CV1013

Civil Engineering Materials

Asst/P Qian Shunzhi

Office: N1-01C-79
6790-4916
[email protected]

1
Types of material
 Asphalt concrete
 Steel
 Wood/Timber
 Fiber–Reinforced Composites/Plastics
 Masonry
 Cement and Concrete

2
Introduction
 Iron is the fourth most
abundant elements in the
earth’s crust.

 Well over 90% of the total

world consumption of metals is
in the form of steels and cast
irons.

 It requires considerably less energy to extract from its ore than most of
the other engineering metals, for 1 kg of each metal:
 iron (54 MJ),
 aluminum (280 MJ),
 copper (108 MJ),
 magnesium (415 MJ),
 titanium (550 MJ).

 Subsequently, the production cost of iron and steel is a lot cheaper

compared with other metals. 3
 Introduction
 Steels are alloys of iron
and other elements,
primarily carbon, widely
used in construction and
other applications
because of their high
tensile strength and low
costs.

 The chemical composition and microstructures of steel are very

important since it has a significant effect on its mechanical behavior
and properties.
 Steel is also one of the most recycled material in the world (steel: 96%,
wood:80%, plastics:9% in Singapore)

http://www.nea.gov.sg/energy-waste/waste-management/waste-statistics-and-overall-recycling 4
Max Planck Institute, 2012
Steel is everywhere
Eiffel Tower Brooklyn Bridge

Burj Khalifa Empire State Building

5
http://my.whirlwindsteel.com/blog/bid/395563/The-Most-Famous-Steel-Structures-in-the-World
Steel is everywhere
Sky bridge/sky park Art Science Museum

Singapore flyer
Flower dome

6
http://www.makemytrip.com Wikimedia.org is.asia-city.com
Major applications of steel
 Rolled sections
 Plates
 Fasteners
 Reinforcing bars
 Cables (Parallel wire & twisted wire)

7
 Major applications of steel
 Long span bridges
 Skeleton steel
structure for high-rise
building
 Locally precast
concrete is dominant
for high-rise building
 Highly efficient/cost effective
 Relatively labor intensive on
site
 Environmental concerns

https://www.aisc.org/modernsteel/news/2015/july/steel-shots-grand- 8
vision/#.WHb-VlN95aQ
Major applications of steel
• Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction
(PPVC): a construction method whereby free-
standing volumetric modules (complete with
finishes for walls, floors and ceilings) are
manufactured in a factory and installed on site.
• Manufactured in factory means much higher
quality control;
• Onsite labour is greatly reduced;
• Less construction waste generated;
• Shipping cost may be higher.
Major applications of steel

10
Major applications of steel

11
 Major applications of steel
• Banyan Hall, Binjai Hall, Tanjong Hall (North Hill Cluster)
• About $200 million project
• Singapore's first major development using PPVC technology
• Not only save time but also labour, requiring about 40 per cent
less manpower to build the halls
• New method costs
about 10 to 15 % more
than traditional ones
• In long term, the
project expected to gain
cost effectiveness by
reducing maintenance
need

12
Overview of Steelmaking Process

13
 What is a Blast Furnace?
•The purpose of a blast
furnace is to reduce and
convert iron oxides into
liquid iron called "hot
metal".
•The blast furnace is a
huge, steel stack/kiln lined
with refractory brick.
•Iron ore, coke and
limestone are put into the
top, and preheated air is
blown into the kiln from
the bottom.
reactions take place before iron is produced
•Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give
carbon dioxide:
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) (1)

•The limestone breaks down to form carbon

dioxide:

CaCO3(s)  CO2 (g) + CaO(s) (2)

•Carbon dioxide produced in (1) + (2) react

with more coke to produce carbon monoxide:

CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g) (3)

• The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore
to give molten iron:
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s)  2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) (4)

• The lime from (2), reacts with the sand to form

slag (calcium silicate):
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)  CaSiO3(l) (5)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Wem432xbWE
Steel – Outline

 Crystal structure
 Alloying
 Cold-working alloyed, cold-worked & heat-treated steel
 Heat-treatment
 Engineering behavior and properties
 Construction steel products
 Welding
 Corrosion

17
Steel Structure at Nano-,
Micro- and Macro-level

Structural element in a building

Microstructure (grains size

distribution in steel)

Crystal structure of metals

(Atoms are located at the lattice http://www.jomesa.com/english/image_anal
points in a simple cubic metal) ysis/metallography/metallography_high_gra 18
de_steel.htm
Crystal Structure
A crystal is a regular, repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules

Can we see it?

The scanning tunneling

microscope (STM) makes it
possible to image the
electron cloud associated
with individual atoms at the
surface of a material.

Right is an STM image of a

platinum surface showing
the regular alignment of
atoms.

19
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
One atom on each corner and one in the centre of the cell volume

Atom
Unit Cell

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.
Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976

20
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
One atom on each corner and one in the centre of each face

Atom

Unit Cell

(a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells.

Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976

21
3 Primary Metallic Crystal Structures
Phase: a liquid or solid state of a material with the same crystal structure, iron with
BCC and FCC structures are considered different phases

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

Packing factor 0.68

o
[Fe (< 910 C), Cr, Mo, Nb, V]

Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Packing factor 0.74

o
[Cu, Ni, Fe (> 910 C), Pb, Ag, Au]

Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

Packing factor 0.74

[Be, Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn, Zr]
22
Atomic Packing Factor

Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson Education (2011)

23
Atomic Packing Factor

24
Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson Education (2011)
Theoretical Density of Metal

Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson Education (2011)

25
Radius of Atom

26
Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson Education (2011)
 Linear defects - dislocations
• Dislocations are areas where atoms are out of position in crystal structure.
• Movement of dislocations allows slip – plastic deformation to occur when a
stress is applied .

Point defects Linear defects

- dislocations
27
www.spaceflight.esa.int education.mrsec.wisc.edu
 Dislocation – source of plasticity
• Dislocations are areas where atoms are out of position in crystal structure.
• Movement of dislocations allows slip – plastic deformation to occur when a
stress is applied .
Jean-Marie Dubois
Nature Materials 9, 287–288 (2010)

28
 Alloying
 An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements,
at least one of which is a metal
 Most metals are alloyed with other elements to obtain better
mechanical properties
 Alloying is actually not a modern technique

Bronze = 88% Cu (Copper) + 12% Sn (Tin)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age
29
Alloying
Copper wire (soft) Ancient Chinese Bronze
Sword (strong)

www.datacabling.net ancientchinesewarfare.weebly.com

"Liquid Fire" to Metal Sword in minutes! - A History

30
of Ancient Britain - Ep4 - Preview - BBC Two
Alloying
Steel = Iron (Fe) + alloying elements (C, Si, Mn, P, S, Cr)

Cast iron tool High performance steel

industrialsculpting.com www.tatasteeleurope.com

31
Various Fe solutions & compounds
Solid solution: alloying elements are fully dissolvable in the base
metal (completely miscible system)
Intermediate compound: alloying elements are partially dissolvable
in the base metal (partially miscible system)

 Austenite () : The higher density, FCC phase

of iron and of solid solutions based
o
on it.
(solubility of 0.8%~2% at 727~1148 C)

 Ferrite (α and δ) : The BCC phase of iron and

of solid solutions based on it (low and super
higho temp ferrite). (α solubility of 0.025% at
727 C)

 Cementite/Iron carbide (Fe3C): as a complex

hexagonal crystal structure with carbon in
interstitial positions. It is very hard and brittle. It
contains 6.7%C, and is present in all
commercial steels. The properties of the steel
are controlled by properly regulating the
amount, size, and shape of the Fe3C phase.
http://www.kitchenknifeforums.com/showthread.php/15632-What-is- 32
retained-austenite-How-does-martensite-form
Fe-C diagram: from iron to steel

Fe-C diagram (Young)

Pig iron: 4.3 %C

Cast iron: 2.0 ~ 4.3 %C

A3
Steel: < 2.0 %C

A1
Structural steel: < 0.3 %C

Wrought iron: < 0.035 %C +

100%Fe3C
glassy slag

33
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram looks like Pikachu

34
http://9gag.com/gag/aj6gvgR/iron-carbon-phase-diagram-looks-like-pikachu
Fe-C diagram: from iron to steel

Ferrite + Cementite(Fe3C)

www.industrialheating.com 35
 Various Fe solutions & compounds
 Pearlite: A microstructure formed by the cooling of the austenite at the eutectoid.
It consists of an intimate lamellar mixture of α ferrite and cementite.
 In the microstructure view: The ferrite appears white, and is laminated against
the cementite which appears grey

http://hsc.csu.edu.au/engineering_studies/
application/civil/1-1/answers.html

CV1013 - CEM
36
http://www.dierk-raabe.com/pearlitic-steels/
The evolution of the microstructure of hypo-eutectoid and
hyper-eutectoid steels during cooling in relationship to the Fe-C
phase diagram

Carbon (solid
solution in )

37
Fe-C diagram: from iron to steel

Ferrite + Cementite(Fe3C)

www.industrialheating.com 38
Rate of cooling on microstructure/strength
 In general, strength depends on the nature, distribution,
and size of the phases and/or grains present

 Rate of cooling through the transformation temperatures

has a major effect on the nature of the pearlite formed
 Sl o w c o o li n g w i l l g i v e a
coarse pearlite structure, with
tensile strength of about 700
N/mm2
 Rapid cooling will produce a
fine pearlite, with extremely
thin alternate layers and
having tensile strength may
be as high as 1300 N/mm2
 Tensile strength of ferrite is
280-300 N/mm2 39
Fe-C diagram: various phases & C%
In summary:

Cementite (6.7 %C): Fe3C

Pearlite (0.8 %C): a laminated structure of α ferrite (0.025%C) and

cementite (6.7 %C) (Intermediate compound)

δ Ferrite (0.1 %C): BCC Fe

γ Austenite (0.8%~2.0 %C): FCC Fe (Solid solution of C in Fe)
α Ferrite (0.025 %C): BCC Fe

Pearlite contains alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. The

significance of pearlite is that the properties of steel are highly dependent
on grain size and content of pearlite “phase” in steels

Ferrite: soft but ductile As cementite or pearlite% increases

(effectively increase of carbon content), steel
Cementite: hard but brittle
becomes stronger/harder, but less ductile

40
Hardness and strength versus the amount of carbon

Source : Young et al (1998)

41
Ductility and toughness versus the amount of carbon

Toughness, Joules
Source : Young et al (1998)

42
Fraction of Each Phase of a Binary Phase Diagram

A3

A1

43
Lever Rule

 a tool used to determine fraction of each phase of

a binary phase diagram;
 In an alloy with two phases, a and β, which themselves
contain two elements, A and B (Iron and Carbon in our
case), lever rule states that weight percentage of α and β
phase in the alloy is:
Xa=(c-b)/(a-b)
Xb=1- Xa=1-(c-b)/(a-b)=(a-c)/(a-b)

where
 a is the weight percentage of element B in the α phase
 b is the weight percentage of element B in the β phase
 c is the weight percentage of element B in the entire alloy
 all at some fixed temperature. 44
Sample Problem 1
Calculate the fraction of each phases of steel composed of iron and 0.25%
carbon just above and below the eutectoid isotherm (727 deg C).

Solution:

At a temperature just above 727 degree, all the austenite will have a carbon
content of 0.8% and will transform to pearlite (also have carbon content 0.8%).
The ferrite will remain as primary ferrite.

45
Sample Problem 1

The proportions can be determined by using the lever rule:

Primary ferrite a: 0.025% C,

Percent of primary ferrite a = (0.8-0.25)/(0.8-0.025) =0.71 =71%

For austenite  : 0.8% C,

Percent of austenite = 1- 0.71= 0.29 = 29%

At a temperature just below 727 degree, all the austenite have been transformed
to pearlite (also have carbon content 0.8%). Hence the calculation results are the
same as before, except austenite should be replaced by pearlite.

However, if you are asked what are the factions of ferrite and iron carbide when
temperature is just below 727 degree, what would be your answer?

46
Sample Problem 1

Ferrite + Cementite(Fe3C)

47
Sample Problem 1

At a temperature just below 727 degree, the ferrite (0.025% Carbon) and iron
carbide fraction (6.7% Carbon):

The proportions can still be determined by using the lever rule:

For all ferrite a: 0.025% C,

Percent of ferrite a = (6.7-0.25)/(6.7-0.025) = 96.6%

For Iron carbide : 6.7% C,

Percent of iron carbide = 1- 0.966= 3.4%

48
Cold working and heat treatment of steel

 Cold working/strain hardening (not part of heat treatment)

 Annealing
 Normalising
 Quenching (Hardening)
 Tempering

49
 Change in mechanical properties associated with cold
work or strain hardening

s2
s1’

s1

Source : Young et al (1998) 50

The changes in mechanical properties occurring
during cold working

Percentage elongation
Tensile strength

Percentage reduction in cross-sectional area during cold working

51
Strain hardening

 Strain hardening/cold work/work hardening is plastic deformation

where resistance to further deformation increases with increasing
amounts of deformation (and dislocations!)
 When it is work- or strain-hardened, the ductility and toughness of
the metal or alloy decrease (become brittle)

 Materials strengthened this way cannot be joined by welding without

softening (annealing) the material in the vicinity of the weld.
 Will distort the grain, increase the grain number and
create/concentrate the dislocations along the grain boundaries,
which harden the steel but make it more brittle.

Cold working
(rolling)

52
 Strengthening by grain boundaries

Dislocation pileups at grain boundaries indicate these boundaries are very strong
obstacles to dislocation motion
53
Annealing
Objectives:
Refine the grain
Soften the steel
Remove internal stresses/gases
Increase ductility and toughness Cold rolling
Change electrical and magnetic properties

Full annealing
To put a hypoeutectoid steel into the softest possible condition (ductile).

Itinvolves heating the steel at about 50°C above the upper critical
temperature (followed by slow cooling within a furnace. This produces a coarse
pearlite structure).

Full annealing is a lengthy and expensive process

54
Schematic representation of heat treatment process for
a hypoeutectoid steel

60°C

50°C

Source : Young et al (1998)

55
Changes in mechanical properties occurring during
annealing

Percentage elongation
Percentage elongation
Tensile strength

Annealing temperature

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

56
Normalising
 Very similar to annealing, except slight difference in heating temp (higher)
and rate of cooling (faster).

 This involves heating the steel at about 60°C above the upper critical
temperature followed by cooling in still air.

 The faster rate of cooling gives a finer pearlite structure and the steel, while
relatively soft and ductile, is somewhat harder than full annealed material.

 Hot worked products, such as structural steel sections, plain reinforcement

bar and forgings, are allowed to cool in air from the hot work finishing
temperature, which is just above the upper critical temperature, and are,
therefore, in the normalised condition.

57
Quenching (Hardening)
 A steel is hardened by rapidly quenching the steel, from a high temperature,
into water or oil. The very rapid cooling through the critical temperatures
causes the formation of martensite (very hard but brittle microstructure).

Tempering
 Hardened steels may be tempered by heating within the range 200- 700°C.
This treatment will remove internal stresses created by quenching, reduce
the hardness, and increase the toughness and ductility of the steel.

 The higher the tempering temperature, the greater will be the reduction in
hardness and the increase in toughness.

58
Effects of tempering

Source : Bolton W. 1994

59
Engineering behaviour and properties

 Tensile test
 Failure mode
 Toughness
 Ductile-Brittle transition temperature
 Hardness
 Fatigue

60
Tensile Test

www.instron.com.br
https://www.mtu.edu/materials/k12/experiments/tensile/
61
Stress-strain curves for some metals

High-tensile steel
Tensile stress N/mm2

Copper

Lead

Strain percent

62
Failure modes
Failure by yielding
 Some metals are highly ductile with considerable plastic deformation
before failure.
 Ductile yielding failure are always preferred in engineering
application as it will give adequate warning to the users before
catastrophic failure.

Failure by fracture
 Most materials contain internal cracks and other defects, and these
can act as points of local stress concentration.
 When a material is subject to a stress, any cracks within it can
propagate and may lead to catastrophic fracture before the yield
condition.
 Even with ductile material like steel, low temperature can also
induce brittle fracture failure.
63
Toughness

Toughness, a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy prior

to failure, and it can been evaluated by either:

 Area under stress-strain diagram

 Impact test e.g. Charpy V-Notch test
 Fracture mechanics approach (energy to propagate a crack)

Note that these approaches do not measure the same property.

64
Impact performance of brittle and ductile materials

Curve A
Brittle material

Stress Curve B
Ductile material
Stress

Strain

65
Charpy V-notch impact test

Starting position

Hammer

Specimen

66
Plot of defect size against stress for a material

Applied stress

Failure by
yielding
Failure by fast fracture

Critical
size Defect size

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

67
 Fracture mechanics
Critical stress to cause crack propagation in brittle materials for plane
stress conditions is
1
s c  KIC /(a) 2
Where
σ c is the critical stress for fracture,
a is one-half the crack length,
KIc is a fundamental property of a material and is termed fracture
toughness (also critical stress intensity factor).

68
The stresses at a crack tip were proportional to (a)-1/2. For an elliptical shaped flaw under plane stress
conditions in a plate of infinite size, the stress intensity factor (Dowling 1999),

KI = Ms (a)1/2
where M is a geometry factor to take account of varying flaw shapes and finite boundaries. Sudden fast
fracture will occur when KI reaches some critical value KIC. This critical stress intensity factor, KIC = (GCE)1/2,
is a constant of the material. It is also termed the fracture toughness of the material.

Toughness and fracture toughness values for some metals

Material Toughness Fracture Toughness

Glc (kJ m-2) Klc (MPa m1/2)
Steels 30 - 135 80 - 170

Cast irons 0.2 - 3 6 - 20

Aluminum alloys 0.4 - 70 5 - 70

Copper alloys 10 - 100 30 - 120

Nickel alloys 50 - 100 100 - 150

Titanium alloys 20 - 100 50 - 100

Note that there are three modes of cracking and mode I is the easiest
Ductile-brittle transition

69
Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996
Oil pipeline on fire

Russian Oil Pipeline Fire

70
http://delawarewatch.blogspot.sg/2005/06/one-little-detail-bush-failed-to.html
The Titanic

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCy5WQ9S4c0
71
The Titanic Tragedy

72
Effect of carbon and manganese content on the
ductile-brittle transition temperature of steel

Cv / J

Temperature 0C

73
Hardness test
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation, such as
a dent or scratch on the surface of the material;
• All tests are very similar, either by measuring area or depth of indenter (penetrator) and
then related to a hardness index number;
• Hard material  small impressions  high hardness number;
• A relative number, needed to be converted between different methods via tables;
• Can be used to approximate the tensile strength of the material;
• A certain hardness is required for many machine parts and tools.

http://www.qualitydigest.com/april04/articles/01_article.shtml 74
Effects of carbon content on the hardness of the various
steel microstructure

75
Source : Dowling 1988
Fatigue

 When a metal component or structure is subjected to repeated or

cyclic stresses it may eventually fail, even though the maximum
stress in any one stress cycle is considerably less than the fracture
stress of the material.

 Fatigue failure is the result of processes of crack nucleation and

growth or, for components which may contain cracks introduced
during manufacture, growth only.

76
Types of stress-cycles

Repeating
Alternating

Fluctuating

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

77
Operations and importance of container quay crane

 A special form of gantry crane

 Key equipment for efficient port
operation
 Main function: to load and unload
container ships
 Very expensive equipment that
requires huge capital investments
 Expected to be fully-functional
during stipulated service life to
minimize impact to busy port
operations

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuvkrEg
t0TM&hl=en-GB&gl=SG
78
S-N curves (alternating)
(i) metal showing fatigue limit e.g. steel
(ii) metal showing no fatigue limit e.g. aluminium
Stress s

Number of stress cycles to failure N

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996 79

Fatigue Failure

 Fatigue life and fracture failure

 Fatigue life = Crack initiation + stable fatigue crack growth
 Fatigue life = fatigue crack growth only, for components contain
cracks during manufacture
 Fast fracture failure when crack length becomes critical
 Classical S-N curves
 Strength concept; ignores presence of crack-like defects

80
Cyclic Loading
R = -1: complete reversal of load

samp
R = 0: zero to full tensile load

R=Smin/Smax=smin/smax 0 < R < 1: tensile to tensile load

81
S-N Curve

 Generated from axially

loaded unnotched
specimen of A517 Steel
 N is a function of Smax
 Fatigue limit = Smax at
which no failure occurs
 S-N curve depends on
stress ratio R=Smin/Smax
 Part of life could
possibly involve fatigue
crack growth

1ksi = 6.9MPa

82
Fracture Mechanics Approach

 Fatigue life = Crack initiation life + stable

Fatigue Crack Growth life; Final failure by
fast fracture (KI = KIC)
 Fatigue crack may
 initiate from any weak points of the material at
microstructure level, and propagate after
initiation
 or grow directly from pre-existing crack-like
defects introduced during manufacturing
stage

83
Fatigue-Crack Propagation

af

Crack Length, a
ai

Number of Cycles

84
 Fatigue Crack Growth Influencing Factors

Effect of stress range Effect of initial crack length

Fatigue Crack Length a, inches

Number of Cycles Nx105 Number of Cycles Nx105

Suggest KI as the loading parameter for fatigue crack

(KI = Ms√(a), where M is geometry factor)

85
 FM Representation of Crack Growth Data
Fatigue-Crack-Growth Rate, da/dN, inch/cycle

Stress-Intensity-factor Range, KI, ksi √in

86
Paris’ Law for Fatigue Crack Propagation
Experimental Data suggests

 da 
ln    C  n ln ( K 
 dN 
da
 C ( K 
n
(The formula was introduced
dN by P. C. Paris in 1961)
C and n are material constants

units:
acr
da a: one-half crack length,
N  
ao
C ( K ) n
metre
KI: stress intensity factor,
MPa√m

87
Designing Against Fatigue Fracture
 Based on inspection results, assume a
maximum flaw size ao
 With calibrated KI, and known KIC, compute
critical crack length acr
 With known load range s, obtain expression
for K using calibrated KI
 Determine C and n for given material from
fatigue test (or look up material property
database)
 Integrate crack growth equation to obtain
fatigue life

88
 Design Example 1
 Assume following conditions
 A514 high strength steel, sys=690 MPa; KIC = 165
MPa√m; C = 1.35x 10-10 m/(MPa√m)n per cycle;
n=2.25
 ao=7.6mm, edge crack in tension (M=1.12)
 smax = 310 MPa; smin = 172 MPa; s = 138 MPa
 KI = 1.12 s√(a); KI = 1.12 s√(a)
2
 K IC 
acr     2.8in = 71.9mm
0.0719m
 1.12 s
 max 
 Nf = 87,470 cycles using Eq. for N (two pages
back)
89
 Design Example 2
 Assume following conditions
 A large steel crankshaft, KIC = 45 MPa√m; C =
1.5x 10-12 m/(MPa√m)n per cycle; n=2.5
 ao=2.5 mm, assume M=1.0 (Centre crack)
 smax = 225 MPa (tensile); smin = 60 MPa (comp);
s = 225 MPa (??)
 KI = 1.0 s√(a); KI = 1.0 s√(a)
2
 K IC 
acr     2.8in = 12.7mm
0.0127m
 1.12
 1.0 s max 
 Nf = 1,253,768 (~1.25x106) cycles using Eq. for
N (three pages back)
90
 Design Example continue
 Can compute a vs N curve

a a
da
N
ao
C ( K ) n

Nf N
 Can compute S-N curve
S = s –>KI 2
 K IC 
S-N curve smax –>acr acr   
M s max
 1.12 
acr
da
Nf  
ao
C (K ) n S

N
91
Alternative approach to calculate a-N relation
1. Begin with initial crack length; N = 0 cycle;
2. Assume crack length increment a (e.g. 1% increase)
(m);
3. Calculate K (MPa√m) for given s (MPa);
4. Calculate da/dN using Paris Law (m/cycle);
5. Calculate N (cycles)
6. Update N = N + N (cycles);
7. Update crack length a = a + a (m);
8. Calculate new Kmax (at smax) (MPa√m)
9. Check if Kmax = KIC; If so, N = Nf, stop. Otherwise,
10. Continue iteration by incrementing crack length (step 2)
to obtain a-N relation.

92
Approaches to Extend Service Life

 Increase critical crack length acr at failure

 Choose a material with higher KIC acr
da
 Reduce smax Nf  
ao
C (K ) n
2
 K IC 
 Reduce initial flaw size ao acr   
M s max
 1.12 
 Improve inspection resolution
 Improve manufacturing/material quality control

 Lower stress range s

93
Construction steel products

 In civil and structural engineering the vast majority of the steels used are
plain carbon steels, or slightly modified plain carbon steels.
 Plain carbon steels are those alloys with compositions up to 2% by weight
of carbon. They are cheap compared to alloy steel.
 Low carbon steels, which contain up to 0.3% carbon, are generally used in
the normalised, cold worked, or cold worked and annealed conditions.
 Low carbon steels are also weldable and this makes them extremely useful
for large structures such as ships and bridges.

 Medium carbon steels are those which contain between 0.3 and
0.6% carbon, and these may be hardened and tempered.

 High carbon steels (or tool steels) contain more than 0.6% carbon, and are
always used in the hardened and tempered condition.

94
 Some properties for weldable structural steels other than hollow section (BS EN 10025-2)

Typical minimum yield stress N/mm2 Impact toughness:

Max. carbon Minimum
Temperature at
Grade content (Ladle elongation on 5.65
which 27J to be
analysis) Up to 16 mm thick 63 - 100 mm thick S° percent
absorbed (°C)

S235JR 0.20 235 215 25 20

S235J0 0.18 235 215 25 0
S235J2 0.16 235 215 25 -20
S235K2 0.16 235 215 25 -30

S275JR 0.21 275 245 22 20

S275J0 0.18 275 245 22 0
S275J2 0.18 275 245 22 -20
S275K2 0.16 275 245 22 -30

S355JR 0.20 355 325 20 20

S355J0 0.20 355 325 20 0
S355J2 0.18 355 325 20 -20
S355K2 0.18 355 325 20 -30

S460J0 0.22 460 - 19 0

95
Notes on structural steel

 Structural steel is commonly available in three basic grades; S235,

S275 and S355 (In Singapore, S275 and S355 most often used in
building and construction industry)

 The minimum yield strength values vary with sectional thickness,

being higher for thinner sections.

 Most structural steels are used in the normalised condition of heat

treatment.
 During normalising, cooling in still air, thin sections will cool through
the critical temperature range more rapidly than thick sections.
Hence, thin sections will possess a finer grain structure and thus,
higher strength than thick sections of the same material.

96
Factors on selection of structural steel
 the tensile & yield strength required;
 the toughness, ductility and other properties
required;
 the availability and cost; and
 arbitrary local conditions as may be imposed by
specifications and codes of practice.

In Singapore, BCA Design Guides such BC1:

2008 and BC1: 2012 are useful documents
for selection of structural steel materials for
building and construction

97
Steel stress-strain curves at high temperatures

 Strength/stiffness reduction
factors for elastic modulus and
yield strength (2% strain).

 Elastic modulus at 600°C

reduced by about 70%.

 Yield strength at 600°C

reduced by over 50%.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK_iBYSqEsc
98
Welding - Some types of welds

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

99
Heat affected zone (HAZ)

 During welding, a temperature gradient is established which varies from the

fusion temperature at the weld metal to room temperature at some point in
the parent metal away from the weld.

 This changes the properties of parent metal in the vicinity of the weld, the
so-called heat-affected-zone (HAZ).

 The micro structural changes in this region can be considerable and are
generally accompanied by a deterioration of its mechanical properties.
These changes depend on
(1) the composition of the parent metal,
(2) its original condition, and, possibly,
(3) the cooling rate after the weld.

100
Variation of structure and properties across a weld in a
low carbon steel

Fine ferrite +
Very fine
pearlite Normalised
ferrite + pearlite
structure

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

101
Weldability

 Weldability may be defined as the capacity of a metal to be joined by

welding into a structure that can perform in a satisfactory manner for an
intended service.

 Weldability decreases as the carbon and alloy content of steel is increased.

A convenient way to assess weldability and to evaluate the effect of alloying
elements on weldability is to use a "carbon-equivalent" (CE) formula, such
as
Mn  Si Cr  Mo  V Ni  Cu
CE  C   
6 5 15

 The value of CE should not exceed about 0.25 for heavy structural steels; if
not, controlled cooling of the weld is necessary to avoid risks of
embrittlement.

102
Welding defects
(a) good weld (b) incomplete fusion, lack of penetration (c) excess
penetration and overlap (d) gas porosity and inclusions (e) undercut

Fusion line Underfill

Lack of fusion

Lack of penetration
(a) (b)

Overlap Porosity
Porosityor inclusions
or inclusions
Loss of
section

Excess penetration (d)

(c) (e)

Source : Young et al (1998)

103