process Once a better understanding of the process has been achieved, the process must be maintained at an appropriate level of capability Processes are dynamic and will change. The performance of the process should be monitored so effective measures to prevent undesirable change can be taken. Desirable change also should be understood and institutionalized. Again, the simple statistical methods explained in this ‘manual can assist. Construction and use of control charts and other tools will allow for efficient monitoring of the process. When the tool signals that the process has changed, quick and efficient measures can be taken to isolate the cause(s) and act upon them. Is too easy to stop at this stage of the Process Improvement Cycle, Itis important to realize that there is a limit to any company's resources. Some, perhaps many, processes should be at this stage. However, failure to proceed to the next stage in this cycle can result in a significant competitive disadvantage. The attainment of “world class” requires a steady and planned effort to move into the next stage of the Cycle, 3. Improve the Process Up to this point, the effort has been to stabilize the processes and maintain them. However, for some processes, the customer will be sensitive even to variation within engineering specifications (see Chapter IV). In these instances, the value of continual improvement will not be realized until variation is reduced. At this point, additional process analysis tools, including more advanced statistical methods such as designed experiments and advanced control charts may be useful. Appendix H lists some helpful references for further study. Process improvement through variation reduction typically involves purposefully introducing changes into the process and measuring the effects. The goal is a better understanding of the process, so that the ‘common cause variation can be further reduced. The intent of this reduction is improved quality at lower cost. When new process parameters have been determined, the Cycle shifts back to Analyze the Process, Since changes have been made, process stability will need to be reconfirmed. ‘The process then continues to move around the Process Improvement Cycle, 26CHAPTER 1-Scetion F “The Process Improvement Cycle and Process Contol ‘This page intentionally left blank 2(CHAPTER I Section G ‘Control Charts: Tools For Process Control and Improvement CONTROL CHARTS Upper Control Limit Conter Line Lower Control Lit, 1. Collection + Gather Data and plot on a chart. 2. Control + Calculate trial control limits from process data. + Identify special causes of variation and act upon them. 3. Analysis and Improvement + Quantify common cause variation; take action to reduce it. ‘These three phases are repeated for continual process improvement Figure 1.5: Control Charts 28(CHAPTER I Section G ‘Contol Charts: Tools For Process Cootot end Improvement Tools For Process Control and Improvement CHAPTER | - Section G Control Charts: a | i: iF In bis books", Dr, W. E. Deming identifies two mistakes frequently made in process control: take 1. Ascribe a variation or a mistake to a special cause, ‘when in fact the cause belongs to the system (common causes). Mistake 2. Ascribe a variation or a mistake to a system (common causes), when in fact the cause was special. Over adjustment [tampering] is a common example of mistake No. 1. Never doing anything to try to find a special cause is @ common example of mistake No.2.” For effective variation management during production, there must be an ‘elfective means of detecting special causes. There is a common misconception that histograms can be used for this purpose. Histograms are the graphical representation of the distributional form of the process ‘variation, The distributional form is studied to verify that the process variation is symmetric and unimodal and that it follows a normal distribution @ Unfortunately normality does not guarantee that there are no special ‘causes acting on the process. That is, some special causes may change the process without destroying its symmetry or unimodalily. Also a non- normal distribution may have no special causes acting upon it but its distributional form is non-symmetric. ‘Time-based statistical and probabilistic methods do provide necessary and sufficient methods of determining if special causes exist. Although several classes of methods are useful in this task, the most versatile and robust is the gonre of control charts which were first developed and implemented by Dr. Walter Shewhart of the Bell Laboratories’ while studying process data in the 1920's. He first made the distinction between controlled and uncontrolled variation due to what is called common and special causes. He developed a simple but powerful tool to separate the two ~ the control chart Since that time, control charts have bbeen used successfully in a wide variety of process control and improvement situations. Experience has shown that control charts effectively direct attention toward special causes of variation when they ‘occur and reflect the extent of common cause variation that must be reduced by system or process improvement, It is impossible to reduce the above mistakes to zero. Dr. Shewhart realized this and developed a graphical approach to minimize, over the Jong run, the economic loss from both mistakes. ® * Deming (1989) and Deming (1994). ° Shewhart (1931). bi 29CHAPTER Section G ‘Control Chars: Tools For Process Control and Improvement How do they work?) If process control activities assure that no special cause sources of variation are active", the process is said to be in statistical control or “in control.” Such processes are said to be stable, predictable, and consistent since itis possible to predict" the performance ofthe process. ‘The active existence of any special cause will render the process out of Statistical control or “out of control.” The performance of such unstable processes cannot be predicted Control Limits When Shewhart developed control charts he was concemed with the economic control of processes; i.., action is taken on the process only ‘when special causes are present. To do this, sample statistics are ‘compared to contro! limits. But how are these limits determined? Consider a process distribution that can be described by the normal form. The goal is to determine when special causes are affecting it. Another ‘way of saying this is, “Has the process changed since it was last looked at it or during the period sampled?” ‘Shewhart's Two Rules for the Presentation of Data: Data should always be presented in such a way that preserves the evidence in the data for al the predictions that might be made from these data. Whenever an average, range, or hitogram is used to summarize data, the summary should not msioad the tser info taking any acon tht th User would not fake i the data were presented Ina time serios. ©) Has the process changed Since the normal distribution is described by its process location (mean) ‘and process width (range or standard deviation) this question becomes: ‘Has the process location or process width changed? ‘Consider only the location. What approach can be used to determine if the process location has changed? One possibility would be to look at 0 This is done by using the process information to identify and eliminate the existence of special causes cr detecting them and removing their effect when they do occur. ‘As with all probabilistic methods some risk is involved. The exact level of belief in prediction of future actions cannot be determined by statistical measures alone. Subject-matter expertise is required. 30CHAPTER I~ Section G Contzol Chat: Too's For Process Control and Improvereat every part produced by the process, but that is usually not economical. ‘The altemative is to uso a sample of the process, and calculate the mean of the sample. Has the process location changed ay a {take n samples’) (calculate x 4 ee If the process has not changed, will the sample mean be equal to the distribution mean? ‘The answer is that this very rarely happens. But how is this possible? ‘After all, the process has not changed. Doesn’t that imply that the process mean remains the same? The reason for this is that the sample ‘mean is only an estimation of the process mean. To make this a little clearer, consider taking a sample of size one. The mean of the sample is the individual sample itself. With such random samples from the distribution, the readings will eventually cover the entire process range. Using the formula Range of the distribution of means = (%) Process Range for a sample of size four, the resulting range of sample averages will be a=, of the process range; for a sample of size 100 it will be /si05'= }, of the process range.” Shewhart used this sampling distribution to establish an operational definition of “in statistical control.” First, start off with the assumption ‘that the process is in’statistical control, i, innocent until proven guilty. Then, compare the sample to the sampling distribution using the 23 standard deviation limits”. These are called control limits. Ifthe sample falls outside these limits then there is reason to believe that a special cause is present. Further, itis expected that all the (random) samples will exhibit a random ordering within these limits. If a group of samples shows a patter there is reason to believe that a special cause is present. (see Chapter I, Section C, and Chapter Il, Section A). "2 See the Central Limit Theorem. "9 Shewhart selected the #3 standard deviation limits as useful limits in achieving the economic control of 31(CHAPTER I- Section G (Control Chast: Tools For Process Control and Improvement Distribution of Averages Distribation of Individuals - { take n samples”) caloulate | dus to Sampling Variation In general, to set up a control chart we calculate: Centerline = average ofthe statistic being analyzed ‘UCL = upper contol limit = centerline +3 x standard deviation of the averages LCL = lower control limit= centerline -3 x standard deviation ofthe averages Approach: & 6, Approachy & Since Control Charts provide the operational definition of “in statistical control,” they are useful tools at every stage of the Improvement Cycle (see Chapter I, Section F), Within each stage, the PDSA™ cycle should be used For analysis of existing data sets For the Analysis and Improvement stages of the cycle: + Review the data ¥ Is the metric appropriate; ic., does it reflect a process attribute and tied to a key business factor? Y Are the data consistent; ic, is the same operational definition used by all partes collecting the dats? Y Are the data reliable; i., is a planned data collection scheme utilized? ¥ Is the measurement system appropriate and acceptable? Plot the dat ¥ Plot using the time order 2 Y Compare to control limits and determine if there are any points outside the contro limits ¥ Plan-Do-Study-Act cycle; also known as the PDCA, (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycle. & 32(CHAPTER I~ Section G Control Charts: Tools For Process Control and Improvement ¥ Compare to the centerline and determine if there are any non- random patterns clearly discernible © Analyze the data © Take appropriate action The data are compared with the control limits to see whether the variation is stable and appears to come from only common causes. If special causes of variation are evident, the process is studied to further determine what is affecting it. After actions (see Chapter I, Section D) have been taken, further data are collected, control limits are recalculated ifnecessary, and any additional special causes are acted upon, ‘After all special causes have been addressed and the process is running in statistical control, the control chart continues as a monitoring tool. Process capability can also be calculated. If the variation from common causes is excessive, the process cannot produce output that consistently ‘meets customer requirements. The process itself must be investigated, ‘and, typically, management action must be taken to improve the system. For control ‘+ Review the data collection scheme before starting: Y Is the metric appropriate; ie., does it reflect a process attribute and tied to a key business factor? ¥ Will the data be consistent; i.e., is the same operational definition used by all parties collecting the data’? ¥ Will the data be reliable; ic, isa planned data collection scheme used? Is the measurement system appropriate and acceptable? ‘© Plot each point as itis determined: Y Compare to control limits and determine if there are any points ‘outside the control limits Y Compare to the centerline and determine if there are any non- xandom pattems clearly discemible © Analyze the data ‘+ Take appropriate action: Y Continue to run with no action taken; or Y Identify source of the special cause and remove (if unacceptable response) or reinforce (if acceptable response); ot Y Continue to run with no action taken and reduce sample size or frequency; or Y Initiate a continual improvement action (Ofen it is found that although the process was aimed at the target value during initial setup, the actual process location (42)'* may not 1S The Greek letter us is used to indicate the actual process mean, which is estimated by the sample mean X 33CHAPTER I Section @ ‘Control Chants: Tools For Process Control and Improvement match this value. For those processes where the actual location deviates from the target and the ability to relocate the process is ‘economical, consideration should be given to adjusting the process so that itis aligned with the target (see Chapter IV, Section C). This, assumes that this adjustment does not affect the process variation. This may not always hold true, but the causes for any possible increase in process variation after re-targeting the process should be understood and assessed against both customer satisfaction and economics. ‘The long-term performance of the process should continue to be analyzed. This can be accomplished by a periodic and systematic review of the ongoing control charts. New evidence of special ‘causes might be revealed. Some special causes, when understood, will be beneficial and useful for process improvement Others will bbe detrimental, and will need to be corrected or removed. The purpose of the Improvement Cycle is to gain an understanding of the process and its variability to improve ils performance. As this Understanding matures, the need for continual monitoring of product variables may become less — especially in processes where documented analysis shows that the dominant source of variation are more efficiently and effectively controlled by other approaches. For ‘example: in processes where maintenance is the dominant source of Variation, the process is best controlled by preventive and predictive ‘maintenance; for processes where process setup is the dominant source ‘of variation, the process is best controlled by setup contol chars. For a process that is in statistical control, improvement efforts will often focus on reducing the common cause variation in the process. Reducing ‘this variation will have the effect of “shrinking” the control limits on the control chart (ic., the limits, upon their recalculation, will be closer together). Many people, not familiar with control charts, feel this is penalizing” the process for improving. They do not realize that if @ process is stable and the control limits are caiculated correctly, the chance that the process will erroneously yield an out-of-control point is the same regardless of the distance between the control limits (sce Chapter I, Section E). One arca deserving mention is the question of recalculation of control chart limits. Once properly computed, and if no changes to the common cause variation of the process occur, then the control limits remain legitimate. Signals of special causes’ of variation do not require the recalculation of control limits. For long-term analysis of control charts, it is best to recalculate control limits as infrequently as possible; only as dictated by changes in the process. For continual process improvement, repeat the three stages of the Improvement Cycle: Analyze the Process; Maintain (Control) the Process; Improve the Process, see Figure 14.(CHAPTER 1 Section G Control Charts: Tools For Process Control and Improvement ‘This page intentionally lft blank 35CHAPTER I Sestion fective Use and Benefits Of Control Charts BENEFITS OF CONTROL CHARTS Properly used, control charts can: * Be used by operators for ongoing control of a process ‘© Help the process perform consistently and predictably | © Allow the process to achieve — Higher quality — Lower unit cost — Higher effective capability * Provide a common language for discussing the performance of the process * Distinguish special from common causes of variation, as a guide to local action or action on the system. 36(CHAPTER I~ Section H Effective Use and Benefits OF Control Charts CHAPTER | - Section H Effective Use and Benefits of Control Charts Important benefits can be obtained from the effective use of control ‘charts. The gains and benefits from the control charts are directly related to the following: Management Philosophy: How the company is managed can directly impact the effectiveness of SPC. ‘The following are examples of what needs to be present: ‘+ Focus the organization on variation reduction. ‘+ Establish an open environment that minimizes internal competition and supports cross-functional teamwork. Support and fund management and employee training in the proper use and application of SPC. Show support and interest i the application and resulting benefits of properly applied SPC. Make regular visits and asks questions in those areas. ‘© Apply SPC to promote the understanding of variation in engineering processes. © Apply SPC to management data aiid use the information in day-to- day decision making. I The above items support the requirements contained in 180 9000:2000 and ISO/TS 16949:2002. Engineering Philosophy: How engineering uses data to develop designs ‘can and will have an influence on the level and type of variation in the finished product. ‘The following are some ways that engineering can show effective use of SPC: ‘+ Focus the engineering organization on variation reduction throughout the design process; e.g., number of design changes, design for ‘manufacturing and assembly, personnel moves, et. © Establish an open engineering environment that minimizes internal ‘competition and supports cross-functional teamwork. + Suppor and fund engineering management and employees training in the proper use and application of SPC. + © Apply SPC to promote the understanding of variation in engineering processes. # Require an understanding of variation and stability in relation to dD measurement and the data that are used for design development. 37CHAPTER I~ Seetion H fective Use and Benefits Of Cantrol Charts ‘+ Support engineering changes proposed due to analysis of SPC information to aid in the reduction of variation, ‘Manufacturing: How manufacturing develops and operates machines and transfer systems can impact the level and type of variation in the finished product: * Focus the manufacturing organization on variation reduction; eg., ‘number of different processes, impact of multi-fixture and multi-tool processes, tool and machine maintenance, ete. ‘+ Establish an open engineering environment that minimizes internal ‘competition and supports cross-functional teamwork. + Support snd fund manufacturing management and employees {taining in the proper use and application of SPC. ‘+ Apply SPC in the understanding of variation in the manufacturing processes. ‘+ Require an understanding of variation and stability in relation to measurement and the data that are used for process design development. ‘+ Use the analysis of SPC information to support process changes for the reduction of variation. + Do not release control charts to operators until the process is stable. ‘The transfer of responsibility for the process to production should ‘occur after the process is stable. * Assure proper placement of SPC data for optimum use by the employees. Quality Control: The Quality function is critical component in Providing support for an effective SPC process: * Support SPC training for management, engineering, and employees in the organization, ‘+ Mentor key people in the organization in the proper application of SPC. ‘+ Assist in the identification and reduction of the sources of variation. ‘* Ensure optimum use of SPC data and information. Produetion: Production personnel are directly related to the process and ccan affect process variation. They should ‘+ Be properly trained in the application of SPC and problem solving. * Have an understanding of variation and stability in relation to measurement and the data that are used for process control and improvement. ‘* Bealert to and communicate when conditions change. * Update, maintain and display control charts within area of responsibility, 38