CLASSIFICATIONS OF

MATTER
 Classifications of Matter

Two classifications Matter

of matter:
Pure Substances
and
Impure Substances Pure Impure
Compositions of Matter
Matter can be classified base on its compositions.
(i) Pure Substances cannot be separated or
broken down by any physical means.

(ii) Impure Substances can be also called as

mixtures wherein its components can be
separated by physical means.
 Matter as Pure Substances

Two types of Pure

pure substances: Substances
Elements
and
Compounds Elements Compounds
Matter as Pure Substances
Pure substances are anything that cannot be broken
down through any physical means.
(i) Elements are the simplest type composed of
only one kind of atom and cannot be broken
down into simpler forms.
(ii) Compounds are made up or combinations of
two or more different kinds of atoms or
elements and can be broken down into
simpler forms.
Elements

Examples of
elements:
Gold
Zinc
Mercury
Chlorine
Compounds

Examples of
compounds:
Sodium Chloride
Calcium Carbonate
Sodium Hydroxide
Copper Sulfate
Classifications of Elements

Elements can be classified into three base on its

properties which has their own characteristics
and uses.
METALS METALLOIDS NON METALS
Metals
Properties of metals:
 Good electrical
and heat
conductors
 Malleable and
Ductile
 Metallic Luster
 Opaque as thin
sheets
 Solid at room temp
except Hg
Non-Metals Properties of
nonmetals:
 Poor electrical
and heat conductors
 Brittle and
Nonductile
 Not a metallic luster
 Transparent as thin
sheets
 Solid, Liquid or Gas
at room temp
Metalloids Properties of
metalloids:
 Intermediate
between metals and
nonmetals
 Shiny or Dull
 Semiconductors
 Matter as Mixtures

Two types of Mixtures

mixtures:
Homogeneous
and Homogeneo Heterogeneo
Heterogeneous
us us
Matter as Mixtures
Mixtures are forms of matter which has no definite
properties and are not combined chemically. It can
be separated by physical means.
(i) Homogeneous mixtures are mixtures in which
only one phase is visibly seen.
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures are mixtures in
which at least two different phases are
visibly seen.
Homogeneous Mixtures
Examples of
homogeneous
mixtures:
brewed coffee
air
steel
saline solution
Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. It has two
components: solute, the one that is being dissolved;
and solvent, the dissolving medium.
Solutions come in varied proportions with respect to
the amount of solvent that can dissolve:
saturated has maximum amount of solute;
unsaturated has lesser amount of solute; and
supersaturated has greater amount of solute.
Heterogeneous Mixtures
Examples of
heterogeneous
mixtures:
mist
assorted candies
balsamic vinaigrette
smog
Suspensions – Colloids

Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures. It has

particles that is big enough to settle at the
bottom of the mixture. It also exhibits Tyndall
effect.
Colloids are intermediate between a solution and
a suspension. Its particles do not separate but it
exhibits Tyndall effect.
Tyndall Effect
Tyndall effect is a
phenomenon
observed in visible
light that is being
scattered by particles
in a colloid or
suspension.
Separating Methods in Mixtures

Components of mixtures are not chemically

bound; thus, the components can be separated
by physical means using different separation
techniques.
 Separatory Funnel
Separating:
Two immiscible liquids
of different densities

Example:
kerosene–water
mixture
 Simple Distillation
Separating:
Two miscible liquids
with enough difference
in boiling points

Example:
acetone-water mixture
 Fractional Distillation
Separating:
Mixture of two or more
miscible liquids with
boiling point difference
of less than 25 °C

Example:
acetone-water mixture
 Evaporation
Separating:
Mixture of soluble solid
from a liquid

Example:
salt-water solution
 Filtration
Separating:
Mixture of insoluble
solid from liquid

Example:
sand and water mixture
 Centrifugation
Separating:
Mixture of insoluble
smaller solid from
liquid where normal
filtration does not work
well

Example:
blood test
 Chromatography
Separating:
Components with
different solubility to
mobile phase
(solvent) and
stationary phases
(paper or column)
Example:
food color or ink
 Magnetism
Separating:
Mixture of two solids
with one having
magnetic properties

Example:
iron fillings in sand
THANK YOU!
END
 ATOMS
Ions and Molecules
General Chemistry 1
Birth of Atomic Theory
During the 4th century
BCE, a Greek
Philosopher named
Democritus had the
idea that all matter
was consisted of
minute particles. He
named and coined
these minute particles
as "atomos" which
means indivisible
Democritus’s Atomic Theory
"Matter could not be
divided into smaller
and smaller pieces
forever and
eventually, the
smallest possible
piece would be
obtained."
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
John Dalton, a
scientist, who
provided precise and
detailed description of
the building blocks of
matter. During the
19th century, he
formulated the atomic
theory.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. An element is made up of extremely small, indestructible
particles called the atom.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical while atoms of
different elements are non-identical.
3.. Compounds are made up of atoms of more than one type
of element. The ratio of the number of atoms of any two
elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
4.. In any chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to produce
different substances. The identity and the mass of the
atoms are unchanged.
Three Fundamental Laws of Matter
Dalton did not attempt to describe the structure
of an atom. Regardless of the nature and
structure, the overall behavior of atom explained
the three fundamental laws of matter.

1. The Law of Definite Proportions or

Constant Composition
2.. The Law of Multiple Proportions
3.. The Law of Conservation of Mass
The Law of Definite Proportions
This law states that different samples of the
same compound always contain its constituent
element in the same proportion by mass.
The Law of Multiple Proportions
This law states that if two elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the
masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of
small whole numbers.
The Law of Conservation of Mass
This law states that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed.
Structure of an Atom
The atom, as
described by the
atomic theory, is the
basic unit of an
element that can take
part in a chemical
reaction.
It is consisted of three
subatomic particles:
electrons, protons and
neutrons.
Atom
An atom contains a nucleus composed of
protons and neutrons and electrons moving
around the nucleus.
There are two ways two describe an atom
quantitatively based on the number of specific
subatomic particles: the atomic number and the
mass number.
Atomic Number
The atomic number is the number of protons in
the nucleus of each atom of an element.
In a neutral atom, the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons, so the atomic
number also indicates the number of electrons
present in the atom.
The chemical identity of an atom can be
determined solely from its atomic number.
Mass Number
▪
Standard Notation
▪

X element
symbol
A mass number
Z atomic
number
e charge
 Standard Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Element Name
Notation Number Number Proton Electron Neutron

23 12
35 80
20 20
7 7 7
18 40
Isotopes
Atoms of a given element do not all have the
same mass. Most elements have two or more
isotopes, meaning atoms that have the same
atomic number but different mass numbers.
Stable Isotopes – do not undergo radioactivity
and do not disintegrate. They are abundant in
nature.
Unstable Isotopes – exhibit radioactivity. They
can be natural or artificial..
 Common Isotopes and Their Uses
▪
 Common Isotopes and Their Uses
▪
 Common Isotopes and Their Uses
▪
Periodic Table of Elements
The periodic table is a chart in which elements
having similar chemical and physical properties
are grouped together by categorizing elements
using groups and periods.
Groups – or families, vertical columns, share a
common number valence electrons.
Periods – horizontal rows, share the highest
unexcited electron energy level.
 Element Groups
Group 1 1A alkali metals lithium family
Group 2 2A alkali earth metals beryllium family
Group 3 3B transition metals scandium family
Group 4 4B transition metals titanium family
Group 5 5B transition metals vanadium family
Group 6 6B transition metals chromium family
 Element Groups
Group 7 7B transition metals manganese
family
Group 8 8B transition metals iron family
Group 9 8B transition metals cobalt family
Group 10 8B transition metals nickel
family
 Element Groups
Group 13 3A icosagens boron
family
Group 14 4A crystallogens carbon family
Group 15 5A pnictogens nitrogen
family
Group 16 6A chalcogens oxygen family
Molecules
A molecule is a formation of at least two atoms
in a definite arrangement held together by
chemical forces known as chemical bonds.
It may contain atoms of the same element or
atoms of two or more elements joined in a fixed
ratio (law of definite proportions).
Like atoms, molecules are neutral in charge.
Types of Molecules
▪
Ions
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a
net charge: positive or negative.
The number of positively charged protons in the
nucleus of an atom remains the same during
ordinary chemical reactions but negatively
charged electrons may be lost or gain.
Ions
cation – an ion with a positive charge: if a
neutral atom loses one or more electrons

anion – an ion with a negative charge: if a

neutral atom gains one or more electrons
Ions

11 protons 11 protons
11 10
electrons electrons
17 protons 17 protons
17 18
electrons electrons
Ions
▪
Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas are used to express the
composition of molecules and compounds in
terms of chemical symbols.
molecular formula – shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a
substance
empirical formulas – shows which elements are
present and the simplest whole number ratio of
their atoms
 Molecular Empirical
Compound Name
Formula Formula

Dihydrogen dioxide
Water
Glucose
Ethanol
Ethane
Formula of Ionic Compounds
The formula of ionic compounds are usually the
same as their empirical formulas because ionic
compounds do not consist of discrete molecular
units.
The sum of charges on the cation and anion in
each formula unit must be zero.
The subscript of the cation is equal to the
charge on the anion and the subscript of the
anion is equal to the charge on the cation.
Cation Anion Total Charge Formula
Naming Compounds
Compounds can be classified into two based on
their element compositions:
Organic compounds – essentially having carbon
atoms in the structure together with other atoms
and shows covalent bonding.
Inorganic compounds – essentially not having
carbon atoms, shows ionic bonding, and can be
categorized into four: ionic compounds,
molecular compounds, acids and bases, and
Ionic Compounds
▪
Binary Compounds
Many ionic compounds are binary compounds,
compounds formed from just two elements.

For the binary compounds, the first element

named is the metal cation and followed by
nonmetallic anion with added “-ide”.
Monoatomic Anions
Cation Anion Chemical Formula Compound Name
Ternary Compounds
▪
Cation Anion Chemical Formula Compound Name
Transition Metals Ions
▪
Transition Metals Ions
Older nomenclature is used to name cations
with same atom but differ in amount of (+)
charges.

ending with “-ous” for fewer (+) charges

ending with “-ic” for greater (+) charge
Metal Cation Cation Common Name
Cation Anion Chemical Formula Compound Name
Stock System
Using stock system, roman numerals are being
used to indicate the number of (+) charges.

I has one (+) charge

II has two (+) charges
III has three (+) charges
. ..
. ..
Metal Cation Cation Systematic Name
Cation Anion Chemical Formula Compound Name
Chemical
Trivial Name Systematic Name
Formula
THANK YOU!
END
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
AND PERIODICITY
Development of the Periodic Table
JOHANN WOLFGANG DÖBEREINER
GERMAN CHEMIST

• In 1817, he formulated the Law of Triads that is a

group of three elements.
• Calcium, Barium, and Strontium.
• 1829, Dobereiner announced the existence of the
Triads.

Cl – 35 S – 32 Ca – 40
Br – 80 Se – 79 Sr – 87
I - 127 Te - 128 Ba - 137
JOHN NEWLANDS
ENGLISH CHEMIST

• In 1864, he arranged the elements

in order of their increasing atomic Newlands’ Octaves

masses. H Li Be B C N O
• he noted that there appeared to F Na Mg Al Si P S
be a repetition of similar
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
properties after every 8 element
and him to place 7 elements in
each group in the form of Law of
Octaves.
DMITRI MENDELEEV JULIUS LOTHAR MEYER
RUSSIAN CHEMIST GERMAN CHEMIST

• In 1869, he published the • In 1870, he validated Mendeleev’s

periodic law, which stated periodic table.

that “The properties of • His work is best known for its

elements are a periodic recognition of periodic behavior,
or the repeating pattern of a
function of their atomic
property, the atomic volume,
weight.” which he plotted against atomic
weight.
HENRY MOSELEY
ENGLISH PHYSICIST

• In 1913, he studied the characteristics X-ray spectra of the elements.

• He found the reason for the exceptions to Mendeleev’s period law,. This
led to the revision of the periodic law that arranged elements according
to their atomic numbers instead of their atomic masses.
• Modern Periodic Law – states that the physical and chemical properties
of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
• Electrons are arranged and distributed in orbital shells
and subshells.
• Electron configuration also represent the cations or
anions by reflecting loss or gain of electrons in thi=eir
subsequent orbitals.
 Shells (electron)
• A simple way to show the
arrangement of electrons around an
atom is to arrange the electrons in
energy levels or shells around the
nucleus of an atom.
• Subshell – a grouping of electrons in
a shell according to the shape of the
region of space they occupy.
 Orbitals
• A region of space within an atom
where an electron in a given
subshell can be found
• There are four different orbitals
shapes : s, p, d, and f.
• s for sharp
• p for principal
• d for diffuse
• f for fundamentals
ELECTRON ENERGY LEVEL
 Guidelines in determining the electron
configuration of an element.
• An orbital can hold only two electrons, which must be
of opposite spin.
• Electrons that occupy the same orbital are called an
electron pair.
• An electron will always enter the orbital with the
lowest energy level.
• An electron can occupy an orbitals individually, but it
should be occupy a lower-energy orbital with another
electron before occupying a higher-energy orbital.
• The s subshell can hold 2 electrons: the p subshells can
hold 6 electrons.
Periodic Variation in Atomic
Properties
PERIODICITY – is the fundamental aspect of the periodic table
ATOMIC SIZE
• Determined by the atomic
radius of an element.
• Increases from top to
bottom in a group.
• Decreases from left to
right, due to an increase in
the magnitude of the
nuclear charge, which
cause the electron cloud to
become denser and more
compact.
IONIC RADIUS
• Is based on the distance between the nuclei of two ions.
• ions - any atom or group of atoms that bears one or more
positive or negative electrical charges.
• Cations – is a positively charged ions.
• A cation is always smaller than the atom from which it is
formed.
• Anions – is a negatively charged ions.
• A anion is always larger than the atom from which it is
formed.
IONIZATION ENERGY (IE)
IONIZATION ENERGY INCREASE
• Refers to the energy required
to remove an electron from a

IONIZATION ENERGY INCREASE

gaseous neutral atom and
convert it into a positive ion.
• Smaller atoms have higher
ionization energies.
ELECTRON AFFINITY (EA)
• Is the energy given off
when an electron is added

ELECTRON AFFINITY
to a neutral atom,
converting it into a
negative ion.

ELECTRON AFFINITY
BEHAVIOR OF ELEMENTS
• This will explain the behavior of elements in the presence of other atoms or elements.
• Atoms lose electrons, they have high electron affinity.
• Atoms gain electrons, they have high electronegativity.
• As compounds in oxidation – reduction reaction, they behave as oxidizing agents or
reducing agents.
• Oxidizing Agents – is a substance that has ability to cause other substance to lose
electron.
• Reducing Agents – is an element or compound that lose or donates an electron to
another chemical species. A reducing agents also known as an electron donor.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN)
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• This property is a measure
of the ability of an atom to
attract a shared pair of

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
electrons.
• Large atoms have low EN
values while nonmetals
have high EN values.
METALLIC PROPERTY
• Is the measure of the
tendency of an atom to
lose electrons.
• Large atoms are more
metallic, while small atom
are less metallic.
VALENCE PERIODICITY
 ELECTRON
STRUCTURE
of the ATOM
General Chemistry 1
Introduction
Various scientists have devoted their time to
investigate atoms – the building blocks of
matter. They have consistently looked for
reasonable explanations about the nature of one
of the fundamental subatomic particles – the
electron.
Introduction
Electrons are negatively charged, and thus are
opposite to the charge of the nucleus. If
objects with opposite charges attract one
another, why are electrons not attracted toward
the nucleus? How are electrons arranged, and
how can they still move around the nucleus
despite the electrostatic attraction between
them and the nucleus?
Quantum Mechanical Description
Quantum mechanics refers to the study of
motion of minute particles, such as electrons,
in relation to waves and the specific amount of
energy they can hold. It describes electrons as
particles with wavelike properties such as
immense speed. Thus, electrons have high
kinetic energy as they revolve around the
nucleus, and this energy prevents them from
collapsing into the nucleus of the atom.
 History
 Scientist had already known that electrons emit
electromagnetic waves when energized.
 Henrik David Bohr proposed the presence of
quantized energy levels in an atom using his
experiment on obtaining the atomic spectrum
emission of H after subjecting the H2 molecules
under immense temperature and voltage. He
assumed that electrons are limited to move in
certain shells relative to the nucleus and the
amount of energy they release or absorb.
 History
 Scientist discovered that the Bohr’s theory had
some limitations.
 Louis de Broglie proposed the dual nature of
matter – electrons manifest particle and wave
properties similar to light based on his
experiment where electrons are allowed to pass
through a narrow opening that produced a
diffraction pattern.
 History
 Scientist discovered that de Broglie’s theory
presented a dilemma wherein electron’s location
and speed can be accurately predicted but not
showing with the experimental results.
 Werner Heisenberg tried to resolve the dilemma
by proposing that it is impossible to determine
the velocity and position of a very small entity
such as electron with utmost certainty and
precision. This is called Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle.
 History
 Erwin Schrödinger came up with an approach
called wave mechanics of the atom – electrons
do not travel around the nucleus in a circular
manner, which identifies the possible region
where electrons can most probably be located,
but not the exact description for the motion of
the electron.
 History
 Erwin Schrödinger’s equation not only specified
the probable region where electrons can be
located. It also suggests a probable arrangement
of electrons in space. The arrangement of
electrons can be described based on well-
defined energy plots according to the main
energy level, sublevel, and orbital.
Main Energy Level
Main energy level or principal energy (n) is
written as an integer 1, 2, 3, and so on. This
is the region in space occupied by electrons.
Energy varies with respect to probable location
of the electron. The nearer electron to the
nucleus, the lower the energy level. The farther
it is from the nucleus, the higher the energy
level.
Sublevels
Each energy level has one or more divisions or
subshells. Sublevels are named based on their
appearances in the spectrum such as: sharp
(s), principal (p), diffused (d), and
fundamental (f). It also represents the shape of
the region where an electron can be found such
as: s has a spherical shape, p has two lobes, d
has four lobes, and f has approximately seven
lobes.
Energy
Sublevels
Level
1 s
2 s p
3 s p d
4 s p d f
5 s p d f g
6 s p d f g h
7 s p d f g h i
8 s p d f g h i j
Orbitals
Orbitals take into consideration the shape of the
sublevels and how they are oriented in space.
s has only one orbital
p has three orbitals (𝑝−1 , 𝑝0 , 𝑝1 )
d has five orbitals (𝑑−2 , 𝑑−1 , 𝑑0 , 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 )
f has seven orbitals (𝑓−3 , 𝑓−2 , 𝑓−1 , 𝑓0 , 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 )
Only two electrons can occupy an orbital: s has
2, p has 6, d has 10, and f has 14 electrons. .
 Total
Number Orbitals Electrons
Energy Electrons
of Sublevels per in each
Level in Energy
Sublevels Sublevel Orbitals
Level
Electron Configuration
Electron configuration refers to the logical
numerical representation of the predicted
location of electron in an atom.
In writing the electron configuration of atoms,
they are in their ground state.
Example: 2p3
There are 3 electrons in the last subshell
present in an atom located at the second energy
level in the p sublevel.
Orbital Diagram
Orbital diagram is used to illustrate the
distribution of electrons in an atom using lines,
squares, or rectangles to represent orbitals.
Orbitals in a subshell correspond to the number
of degenerate orbitals – orbitals in different
state but exhibit the same energy.
Electron Configuration
1. Aufbau’s Principle
Orbitals are arranged according to increasing
energy. Thus, electrons must occupy the orbitals
with the lowest energy before the next higher
energy orbital is filled.
Electron Configuration
2. Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
Each degenerate orbitals must be filled in first
by a single electron before pairing up.
Electron Configuration
3. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Only two electrons should be placed in each
orbital and that they should be of opposite
spins in space.
Example
Electron configuration and orbital diagram of
24
12Mg
Example
Electron configuration and orbital diagram of
14
7N
 GASES
General Chemistry 1
 OBJECTIVES
 Define pressure and give the common units of pressure;
 Express the gas laws in equation form;
 Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of
a gas under certain conditions of change;
 Use the ideal gas equation to calculate pressure, volume, or
temperature, or number of moles of a gas;
 Use Dalton’s law of partial pressure to relate mole fraction and
partial pressure of gases in a mixture.
 Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the amounts
(volume, number of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants and
products;
 Explain the gas laws of the kinetic molecular theory of gases.
 Introduction to Gases
 Air – we live in a sea of air – atmosphere.
 21% Oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% Argon, CO2
and water vapor.
 Other gases, industrial activity (methane,
CFCs, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide
emission, and nitric oxides.)
GASES
 Particles are very far apart.
 Move freely
 It has no definite shape or
volume
 Less density and can be
compressed.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF
GASES
1. Gases are composed of a large number of
particles that like hard, spherical objects
in a state of constant, random motion.
2. These particles move in a straight line
until they collide with another particles or
the walls of the container.
3. These particles are much smaller than the
distance between the particles. Most of the
volume of a gas is empty space.
 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF
GASES
4. There is no force of attraction between gas
particles or between the particles and the walls of
the container.
5. Collisions between gas particles or collisions with
the walls of the container are perfectly elastic. None
of the energy of a gas particles is lost when it
collides with another particles or with the walls of
the container.
6. The average kinetic energy of a collision of gas
depends on the temperature of the gas and nothing
else.
 PROPERTIES OF GASES
4 Properties of Gases
Pressure - P
Volume -v
Temperature - T
Number of moles – n (amount of gas)
 PROPERTIES OF GASES: PRESSURE (P)
 The pressure of a gas is the result of a force that
is created when gas particles hit the walls of a
container.
 Units of measurement for pressure:
 Atmosphere = Atm
 Millimeter of mercury = mm Hg or torr
 Inches of mercury = in Hg
 Pounds per square inch = psi
 Pascal = Pa or one newton per square meter = 1 N/m2
 PROPERTIES OF GASES: PRESSURE (P)
 The pressure of a gas is the result of a force
that is created when gas particles hit the walls
of a container.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure (P) =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 PROPERTIES OF GASES: PRESSURE (P)
 Atmospheric pressure – is
measured by a barometer, a
mercury-filled glass tube
that is close to one end.
 The standard atmospheric pressure
(1 atm) corresponds to the pressure
supporting a column of mercury
exactly 760 mm at 0°C at sea level,
also known as 760 mm Hg.
 UNITS FOR MEASURING PRESSURE
UNIT ABBREVIATION UNIT EQUIVALENT TO 1 ATM
Atmosphere Atm 1 atm

Millimeters of Hg Mm Hg 760 mm Hg

Torr Torr 760 torr

Inches of Hg In Hg 29.9 in Hg

Pounds per square inch psi, lb/𝑖𝑛2 14.7 psi or 14.7 lb/𝑖𝑛2

Newton per square meter N/𝑚2 101 325 N/𝑚2

Pascal Pa 101 325 Pa

Millibar mb 101. 25 mb
PROPERTIES OF GASES: VOLUME (V)
 The volume of the gas is equal to the
volume of its container.

 Units of measurement for volume:

 milliliters = mL
 Liters = L
PROPERTIES OF GASES: TEMPERATURE
(T)
 Calculations with gases use the Kelvin
temperature scale.
T (K) = T (°C) + 273
 At 0° Kelvin which is absolute zero,
gas particles have no energy and
therefore are not in motion.
PROPERTIES OF GASES: NUMBER OF
MOLES (n)

 This is the quantity of the gas which

is expressed in mole.
 To differentiate it from a previous
value also of the same name
 PROPERTIES OF GASES

PROPERTY UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

PRESSURE (P) Atmosphere (atm); mm Hg or torr

VOLUME (V) Liter (L); milliliter (mL)
TEMPERATURE (T) Kelvin (ºK)
AMOUNT (n) Mole
 THE GAS LAWS
1. Boyle’s Law
2. Charles’ Law
3. Gay Lussac's Law
4. Combined Gas Laws
5. Ideal Gas Law
6. Avogardo’s Law
7. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
8. Graham’s Law: Rate of Diffusion of Gases
9. Gas Stoichiometry
 GAS LAWS: BOYLE’S LAW

 Boyle’s Law states that the pressure

exerted by certain amount of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume at
constant temperature.

P1V1 = P2V2
 GAS LAWS: BOYLE’S LAW
Sample Problem 1:
A sample of gas occupies a volume of 73.5 ml at a pressure of 710 torr
and a temperature of 30º C. What will it’s volume be in ml at 760 torr?

Given: P1 = 710 torr ; P2 = 760 torr ; V1 = 73.5 ml

Find: V2 = ?
Formula: P1V1 = P2V2
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1 (710 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟)(73.5 𝑚𝑙)
Solution: =  V2 = = = 68. 67 ml
𝑃2 𝑃2 𝑃2 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
 GAS LAWS: BOYLE’S LAW
Sample Problem 2:
The volume of a gas is 17.4 liters measured at standard pressure.
Calculate the pressure of the gas in torr if the volume is changed to
20.4 liters and the temperature remains constant.

Given: P1 = 760 torr ; V1 = 17.4 L ; V2 = 20.4 L

Find: P2 = ?
Formula: P1V1 = P2V2
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1 (760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟)(17.4 𝐿)
Solution: =  P2 = = = 648.25 torr
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2 20.4 𝐿
 GAS LAWS: CHARLES’ LAW

 Charles’ Law states that at a fixed

pressure, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the
temperature of the gas.

V1T2 = V2T1
 GAS LAWS: CHARLES’ LAW
Sample Problem 1:
A gas occupies a volume of 4.50 L at 27º C. At what temperature, at ºK
would the volume be at 6.00 L where the pressure remains constant?
Given: T1 = 27º C -> ºK ; V1 = 4.50 L ; V2 = 6.00 L
ºK = 27º C + 273 = 300 ºK
Find: T2 = ?
Formula: V1T2 = V2T1
𝑉1𝑇2 𝑉2𝑇𝑖 𝑉2𝑇1 (6.00 𝐿)(300ºK)
Solution: =  T2 = = = 400 ºK
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 4.5 𝐿
 GAS LAWS: CHARLES’ LAW
Sample Problem 2:
A gas measures 150 ml at 1.0 atm and 24ºC. Calculate its volume
in ml at 0ºC and 1 atm.
Given: T1 = 24º C -> ºK ; V1 = 150 mL ; T2 = 0ºC  273ºK
ºK = 24 + 273 = 297 ºK
Find: V2 = ?
Formula: V1T2 = V2T1
𝑉1𝑇2 𝑉2𝑇𝑖 𝑉1𝑇2 (15𝑜𝑚𝐿)(273ºK)
Solution: =  V2 = = = 137.88 mL
𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇1 297ºK
 SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITY

▪ Essay: Look up on the web how the low pressure in high

altitudes affects the body. How is this problem addressed by
mountain climbers? In aircrafts during flights?
SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITY
THANK YOU!
END
 GASES
General Chemistry 1
 GAS LAWS: GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW

 French Chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

 State that’s the pressure exerted by a
certain amount of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant volume.

P1T2 = P2T1
 GAS LAWS: GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
Sample Problem 1:
The temperature of a gas originally at STP is changed to 2.20 ºC at constant
volume. Calculate the final pressure at constant volume.

Given: T1 = 273 ºK ; T2 = 2.20 ºC  275.2 ºK ; P1 = 760 torr

ºK = 2.20 ºC + 273 = 275.2 ºK
Find: P2 = ?
Formula: P1T2 = P2T1
𝑃1𝑇2 𝑃2𝑇𝑖 𝑃1𝑇2 (760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟)(275.2ºK)
Solution: =  P2 = = = 766.12 torr
𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇1 273ºK
 GAS LAWS: GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
Sample Problem 2: A gas occupies a volume of 80.0ml at 27 ºC and
630 torr. At what temperature in ºC would the pressure be 770 torr if
the volume remains constant?

Given: T1 = 27 ºC  300 ºK ; P1 = 630 torr ; P2 = 770 torr

K = 27 ºC + 273 = 300 ºK
Find: T2 = ?
Formula: P1T2 = P2T1
𝑃1𝑇2 𝑃2𝑇1 𝑃2𝑇1 (770 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟)(300ºK)
Solution: =  T2 = = = 366.67 ºK
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃1 630 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
GAS LAWS: GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW

Convert to ºC
ºC = ºK - 273

T2 = 366.67 ºK
ºC = 366.67 ºK – 273 = 63.7 ºC
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS

 It only combined a single relationship

pressure – volume – temperature of gases.
 This law is helpful to recall of the
previous laws by omitting those properties
that do not change.
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS
COMBINE GAS LAW PROPERTIES HELD ACTION PROPERTIES THAT RELATIONSHIP
CONSTANT CHANGE
Eliminate T1 and T2 Boyle’s Law
𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐 from the Combined P ,V
= n ,T Gas Law P1V1 = P2V2
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Eliminate P1 and Charles' Law
𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐 P2 from the V ,T
= n,P Combined Gas Law V1T2 = V2T1
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Eliminate V1 and V2 Gay-Lussac’s Law
𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐 from the Combined P ,T
= n ,V Gas Law P1T2 = P2T1
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS
Sample Problem 1:
A certain gas occupies a volume of 500mL at 27 ºC at 740 torr. What
volume will it occupy at STP?

Given: T1 = 27 ºC  300 ºK ; T2 = 273ºK ; P2 = 770 torr

K = 27 ºC + 273 = 300 ºK ; V1 = 500 mL
Find: V2 = ?
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑇1 𝑇2
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS
Sample Problem 1:
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1𝑇2 𝑇1𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1𝑇2

Solution: =  =  V2 =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1𝑃2 𝑇1𝑃2 𝑇1𝑃2

740 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 (500𝑚𝐿)(273ºK)

V2 = = 44.30 mL
760𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 (300ºK)
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS
Sample Problem 2:
A given sample of gas has a volume of 5.10 L at 27 ºC and 640 mmHg.
Its volume and temperature are changed to 2.10 L and 100 ºC
respectively. Calculate the pressure in mmHg at those conditions.

Given: T1 = 27 ºC  300 ºK ; T2 = 100 ºC  373 ºK ; P1 = 640 torr

K = 27 ºC + 273 = 300 ºK ; V1 = 5.10 L ; V2 = 2.10 L
Find: P2 = ?
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑇1 𝑇2
 GAS LAWS: COMBINE GAS LAWS
Sample Problem 2:
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1𝑇2 𝑇1𝑃2𝑉2 𝑃1𝑉1𝑇2

Solution: =  =  P2 =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1𝑉2 𝑇1𝑉2 𝑇1𝑉2

(640 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔) (5.10𝐿)(373ºK)

P2 = = 1, 932.50 mmHg
300ºK (2.10 𝐿)
 GAS LAWS: IDEAL GAS LAW
 Benoit Paul Emile Clapeyron.
 This law states that: The amount of gas is determined by
its pressure, volume, and temperature.
PV = nRT
P = atm
V = volume of the vessel containing moles of gas (Liters)
n = amount of substance of gas (moles)
R = gas constant
 GAS LAWS: IDEAL GAS LAW
R = gas constant Standard Values
- 0.0821 L-atm/ml-K T = 273 K
- 8.314472 pascals/kPa n = 1 mol
- 62.4 torr or 62.4 mmHg V = 22.4 L
- 1.2 psi P = 1.00 atm
𝑃𝑉
R =
𝑛𝑇
(1.0𝑎𝑡𝑚)(22.4𝐿)
R= = 0.0821 L-atm/ml-K
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 (273 𝐾)
 GAS LAWS: IDEAL GAS LAW
Sample Problem 1:
Nitrous Oxide is an anesthetic known as “laughing gas”. Solve for P in
atm given the amount 0.505 mole of gas at 30ºC in a 10 Liter tank.
Given: T = 30 ºC  303 ºK ; n = 0.505 moles ; V = 10 L
K = 30 ºC + 273 = 303 ºK
Find: P=?
Formula: PV = nRT
𝑛𝑅𝑇 (0.505𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)(0.0821)(303 𝐾)
P= = = 1.256 atm
𝑉 10 𝐿
 GAS LAWS: IDEAL GAS LAW
Sample Problem 2:

Given: T = ºC  ºK ; n = ; P = atm
K = ºC + 273 = ºK
Find: V=?
Formula: PV = nRT
𝑛𝑅𝑇 ()()()
V= = = L
𝑃 00
 GAS LAWS: AVOGADRO’S LAW

 Amedeo Avogadro
 This law states that the volume of a gas is
directly related to the number of moles of a
gas when temperature and pressure are not
change.
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑛1 𝑛2
 GAS LAWS: AVOGADRO’S LAW
Sample Problem 1:
A balloon with a volume of 300 mL is filled with 5.0 moles of He. If 2.0
moles of He is added, up to what volume will the balloon expand?
Given: V1 = 300mL ; n1 = 5.0 moles ; n2 = 7.0 moles
n2 = 5.0 + 2.0
Find: V2 = ?
𝑉1 𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑉1𝑛2 (300𝑚𝐿)(7.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)
V2 = = = 420 mL
𝑛1 5.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
 GAS LAWS: AVOGADRO’S LAW
Sample Problem 2:
10 grams of Oxygen has a volume of 10 L. After 3.0 grams is added,
what will be the final volume of Oxygen
Given: V1 = 10 L ; n1 = 10 grams ; n2 = 10 + 3 grams = 13 grams
10 𝑔 𝑂2
Convert: gram to mol n1 = = 0.31 moles
32 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

13 𝑔 𝑂2
n2 = = 0.41 moles
32 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
 GAS LAWS: AVOGADRO’S LAW
Sample Problem 2:
Find: V2 = ?

𝑉1 𝑉2
Formula: =
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑉1𝑛2 (10 𝐿)(0.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠)
V2 = = = 13. 23 L
𝑛1 0.31 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
 GAS LAWS: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURE
 John Dalton
 This law states that the total pressure of a
gas mixture is the sum of the partial
pressure of the gases on the mixture.

P1 + P2 + P3.... = P total
 GAS LAWS: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURE
Sample Problem 1
Propane (C3H8) and Methane (CH4) are mixed to prepare a
mixture of gas fuel. If propane is under pressure at 400 torr in
a 20 L gas tank, and methane at 800 torr in a separate gas
cylinder of the same volume, what would be the total pressure
of the mixture if the two gases are combined in a 20 L
cylinder?
 GAS LAWS: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURE

Given: P1 = 400 torr ; P2 = 800 torr

Find: Ptotal
Formula: P1 + P2 + P3.... = P total
Solution: P total = P1 + P2
= 400 torr + 800 torr
= 1,200 torr
 GAS LAWS: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURE
Sample Problem 2
A gas mixture consists of chlorine with partial pressure of 300
mm Hg, bromine with partial pressure of 500 mm Hg and
Argon with a partial pressure of 200 mm Hg. What is the total
pressure of the mixture of gases expressed in atm?
 GAS LAWS: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURE
Given: PCl = 300 mmHg; PBr = 500 mmHg ; PAr = 200 mmHg
Find: Ptotal = atm?
Formula: P1 + P2 + P3.... = P total
Solution: 1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Ptotal = (PCl + PBr + PAr ) x
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Ptotal = 1000 mmHg x = 1.32 atm
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
 GRAHAM’s LAW: RATES OF DIFFUSSION OF
GASES

 Diffusion and
Effusion
 Thomas Graham
 GRAHAM’s LAW: RATES OF DIFFUSSION OF
GASES

 This law states that the rate of effusion

or diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its
molecular weight.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 2 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2

= or =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 2 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1
 GRAHAM’s LAW: RATES OF DIFFUSSION OF
GASES

Sample Problem 1
1. Calculate the ratio of the rate of diffusion of methane to that of sulfur
dioxide.
Given: MW of CH4 = 16 amu ; MW of SO2 = 64 amu
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 2
Formula: =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 1

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝐻4 2 64 𝑎𝑚𝑢 2

Solution: = = 4 = 2
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑂2 16 𝑎𝑚𝑢
 GRAHAM’s LAW: RATES OF DIFFUSSION OF
GASES
Sample Problem 2
2. A 100 ml hydrogen gas sample diffuses through a porous container
at four times the rate of a gas also in the same container. Calculate the
molecular weight of the unknown gas. Using the periodic table, what
could be the identity of the unknown gas?
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐻2
Given: MW of H2 = 2 amu ; =4
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ?

Find: MW of Unknown gas = ?

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐻2 2 𝑀𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑘 2
Solution: = = 4 = 2
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑊 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
 GRAHAM’s LAW: RATES OF DIFFUSSION OF
GASES
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐻2
Given: MW of H2 = 2 amu ; =4
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ?

Find: MW of Unknown gas = ?

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐻2 2 𝑀𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑘
Solution: =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑀𝑊 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

2 𝑀𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑀𝑊𝑢𝑛𝑘
4= = (4)2 = (MWunk) / 2 = 16 =
2 2
16x2 = Mwunk
32 = Mwunk

the unknown gas is Oxygen (O2)

 GAS STOICHIOMETRY

 Quantitative relations of reactants and products is termed as

stoichiometry.
 It is also to predict the amount of products that will result from
the reaction.
 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Sample Problem 1
1. Calcium Carbonate decomposes and forms the products
Calcium Oxide and Carbon Dioxide. If 5.0 mol of CaCO3
decomposes, how many liters of CO2 gas are produces at
STP?
CaCO2 -------- CaO + CO2
 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Sample Problem 1
CaCO2 -------- CaO + CO2
Given: n = 5.0 moles CaCO3
Find: VCO2 = ?
Solution: 1 CaCO3 : 1 CO2 ; nCO2 = 5.0 moles CO2
PV = nRT
𝑛𝑅𝑇 5.00 62.4 (273)
V= = = 112. 07 L
𝑃 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Sample Problem 2
2. Hydrogen gas reacts with Oxygen gas to form water. If
32.00 grams of Oxygen react at 1.3 atm and 150 C, what will
be the volume of Oxygen that was used?

2H2 + O2 -------- 2H2O

 GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Sample Problem 2
2H2 + O2 -------- 2H2O
32 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Given: P = 1.3 atm ; T = 423 K ; n= = 1 mol
32 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Find: V = ?
Solution: PV = nRT
𝑛𝑅𝑇 (1) 0.0821 (423 𝐾)
V= = = 26.71 L
𝑃 1.3
SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITIES
SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITIES
SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITIES
SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITIES