DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ASSOCIATED ORGANS:
- complex set of organs, glands, and ducts that work - not directly in the tract but have ducts that leads to
together to transform food into nutrients for cells the tract
- breaks down food into smaller pieces ● Salivary Glands
- enzymes break particles to smaller molecules then ● Liver
absorbed by blood and transported all over the ● Gallbladder
body ● Pancreas

FUNCTION: LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT WALL:

1. Ingestion and Mastication (4 TUNICS)
2. Propulsion and Mixing ● MUCOSA
3. Digestion and Secretion ○ innermost layer
4. Absorption ○ secretes mucus
5. Elimination ○ has epithelium, lamia propria, and
muscularis mucosae along with lymphatic
● INGESTION - consumption of solid or liquid food nodule an intestinal gland
● MASTICATION - chewing of food ● SUBMUCOSA
● PROPULSION - movement of food from one end of ○ above mucosa
the digestive tract to another ○ contain blood vessels, nerves and small
● MIXING - back and forth movement of food in glands
digestive tract to mix with enzymes and facilitate ● MUSCULARIS
absorption ○ above submucosa
● DIGESTION - mechanical and chemical breakdown ○ longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles
of large molecules to smaller that can be absorbed ○ has circular muscle layer and longitudinal
● SECRETION - addition of liquids, enzymes and muscle layer along with gland in
mucus to ingested food submucosa with ducts from glnds
● ABSORPTION - movement of molecules to the ● SEROSA/ADVENTITIA
blood or lymphatic system ○ outermost layer
● ELIMINATION - removal of undigested food; like ○ if peritoneum is present it is called serosa
fiber from food and other waste like feces ○ if no peritoneum then it is called adventitia

DIGESTIVE TRACT HISTOLOGY

PERITONEUM
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ● VISCERAL PERITONEUM
● consists of digestive tract and specific associated - or serosa
organs - serous membrane that covers the organs
● also referred to as GIT or Gastrointestinal Tract ● PARIETAL PERITONEUM
● tract is one long tube from mouth to anus - serous membrane that lines the abdominal
cavity
DIGESTIVE TRACT:
● Oral Cavity (Mouth) MESENTERIES
● Pharynx - connective tissue sheets
● Esophagus - holds organs in the abdominal cavity
● Stomach
● Small Intestines
● Large Intestines
● Anus
 ● LESSER OMENTUM ● Incisors
- mesentery that connects the lesser ● Canine
curvature of stomach to liver and ● Premolars
diaphragm ● Molars
● GREATER OMENTUM ● Wisdom
- mesentery that connects greater curvature - 20 primary (deciduous) teeth
of stomach to transverse colon and - each tooth has crown, cusp, neck and root
posterior body wall
● DENTIN - cellular tissue that forms the bulk of the
PERITONEUM & MESENTERIES tooth
● In the crown of the tooth, dentin is covered with an
extremely hard, acellular enamel.
● PULP CAVITY - center of the tooth
● PULP - fills the pulp cavity; consists of blood
vessels, nerves and connective tissues
● DENTAL CARIES (CAVITIES) - breakdown of
enamel by acids from bacteria

ORAL CAVITY
● LIPS
- formed by orbicularis oris muscle and PERMANENT TEETH
covered by skin ● MAXILLARY TEETH (16)
● CHEEKS - number bed from A to J
- lateral walls of the oral cavity ○ Central Incisors
- where buccinator muscles (flatten cheeks ■ erupts at 6-8 months; lost at 5-7
against the teeth) are found years
● TONGUE ○ Lateral Incisors
- large, muscular organ ■ erupts at 8-11 months; lost at 6-8
- occupies most of the oral cavity years
- moved food in the mouth ○ Canine
- cooperates with lips and cheeks, holds ■ erupts at 16-20 months; lost at
food during mastication 8-11 years
○ First Premolar
○ Second Premolar
○ First Molar
■ erupts at 10-16 months;; lost at
9-11 years
○ Second Molar
■ erupts at 20-24 months; lost at
9-11 years
○ Third Molar (Wisdom)
● MANDIBULAR TEETH (32)
- K to T

TEETH
- 32 teeth in normal adults
 MOLAR TOOTH IN ALVEOLAR BONE ● LARYNGOPHARYNX

ESOPHAGUS
- tube that connects pharynx to the stomach
- transports food to stomach
- joins stomach to cardiac opening

● Heartburn - when gastric juices regurgitate into

esophagus; caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating
and drinking in excess

SWALLOWING
● VOLUNTARY PHASE
- bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth
PALATE - will be pushed into the oropharynx
- root of oral cavity ● PHARYNGEAL PHASE
HARD PALATE - swallowing reflex is initiated when bolus
- anterior part; made of bone stimulates receptors in oropharynx
SOFT PALATE ● ESOPHAGEAL PHASE
- posterior part; consists of skeletal muscle and - moves food from pharynx to the stomach
connective tissue ● PERISTALSIS
- motion of how food travel
SALIVARY GLANDS - wave-like contractions, move food through
- produces saliva (mixture of serous(watery) and digestive tract
mucous fluid)
- keeps oral cavity moist
- needed for normal speech
- dissolves food particles so they can be tasted
- protects against bacteria and neutralizes pH
- begins process of digestion

● PAROTID - serous glands; anterior to each ear

● SUBMANDIBULAR - near mandible or inferior
border of mandible; produce more serous than
mucous secretions
● SUBLINGUAL - produce primarily mucous; lies
below mucous membrane in the floor of the oral
cavity or under the tongue

SEROUS PORTION - contains enzyme.

● AMYLASE - major component of saliva; digestive
enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates PERISTALSIS
● LYSOZYME - enzyme active against bacteria
MUCOUS PORTION - contains mucin for lubrication

SALIVARY GLANDS

STOMACH
PHARYNX - located in abdomen
- throat - can hold up to 2 liters of food
- connects mouth to esophagus - storage tank of food
- produces mucus, hydrochloric acid and protein
THREE PARTS: digesting enzyme
● NASOPHARYNX - has thick mucus layer that protects and lubricates
● OROPHARYNX epithelial cells on stomach wall from acidic pH (3)
REGIONS OF THE STOMACH ○
produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
● The esophagus opens into the cardiac part factor
● The fundus is to the left and superior to the cardiac ● ENDOCRINE CELLS
part ○ produce hormones and paracrine
● The body is the largest part molecules
● The body turns to the right creating the greater ● CHIEF CELLS
curvature and the lesser curvature ○ produce pepsinogen
● The body narrows inferiorly to form funnel-shaped, ■ precursor of pepsin
pyloric. (protein-digesting enzyme)
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH:
3 LAYERS OF MUSCULARIS: ● HYDROCHLORIC ACID
● Outer Longitudinal ○ produces a pH level of 2.0
● Middle Circular ○ kills microorganisms
● Inner Oblique ○ activates pepsin
● PEPSIN
RUGAE ○ break covalent bonds of protein to form
- large folds smaller peptide chains
- allow stomach to stretch ● MUCUS
CHYME ○ thick layer, lubricates mucosa of stomach
- paste-like substance ○ protects mucosal from acidic chyme and
- form when food begins to be broken down pepsin
● INTRINSIC FACTOR
PYLORIC OPENING ○ binds with vitamin B12 making it more
- opening between stomach and small intestine readily absorbed by small intestine
PYLORIC SPHINCTER ■ VITAMIN B12 - important in DNA
- thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening Synthesis and RBC Production
- regulates movement of food into small intestine
REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETION:
ANATOMY & HISTOLOGY OF STOMACH *parasympathetic stimulation, gastric and histamine
increase stomach secretion*
● CEPHALIC PHASE
- secretions initiated by sight, smell, taste, or
food thought
- Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, mucus, intrinsic
factor, gastrin, and histamine are released
in stomach

HISTOLOGY OF STOMACH:
● Mucosa - forms tube-like gastric pits
*Gastric Pits - openings for gastric glands
● GASTRIC PHASE
EPITHELIAL CELLS OF THE STOMACH: - food in stomach, partially digested proteins
● SURFACE MUCOUS CELLS and distention of stomach promote
○ found within gastric glands increase of secretion
○ produce mucus that coats & protects the - peptides stimulate secretion of gastrin
stomach - gastrin is carried through blood back to
● MUCOUS NECK CELLS stomach stimulating more secretion
○ produce mucus
● PARIETAL CELLS
 ● INTESTINAL PHASE
- inhibits secretion and movement in the
stomach
- entrance of chyme into duodenum
stimulates neuronal reflexes and
secretions of hormones
- secretin and cholecystokinin are released
to blood by the duodenum and inhibit
secretion and movement in stomach
SMALL INTESTINE
- 6 meters in length
- major absorptive organ in the gastrointestinal tract
- chyme takes up to 3 to 5 hrs to pass through
- has enzymes to further break down food
- has secretions for protection against acidity of
chyme

ANATOMY OF SMALL INTESTINE:

● DUODENUM
- first prt
- 25 cm long
- contains absorptive cells, goblet cells,
granular cells, endocrine cells
- has microvilli and many folds
- has bile and pancreatic ducts
● JEJUNUM
MOVEMENT IN STOMACH: - second part
● MIXING WAVES - 2.5 meters long
- weak contraction - primary iste of nutrient absorption
- thoroughly mix food to form chyme ● ILEUM
● PERISTALTIC WAVES - third part
- stronger contraction - 3.5 meters long
- force chyme toward and through pyloric
sphincter

● Hormonal and neural mechanisms regulate

stomach secretions and movement
● Stomach empties every 4 hrs after regular meal,
and 6 to 8 hrs after high fatty meal
MUCOSA OF SMALL INTESTINE: - propagated for short distances and mix
- simple columnar epithelium with four major cell intestinal contents
types
ILEOCECAL SPHINCTER
1. ABSORPTIVE CELLS - a juncture of ileum and large intestine
- has microvilli - mildly contracted most of the time
- produce digestive enzyme
- absorb digested food *Peristaltic contractions reaching ileocecal sphincter from
2. GOBLET CELLS small intestine cause the sphincter to relax and allow chyme
- produce protective mucus to move from the small intestine to cecum
3. GRANULAR CELLS
- helps protect the intestinal epithelium from ILEOCECAL VALVE
bacteria - prevents movement from large intestine back to
4. ENDOCRINE CELLS ileum
- produce regulatory hormones
SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS IN SMALL INTESTINE
INTESTINAL GLANDS/CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN -
tubular glands of mucosa where epithelial cells are located;
at base of the villi

Granular and endocrine cells are located at the bottom of the

glands

DUODENAL GLANDS - mucous glands in submucosa of

duodenum; open into base of intestinal glands

SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE:

● PEPTIDASES
- enzymatically breakdown proteins into
amino acids for absorption
● DISACCHARIDASES LIVER
- enzymatically breakdown disaccharides to - weighs 3 lbs
monosaccharides for absorption - found in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen,
under the diaphragm
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF DUODENUM - consist of right, left, caudate and quadrate lobes

PORTA - gate where blood vessels, nerves and ducts enter

and exit; receives blood from hepatic artery and hepatic
portal vein

MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINE:

- mixing and propulsion of chyme are the primary
mechanical events to occur in the small
intestine.

● PERISTALTIC CONTRACTIONS
- along the length of intestine
- causes chyme to move along the small
intestine
● SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS
 CONTROL OF BILE SECRETION AND RELEASE
LOBULES
- divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
PORTAL TRIADS
- contain branches of hepatic artery, hepatic portal
vein, hepatic portal duct
HEPATIC CORDS
- between center margins of each lobule
- separated by hepatic sinusoids
HEPATIC SINUSOIDS
- contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign
particles from blood
CENTRAL VEIN
- center of each lobule
- where mixed blood flows to form hepatic veins

LIVER DUCTS:
● HEPATIC DUCT
- transports bile out of liver
● COMMON HEPATIC DUCT
- formed from left and right hepatic duct
● CYSTIC DUCT
- joins common hepatic duct
PANCREAS
- drains gallbladder
- posterior to stomach in inferior part of left upper
● COMMON BILE DUCT
quadrant
- formed from common hepatic duct and
- HEAD - near midline of the body
cystic duct
- TAIL - extends to left and touches spleen

PANCREATIC ISLETS - produce insulin and glucagon

EXOCRINE TISSUES - produce digestive enzymes that

travel through ducts to duodenum

MAJOR PROTEIN-DIGESTING ENZYMES;

● TRYPSIN
● CHYMOTRYPSIN
● CARBOXYPEPTIDASE

PANCREATIC AMYLASE
- continues the polysaccharide digestion that began
in the oral cavity
LIPASE - pancreatic enzyme; lipid-digesting enzyme
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER:
● Digestive and excretory functions NUCLEASE - enzyme that degrade DNA and RNA to their
● Stores and processes nutrients component nucleotides
● Detoxifies harmful chemicals
● Synthesizes new molecules DUODENUM AND PANCREAS
● Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day

BILE - dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; breaks down

fats
 CONTROL OF PANCREATIC SECRETIONS MASS MOVEMENTS
- every 8 to 12 hours strong contractions
- propel colon contents towards the anus

Movement of feces into the rectum distends the rectal wall

and stimulates the defecation reflex.

DIGESTIVE PROCESS
1. DIGESTION
- chemical and mechanical breakdown of
food
2. ABSORPTION
- occurs in the duodenum and jejunum
- some occurs in the stomach and ileum
3. TRANSPORT
- moves food through the digestive tract
- includes peristalsis and swallowing

LARGE INTESTINE
- absorb water from indigestible food and create
compact feces
- contains cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal

● CECUM
- joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
- has appendix attached
● APPENDIX
- 9 cm structure
- often removed
● COLON
DIGESTION OF LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES, AND
- 1.5 meters long
PROTEIN
- has ascending, transverse, descending,
and sigmoid regions
● RECTUM
- straight tube
- begins at sigmoid colon and ends at anal
canal
● ANAL CANAL
- last 2 to 3 cm of digestive tract

Food take 18 to 24 hours to pass through the large intestine

FECES - product of water, indigestible food, and microbes

MICROBES - synthesize vitamin K

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
● Polysaccharides split to disaccharides by salivary
and pancreatic amylases
● Disaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides by disaccharidases on the
surface of intestinal epithelium
● Glucose is absorbed by cotransport Na+ to
intestinal epithelium
● Glucose is carried by hepaic portal vein to the liver
and enters most cells by facilitated diffusion

FECES FORMATION
- due to absorption of water and salt, secretion of
mucous and action of microorganisms
The colon stores feces until defecation.
 TRANSPORT OF GLUCOSE ACROSS THE INTESTINAL
EPITHELIUM

LIPID DIGESTION
● Lipase breaks down triglycerides to fatty acids and
monoglycerides
● Bile salts surround fatty acids and monoglycerides PROTEIN DIGESTION
to form micelles
● Micelles attach to plasma membrane of intestinal PEPSIN
epithelial cells, and fatty acids and monoglycerides - protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach
pass by simple diffusion to intestinal epithelial cells
● Fatty acids and monoglycerides are converted to ● Pancreas secrete protein digesting enzymes
triglycerides trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase into
● Protein coats triglycerides to form chylomicrons small intestine in an inactive state
(moves out of intestinal epithelial cells by ● Enzymes are active in the small intestines
exocytosis) ● In the small intestine, peptidases (enzyme) bound
● Chylomicrons enter lacteals of intestinal villi and are to microvilli, further breakdown small peptides to
carried through the lymphatic system to the blood tripeptides

TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS ACROSS THE INTESTINAL TRANSPORT OF AMINO ACIDS ACROSS THE
EPITHELIUM INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM

LIPOPROTEINS
- packages lipids to allow transport in the lymph and
blood
- molecules that are part water soluble and part lipid WATER AND MINERALS
soluble
- necessary for transport WATER
- include chylomicrons, low density lipoproteins - can move across the intestinal wall in either
(LDL), and high density lipoproteins (HDL) direction
- movement depends on osmotic pressure
- 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
MINERALS
- actively transported across wall of small intestine
FLUID VOLUMES OF DIGESTIVE TRACT