Nature of Problem Solving

UNIT 1 NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Types of Problems
1.3 Characteristics of Difficult Problems
1.4 Nature of Problem Solving
1.4.1 The Stages of Problem Solving
1.5 Types of Thinking Involved in Problem Solving
1.5.1 The Kinds of Thinking Processes
1.6 Concept of Insight Problems
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Questions
1.9 Suggested Readings
Problem Solving
“Solving a problem means finding a way out of a difficulty, a way around
an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not immediately understandable.
Solving problem is the specific achievement of intelligence and intelligence
is the specific gift of mankind. Solving problems can be regarded as the
most characteristically human activity.”
George Polya (1962)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In our day to day life we usually solve problems be it the classroom, family, or
workplace. It is nearly inescapable in everyday life. We use problem solving
when we want to reach a certain goal, and that goal is not readily available. It
involves situations in which something is blocking our successful completion of
a task. To study problem solving satisfactorily, a good way will be to start the
chapter by solving some problems. Give these ones a try:
Problem1: What one mathematical symbol can you place between 2 and 3 that
result in a number greater than 2 and less than 3?
Problem2: Rearrange the letters NEWDOOR to make one word.
Problem3: How many pets do you have if all of them are birds except two , all of
them are cats except two, all of them are dogs except two.
There are many different kinds of problems, including many kinds of recreational
problems, career and school oriented problems (such as the problem of how to
get promoted or the problem of how to study for a test), personal problems (such
as the problem of who to marry or whether to have a child), and scientific problems
(such as how to find a cure for cancer or how to prove a particular theorem) etc.

We all solve many problems like these or others every day. Problem solving can
be as commonplace as finding out how to prepare a meal or as significant as
developing a psychological test.
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Problem Solving
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to :
• Define the basic nature of problem solving;
• Enlist the different kinds of problems;
• Describe types of thinking involved in problem solving; and
• Analyse and explain the Insight Problem Solving.

1.2 TYPES OF PROBLEMS

Problems vary from ill defined to well defined. In a well defined problem such
as a mathematical equation or a jigsaw puzzle both the nature of the problem
and the information needed to solve it are available and clear. Thus, one can
make straightforward judgments about whether a potential solution is appropriate.
With an ill defined problem, such as how to bring peace, not only may the specific
nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem
may be even less obvious.

Greeno (1978) suggested one method of classifying well defined problems based
on the general kinds of psychological skills and knowledge needed to solve
different problems. Typically, well defined problems falls into one of the three
categories viz., (i) Arrangement (ii) Inducing Structure and (iii) Transformation.

Solving each of these types of problems requires somewhat different type of

psychological skills and knowledge.
i) Arrangement of problems requires that the problem solver must rearrange
or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criteria. Usually,
several different arrangements can be made but only one or few arrangements
will produce a solution. For example, one can say that Anagram problems
and jigsaw puzzles are examples of arrangement problems.
ii) In Problems of inducing Structure, a person must identify the existing
relationships among the elements presented. He then should construct a
new relationship among them, so that the problem could be solved. In such
a problem, the problem solver must determine not only the relationships
among the structures but also the structure and sise of elements involved.
iii) In Transformation Problems, one takes into consideration. An attempt is
made to change the initial state to a goal state. The Tower of Hanoi is an
example of this kind of problem where the initial state is the original
configuration, the goal state is to have the three disks on the third peg, and
the method is the rules for moving the disks. According to Greeno 1978
solving transformation problems primarily requires skills in planning based
on a method called means end analysis. Means end analysis requires
identifying differences that exist between the current state and the goal state
and selecting operations that will reduce these differences.

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 Nature of Problem Solving
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFICULT
PROBLEMS
Some of the typical characteristics of difficult problems are as given below:
• Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)
• Commencement opacity. (confusion regarding how to start stating the
problem)
• Continuation opacity (Continuing confusion in regard to the problem as
there is no clarity)
• Polytely (The problem has multiple goals and so reaching and selecting a
particular goal is difficult)
• Inexpressiveness (inability to express the problem clearly)
• Opposition
• Transience (the problem keeps changing)
• Complexity (The problem is in large numbers of items, too many
interrelationships and decisions)
• Enumerability (It is not possible to list it or quantify it)
• Connectivity (There are hierarchy of problems in relation to relationship,
communication and allocation )
• Heterogeneity (The problem is not homogeneous and so difficult to handle)
• Dynamics (time considerations)
• Temporal constraints (There is limitation to time factor as it has to be got
done within a time period)
• Temporal sensitivity (The problem is influenced and affected by time factor)
• Phase effects ( There are changes in different phases of the problem and
these affect the problem from being solved)
• Dynamic unpredictability (The problem is complex and consists of high
degree of unpredictability)
The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of the above
mentioned characteristics encountered.

In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative

to basic skills, where basic operations can be done with calculators. However
some “problems” may actually have standard solutions taught in higher grades,
like for instance multiplying rather than adding. For example, kindergarteners
could be asked how many fingers are there on all the gloves of 3 children.
Normally they will add the fingers in each glove of the three children and say 15.
But at a higher level 5 × 3 = 15, which is done quickly and solved by applying
multiplication.

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Problem Solving
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define problems
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2) Define problem solving
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3) What are the different types of problems?
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4) What is meant by difficult problems?
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5) What are the characteristics of difficult problems.?
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 Nature of Problem Solving
1.4 NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING
The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists
over the past hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem
solving, including introspection, behaviourism, simulation, computer modeling
and experiment.

Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany and
continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving was
typically conducted in relatively simple, laboratory tasks that appeared novel to
participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992). In these tasks, they had clearly defined optimal
solutions which were solvable within a relatively short time frame, and
researchers could trace participants’ problem-solving steps, and so on.

The researchers made the underlying assumption that simple tasks such as the
Tower of Hanoi captured the main properties of “real world” problems, and that
the cognitive processes underlying participants’ attempts to solve simple problems
were representative of the processes engaged in when solving “real world”
problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of convenience.

Simple laboratory based tasks can be useful in explicating the steps of logic and
reasoning that underlie problem solving. However, they omit the complexity
and emotional valence of “real-world” problems. In clinical psychology, researchers
have focused on the role of emotions in problem solving, demonstrating that poor
emotional control can disrupt focus on the target task and impede problem
resolution (Rath, Langenbahn, Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004).

Human problem solving consists of two related processes, viz.,(i) problem

orientation, and (ii) problem-solving skills which, if While problem orientation
deals with the motivational/attitudinal/affective approach to problematic
situations, the problem solving skills deal with the actual cognitive behavioural
steps. If cognitive skills are successfully implemented, it will lead to effective
problem resolution.

Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process
that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex
of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order
cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or
fundamental skills.

Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligence system

needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state. Problem solving is one
of the many forms that thinking or cognition may take.

By cognition one refers to the mental representation of information which can

be manipulated and used to solve problems. Problem solving is a major cognitive
behaviour.

Problem solving becomes necessary when an individual wants to reach a goal

but that goal is not easily available. It is a state in which there are some obstacles
to reach the goal. Various psychologists have defined problem solving.

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Problem Solving According to Baron (2001) problem solving involves efforts to develop or choose
among various responses in order to attain desired goals.

Witting and Williams III (1984) defined problem solving as the use of thought
processes to overcome obstacles and work towards goals.

1.4.1 The Stages of Problem Solving

The situation that prevails at the beginning of the problem solving task is the
initial state. The system then moves through a series of different, intermediate
states, designed to lead to the goal. When the goal is achieved, the system is said
to have attained the goal state. Thus there are four molar components of any
problem solving activity and these are given below:
• The initial state: How the starting conditions are defined
• The Operators: Moves or operations to move from one state to another
• Intermediate Problem States: Any states that are generated by applying an
operator to a state on the way to final goal.
• The goal state: How the final state or goal conditions are described.
The internal representation (or mental model) of these four states of a problem is
called “Problem Space”. This problem space varies from one individual to another.
It must be kept in mind that each individual’s problem space is unique and depends
also on the nature of the problem. The initial state of a problem is critical to
problem solving and some problem’s initial state may lead to efficient problem
solving while another may end up in high complexity.
Problem solving strategies Creative problem solving
Group problem solving Problem solving approach
Management problems solving Elementary problem solving
Problem solving activities Problem solving worksheets
Teaching problem solving Problem solving lesson plans
Problem solving skills
Art Problem solving

Self Assessment Questions

1) Describe the nature of problem solving.
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2) What are real world problems? Give suitable examples.
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 Nature of Problem Solving
3) What are the two processes in human problem solving.
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4) Describe the stages of problem solving.
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5) What are the four molar components of any problem solving activities?
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6) What is meant by “Problem Space”?

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1.5 TYPES OF THINKING INVOLVED IN

PROBLEM SOLVING
According to Wertheimier (1959) effective problem solving requires:
i) Productive thinking
ii) Being sensitive and open to structural requirements
iii) Going beyond the knowledge learnt from previous problem solving tasks
For productive thinking there is a need to have a grasp of the general principles
that apply in the particular problem situation. Since individuals do have a tendency
to reproduce thinking appropriate for other situations, they need to think beyond
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Problem Solving that solution and look for unique solutions. It is important to keep in mind the
structure of the problem without which solutions may not come about.

1.5.1 The Kinds of Thinking Processes

The kinds of thinking processes involved in problem solving are:
1) Analytical Thinking
2) Synthetic Thinking.
In analytic thinking, there is nothing more in solution than in the premise. For
example if the problem is a simple question like “how many doors are there in
your house”, then the answer is simple counting of the doors and adding it up.
There can be no other answer and there can also be no other solution.
In contrast, Synthetic Thinking does not contain the conclusion in the premise
itself because the solution is not needed in the construction of the mental object.
For example, we know that 2 is a divisor of 4, 4 is a divisor of 8, and 2 is also a
divisor of 8. In general, it is true that a divisor of a divisor of a number is a
divisor of that number.
Such solutions are best reached by constructing mental model like images like
number lines.
The importance of synthetic thinking is that you can get out more than you put
into it.
After you construct a mental model, you can see relationships that were not
evident before you constructed it. Seeing these new relationships is what
comprises problem solving through synthetic thinking.
In other words, one is synthesizing the available information and facts to derive
new solution. This is also termed as developing insight.
Newell is one of the most influential cognitive psychologists who made computer
stimulation approach to the study of problem solving.
Newell stated that the goal is to construct a mental model. From this model one
will find answers to a problem by inspecting that model itself. To do this, one
writes parts of the problem mentally on the model. Once the model has been
constructed one can read the results of what has been written. It is important to
note that in order to read these results one needs the “mind’s eye”.

The mind’s eye has traditionally been a controversial issue in cognitive

psychology. Another word for it is “homunculus” meaning “little man in the
head”. Most cognitive psychologists disapprove of this concept of Mind’s eye
on the premise that it reflects nonscientific theories of behaviour that were largely
based on soul.

Self Assessment Questions

1) What types of thinking are involved in problem solving?
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 Nature of Problem Solving
2) What are the kinds of thinking processes?
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3) Describe Newell’s Mental Model.
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1.6 CONCEPT OF INSIGHT PROBLEMS

There are two types of solutions to problems and these are (i) Insightful solutions
and (ii) solutions without involving insight.

The essential characteristics of an insight solution to a problem is that the solution

appears suddenly, without warning.

By contrast, problems solved without insight are solved gradually rather than
suddenly. The solution process here involves a stepwise progression towards the
solution.

For example, arithmetic and algebraic problems fall into the category of problems
solved without insight. In this, the subjects themselves must be able to distinguish
between these two types of solutions.

As the subjects solve a non insight problem, they should be able to tell that they
are getting closer to the solution. For non-insight problems subjects generally
have a greater feeling of warmth as they get closer and closer to the solution.
This is because non-insightful problems are solved step by step and with each
step the subject gets closer to the solution and thus warmer in each step.

As for insight problems there is no gradual approach to the solution and so

subjects do not feel warmer until the solution actually appears.

Feeling of knowing and feeling of warmth reflect judgments that subjects make
about their own knowledge. Such judgments are examples of metacognition.
Metacognition refers to what one knows about the technique of how accurately
one can assess one’s own cognitive processes.

It has been shown that people’s metacognitive assessments of their performance

on noninsight problems are quite accurate. However, their metacognitive
assessments of their performance on insight problems are not accurate, because
an insight is not something that can be planned.
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Problem Solving An insight is something that happens to the person, not something that a person
decides to have. In insight solution, the problem is solved by the sudden
illumination characteristic of insight.

Insight is preceded by a gradual process whereby relevant parts of the problem

are identified. However, solvers may not be aware that this process is leading
toward an insight.

Another aspect of insight problems is that the source of difficulty in some insight
problems is the inability to see that something you already know is needed for
the solution. Hints given within the context of the problem are fairly effective
in facilitating subsequent insight As the Gestalt psychologists often observe,
people are generally not efficient at realising that a new problem can be solved
with information already at their disposal.

People differ in their ability to select information that is relevant to the problem
at hand. This ability to discover what is essential about situation is important as
well as the ability to remember information that is relevant to the problem. This
ability is called sagacity. Sagacity differs from learning in that it involves a
sensitivity to detail, a discernment of what is important in a situation. Sagacity is
the ability to see into the situation and to discriminate the important aspects of it.

The format in which the information is presented makes a difference in insightful

problem solving. That is, one can give the information in a puzzle format or in
a declarative format. The information given in the puzzle format leads the subject
to discriminate the relevant information better than when the information is in
declarative format. This is so because, the puzzle format leads the subject to
process the relevant information in a way that makes it accessible for later use.
On the other hand the declarative format leads to the acquisition of the relevant
information, but in a way that makes it possible for the person to see its relevance
for subsequent problem solving.

Select a word that can be interpreted in different ways. For example, the word
lake can refer to a frozen or unfrozen body of water. Most people interpret the
word to refer to an unfrozen body of water. A riddle can be constructed by requiring
the problem solver to come up with the less accessible meaning in order to make
sense of what is being described. If the subject is presented with a clue that the
stone rested on the surface of the lake for 3 months, after which it sank to the
bottom some 10 meters below., this would provide the solution that lake here
refers to frozen one for 3 months and then running water lake afterwards.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Problem solving is an important part of thinking processes. In general a problem
is any kind of conflict or difference between one situation and another that one
wishes to to produce, that which is the goal.

Problem solving typically involves three major stages: preparation, production

of solutions and evaluation of solutions that have been generated.

Problem solving can be done either with or without insight and utilises analytical,
synthetic thinking along with metacognition.
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This it can be said that, like many other cognitive processes, problem solving is Nature of Problem Solving
a dynamic and complex process and involves many different types of thinking
processes depending on the nature of the problem.

1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What are the various categorisations of problems? Can you categorise your
day to day problems into these categories?
2) What is the role of various types of thinking involved in solving diferent
kinds of problems ?
3) Describe the four molar stages of problem solving.
4) Compare and contrast the role of productive thinking and structurally blind
thinking in problem solving.
5) Emotional states can affect many cognitive processes. What can be the affect
of these various emotional states on problem solving ?
6) Critically discuss the concept of insight problems and insightful solutions.
7) Solutions involving insight and solutions without involving insight –
Differentiate.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Feldman, R . S. (2008). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning,

and Remembering. London: Cengage

Galotti , K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory.

Canada: Nelson Education.

References
Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. London: Cengage.

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

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