Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

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Transportation Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/transportation-engineering

Review

Electric aviation: A review of concepts and enabling technologies

Bright Appiah Adu-Gyamfi a, b, *, Clara Good a, b
a
Department of Technology and Safety, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Postboks 6050 Langnes, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
b
Arctic Centre for Sustainable Energy (ARC), UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electric aviation has become an important area of research following the rapid growth of the aviation industry,
Electric aviation which directly corresponds to significant growth in aviation-related emissions. Despite the promising emission
Battery technology reduction potential of electric airplanes, several technological and regulatory challenges restrict the realization
Electric machines
of this new regime of sustainable air transport. Significant advancements in enabling technologies, new certi­
Electric airplanes
fication standards, and infrastructural development are required to make commercial air transport viable. This
review paper surveys scholarly and industrial literature to identify the main technological areas of electric
aviation, including battery technology, electric machine technology, airframe, and propulsion technologies;
where the technology currently stands, their future projections, and their challenges. Several electric aircraft
design concepts, prototypes, and existing products are also surveyed in this study to identify the constraints of
technological advancement and regulatory frameworks that could impede the realization and time to market the
proposed electric airplanes.

1. Introduction transport, aviation is sometimes referred to as one of the “hard-to-abate”

sectors, meaning that the route to zero emissions is not as straightfor­
Growing concerns over the effects of climate change, emphasized by ward as in some other sectors [9]. As other sectors are decarbonized, the
the latest report from the IPCC [1–3], call for a rapid reduction of relative share of emissions from these “hard-to-abate” sectors is set to
greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in all sectors and parts of our society. increase in the decades to come. Presently, aviation accounts for
According to the IEA, the transport sector alone accounts for 24% of approximately 2.5% of global CO2 emissions. It is projected to rise to
direct CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, even though the increase in 11% if new technology is not advanced in the next two decades to cope
emissions slowed somewhat during the Covid-19 pandemic [4]. with the projected annual growth of the aviation industry [10,11]. To
Considering the growing demand for air transport with an annual in­ mitigate the impact of air transport on the environment, the European
crease of 5% as of 2019 globally, aviation is considered as the most Commission and the Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Inno­
rapidly growing industry in the transportation sector by moving over 4.4 vation in Europe (ACARE) flightpath 2050 strategy [12] and the NASA
billion passengers in 2018 with 120 thousand daily operated flights with N + 3 programs [13] have set challenging and ambitious goals that will
a projected passenger throughput of 7.2 billion in 2035 [5,6]. This require new technology and its rapid implementation to enhance aircraft
growth is desirable from an economic standpoint, but aviation is pred­ design and operations. These differing goals are summarized in Table 1.
icated on fossil fuels, which increase greenhouse gas and air pollutant Achieving these goals requires disruptive innovation in the propul­
emissions [7,8]. Together with some industries and other heavy sion system of aircraft. The first measure taken by the aviation industry

Abbreviations: ACARE, Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe; ASuMED, Advanced Superconducting Motor Experimental Demon­
strator; BLI, Boundary layer injestion; BPR, ByPass ratio; CO2, Carbon dioxide; DC, Direct Current; DEP, Distributed electric propulsion; DP, Distributed propulsion; E,
Full Electric; EASA, European Aviation Safety Agency; EU, European Union; eVTOL, electric-Vertical Take-Off and Landing; FAA, Federal Aviation Administration;
GHG, Greenhouse gas emissions; HEP, Hybrid Electric Propulsion; HTS, High-temperature superconductivity; ICE, Internal Combustion Engine; IEA, International
Energy Agency; IPCC, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Li-air, Lithium-air; Li-ion, Lithium-ion; Li-S, Lithium-Sulphur; NASA, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration; Ni-Cd, Nickel-cadmium; Ni-MH, Nickel-metal-hydride; NOx, Nitrogen oxides; PHE, Parallel-Hybrid Electric; PMAD, Power management and
distribution; SABERS, Solid-state Architecture Batteries for Enhanced Rechargeability and Safety; SHE, Series-Hybrid electric; TE, Turbo-electric; TeDP, Turbo-
electric Distributed Propulsion; UAV, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B.A. Adu-Gyamfi), [email protected] (C. Good).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.treng.2022.100134
Received 12 May 2022; Received in revised form 27 July 2022; Accepted 27 July 2022
Available online 29 July 2022
2666-691X/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

Table 1 a technical and environmental assessment of all-electric narrow-body

Summary of NASA N + 3 and ACARE flightpath 2050 goals. aircraft compared to conventional aircraft. Their results indicated that
Environmental EU ACARE flightpath 2050 NASA N + 3 Program. (2010 an improvement in battery pack energy density up to 800 Wh/kg is
factor strategy. (Up to 2050), [12]. to 2035) [13, 14] required to make flying an electric Airbus A320 feasible.
Greenhouse gas 75% CO2 emission reduction 25% CO2 emission reduction Alrashed et al. [21] review the feasibility of the turboelectric
emissions (GHG) within 10 years and 50% distributed propulsion (TeDP ) concept in commercial aviation. The
reduction within 25 years authors established that TeDP could increase aircraft efficiency by up to
Nitrogen oxides 90% NOx reduction 70% reduction in NOx 24%, with a corresponding 50% reduction in emissions compared to
NOx emission within 10 years and
80% within 25 years
conventional aircraft. Xie et al. [22] provide a detailed review of
Noise 65% reduction in noise Perceived noise reduction by a hybrid-electric aircraft. The authors identified that small-scale hybrid
factor of 2 in 10 years and by aircraft had been widely studied and implemented. In contrast,
a factor of 4 in 25 years. large-scale hybrid aircraft remain at the conceptual level unless a sig­
Safety 80% reduction in aviation Reduction in aviation fatal
nificant improvement in energy storage technology is achieved. Rendón
accidents using the year 2000 accidents by a factor of five
as a baseline and accounting within 10 years and by a et al. [23] studied hybrid-electric propulsion for aviation applications
for growth in air traffic. factor of 10 within 25 years. using present technology levels. Their study concluded that all-electric
aircraft are well suited for unmanned aerial vehicles. In contrast, se­
ries and parallel-hybrid aircraft best fit smaller airplanes designed for
to achieve this goal is by continuously improving the efficiency of short-duration flights with varying power requirements.
aircraft engines. Fuel efficiency improvement averaged 2% per annum, Despite all the works cited, it is unclear from the literature how much
corresponding to a 40% fuel burn reduction between 1960 and 1995, but advancements in various technologies contribute to electric aviation.
reached a plateau between 1995 and 2005 [15,16]. As illustrated in This review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of different
Fig. 1, significant fuel burn reduction picked up again from 2010. The electric aviation technologies and identify the most feasible technolog­
rapid improvement from 2010 was as a result of the introduction of new ical mix required to achieve significant aviation emission reduction in
and more fuel-efficient engines with high BPR that were utilized in the short term. Up-to-date progress in academia and industry is sur­
narrow-body aircraft such as the Airbus A320neoand Boeing 737 Max, veyed, taking into account the amount of technology integration
and also the introduction of the more electric widebody aircraft such as required in several electric aircraft concepts to establish a three-point
the Boeing 787 in 2010 and Airbus A350–900 in 2015. Kharina et al. technology improvement approach that significantly defines the suc­
[17] propose that the rate of fuel-burn reduction could be accelerated to cess of electric aviation. The paper is structured as follows: After a
2.2% per annum by 2034 by adopting more cost-effective technologies. detailed introduction in Section 1 establishing the need for decarbon­
However, ACARE proposes that radical technological solutions and ization and technological advancement in aviation, Section 2 discusses
innovative propulsion and airframe design concepts will be the basis for the various classifications of electric propulsion and highlights the op­
reaching emission-free aviation [18]. portunities each class presents. In Section 3, a comparative analysis of
To support NASA’s N + 3 program, NASA proposes a four-phased electric propulsion and conventional aircraft is carried out to identify
aero-propulsion research approach enabled by technological revolu­ the main technological areas required to make electric aviation feasible.
tions that characterize their vision for 21st-century aviation [13]. Fig. 2 This is identified as battery technology, electric-motor technology, and
depicts the various revolutionary levels specified by NASA. A detailed airframe design. Each of these technologies is extensively reviewed to
explanation of the various technological revolutions can be found in identify their state-of-the-art levels, future projections, potential, chal­
[13]. lenges, and measures taken to mitigate these challenges. Section 4 dis­
Several published review articles discuss different aspects of electric cusses some proposed electric aircraft concepts and the degree of
aviation. Brelje and Martins [19] discussed electric fixed-wing aircraft technology integration in these concepts. These concepts are compared
models’ electrical fundamentals and concepts. Gnadt et al. [20] provide to the state-of-the-art technology and projections in Section 3 and their

Fig. 1. Average fuel burn for new jet aircraft, 1960–2020 [16].

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B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

Fig. 2. Aviation propulsion power revolution proposed by NASA N + 3 program [13].

challenges to identify the most feasible technological mix and concepts

capable of implementation in the short term. Lastly, Section 5 concludes
the review and highlights the study’s key findings.

2. Classification of electric propulsion architectures

Brelje and Martins [19] classify electric aircraft by the degree of

hybridization of their powerplant. This refers to using one or a combi­
nation of different energy sources to provide propulsive power for the
aircraft. Isikveren et al. [24] provide a more detailed definition of hy­
bridization in terms of battery energy and motor power, which is valid
for electric aircraft and applicable for hydrogen-powered aircraft. Based
on the topology of the powertrain, electric aircraft can be classified into
turboelectric, hybrid-electric propulsion (HEP), and all-electric aircraft,
as summarized in Table 2.

2.1. Turboelectric aircraft

Turbo-electric configuration focuses on the incremental electrifica­

tion of gas turbine engines [25]. In this model, one or more gas turbines Fig. 3. Turboelectric layout.
drive an electric generator to produce electrical power. The power is
distributed using DC busses and electronic converters to drive an electric
conversion from mechanical to electrical energy, and back to mechan­
motor to which a propeller is attached [26,27]. As shown in Fig. 3, the
ical energy. Espein and O’Flarity [26] estimate the efficiency penalty of
gas turbine is directly connected to an electric generator that generates
turboelectric compared to direct mechanical drive to be 10%. However,
the necessary power to drive the motors, thereby utilizing 100% of the
the benefit of turboelectric can be duly observed when it takes advan­
gas turbine’s output power to generate electrical energy. There are no
tage of the synergy provided by propulsion/airframe integration tech­
energy storage devices (batteries) onboard such an aircraft. Although
niques such as Distributed Propulsion (DP) and Boundary Layer
the ICE operates to its maximum power vs. speed condition, stand-alone
Ingestion (BLI). Since the only role of the ICE is power generation, this
turboelectric architectures suffer from power loss due to energy
configuration is best suited for DP where the generated power can be
distributed to several electric motors. This approach results in an
Table 2 increased effective Bypass ratio (BPR) with a corresponding reduction in
Classification of electric propulsion architectures based on definitions from
fan pressure ratio [23]. Increasing BPR increases propulsive efficiency.
references [19,24].
When combined with BLI, the propulsive efficiency is increased by
E- Hybridization re-energizing the wake and reducing airframe-induced drag [28]. DP
Architecture
and BLI are explained in detail in Section 3.
Turbo-electric A gas turbine engine drives an electric generator which provides
propulsive power. No energy batteries are required.
Hybrid Uses both gas turbine engines and batteries for propulsion. 2.2. Hybrid-electric aircraft
electric
All electric Propulsive power is produced only by batteries.
The success of HEP applications in the automobile industry is

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transferrable to aviation. Hybrid automobiles benefit from increased manufacturers claimed the DA36 E-Star was scalable to 100 passengers
range, noise reduction, low emissions, and minimal fuel burn, thereby and, based on this claim, considered series-HEP to be the future of
spiking a significant interest in research into HEP technology for avia­ commercial air transport. However, the manufacturers gave no technical
tion applications. Hiserote and Harmon [29] suggest that small-scale basis for scalability.
aircraft could benefit from HEP by decreasing fuel burn, emissions,
and increased range. However, the authors question the applicability of 2.2.2. Parallel-hybrid configuration
HEP to larger aircraft. Glassock et al. [30] confirm this claim by stating In a parallel-hybrid configuration, the gas turbine engine and the
that HEP configuration is much more feasible for short-duration high-­ electric motor are connected through a mechanical coupling to the
power missions, such as skydiving than conventional long-duration propeller, enabling both powertrains to contribute to the propulsion
flights. energy simultaneously or separately [22]. This configuration causes
Contrary to these claims, Voskuijl et al. [31] modified the Breguet extra mechanical complexity, and the engines do not operate at a con­
range equation to suit hybrid-electric aircraft. Using range limitation stant maximum efficiency speed resulting in a higher fuel burn. There­
and aircraft performance as a function of battery technology, the authors fore, Bravo et al. [11] consider parallel-hybrid less efficient than the
achieved a 70-passenger aircraft with a design range of 1528 km using series architecture. The resulting advantage of this configuration is that
batteries with an energy density of 1000 Wh/kg. Based on the variant of weight-saving may be achieved by downscaling either the electric motor
HEP configuration chosen, the required thrust may be delivered by a gas or the gas turbine and still achieve the same performance [32].
turbine and a battery, only by a battery, or only by the gas turbine during Comparing the series and parallel-hybrid configurations, Finger et al.
specific phases of the flight [32]. During different flight phases, the [36] considered parallel-hybrid superior in decreasing global weight
energy sources onboard the aircraft is balanced such that an optimal and fuel weight. Supporting this claim, Boggero et al. [37] achieved a 46
operation of the system can be achieved [33]. Two types of hybrid kg reduction in empty weight and a 10 kg reduction in fuel weight when
configurations are considered: series-hybrid and parallel-hybrid they retrofitted a Piper PA-38 aircraft with a 22.6 kW electric motor and
configurations. a 54.6 kW IC engine. Having two-propeller driving mechanisms installed
also provides redundancy in the system, making it much safer. Also,
2.2.1. Series-hybrid configuration when the aircraft is operating in engine mode, the electric motor can act
In a series-hybrid configuration, the gas turbine is decoupled from as a generator that charges the battery [11]. In addition, power loss due
the propeller, and the propeller shaft is driven only by the electric motor to energy conversion is reduced since this configuration does not require
[32]. This system is similar to the turboelectric architecture, except that power converters on the gas turbine. Fig. 5 shows the layout of the
a battery stores energy and contributes to the propulsion. As illustrated parallel-hybrid architecture.
in Fig. 4, a generator converts the mechanical energy from the gas tur­
bine into electrical energy. The electrical energy can then be used to 2.3. All-electric aircrafts
drive the electric motors directly or be stored in a battery through a
charging process. This configuration is best suited for aircraft with All-electric aircraft configuration is the simplest of all the electric
distributed propulsion as the only role of the gas turbine engine is to architectures in terms of layout (Fig. 6). The only power source in this
produce electricity [11]. architecture is the rechargeable battery, connected directly to an electric
Since there is no direct linkage between the propeller and the gas motor through a power management system that drives a propeller.
turbine, the gas turbine can operate at its optimal operating condition Unlike the hybrid architectures, this configuration does not allow for an
during all phases of the flight leading to a significant reduction in fuel inflight charging of the batteries; therefore, the batteries need to be
burn compared to the parallel-hybrid configuration. Also, this configu­ charged on the ground before any flight mission.
ration is simple, offers higher flexibility in positioning the internal Although all-electric aircraft have many advantages, including zero-
combustion engine, and requires less space [11,22]. However, the need emission, low noise, and operating cost reduction, the enabling battery
for a generator in addition to a battery in this configuration means that it technology has not achieved sufficient maturity to cover the same dis­
is heavier than the turboelectric and parallel-hybrid configurations. tances as jet fuel-driven aircraft [26]. This limits current electric aircraft
Also, in analyzing the hybridization factor of hybrid systems, Economou designs to light aircraft and short-distance ranges. All-electric propul­
et al. [34] further proved that series systems suffer from power losses sion is currently viable for a wide range of aerial vehicles. This includes
compared to parallel systems due to the use of power converters in vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft, powertrain retrofits of
transforming the generator’s output before supplying power to the conventional fixed-wing aircraft, and new fixed-wing aircraft concepts
motors. This process results in significant efficiency penalties for the using electric motors. Publicly announced all-electric aircraft models
series configuration. Lastly, there is no redundancy with this configu­ include Velis Electro from Pipistrel [38], Alia-250 by Beta Technologies
ration in the event of a motor failure. [39], Alice by Eviation [40], and Lilium Jet [41]. While turboelectric
Siemens, Diamond Aircraft, Austro Engine, and Airbus demonstrated and hybrid aircraft configurations reduce CO2 emissions by a fraction,
the first series-HEP manned aircraft at the Paris Air show in 2011. The all-electric configuration eliminates CO2 emissions along with GHGs
two-seater DA36 E-Star aircraft featured a 70 kW electric motor from such as NOx and water vapor, making it the most sustainable form of
Siemens and a 30 kW internal combustion engine from Austro Engine technology capable of zero emissions during flight operations.
and achieved a 25% emission reduction and fuel burn [35]. The Although battery-driven architectures, including hybrid and fully

Fig. 4. Series-hybrid layout. Fig. 5. Parallel-hybrid layout.

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B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

On the other hand, Moore and Fredericks [46] state that it is

misleading to compare electric propulsion and conventional aircraft
based on the energy density of batteries and jet fuels. Electric propulsion
will not only be defined by advancements in battery technology. How­
ever, it will also largely depend on other weight-sensitive and
energy-efficient technologies such as electric motor designs and
advanced airframe design concepts. By comparison, state-of-the-art
Li-ion batteries with an energy density of approximately 250 Wh/kg
Fig. 6. All-electric aircraft layout.
are 48 times less than jet fuels, which possess a staggering energy den­
sity of 12,000 Wh/kg [26]. However, according to Åhman [47] and,
electric systems, can significantly reduce aviation-related emissions, the Haung and Zhang [48], the fuel-to-wheel efficiency of an internal
net CO2 effect will largely depend on the source of electricity used in combustion engine averages ~28%, while electric motors are ~90%
charging the batteries. According to World Energy Data [42], cleaner efficient. This reduces the ratio of batteries to aviation fuels from 1:48 to
energy generation accounts for 38% of the global energy mix. This im­ 1:15. Considering an average improvement of 600 Wh/kg battery en­
plies electric airplanes will be over 30% cleaner over its life cycle using ergy density, the ratio is further reduced to 1:6.2. In addition, it has been
present energy generation mix levels. Achieving the carbon neutral proven through research that efficient aerodynamic designs such as
goals the aviation industry sets will indirectly depend largely on distributed propulsion and boundary layer injection which are much
advancement and investment in sustainable energy generation. more practical with electric aviation can reduce the overall energy
consumption during flight by a factor of 3 to 5 [49]. Using the mean
3. Enabling technologies for electric aviation value of 4 reduces the ratio of batteries to aviation fuel to 1:1.5. In
summary, the development approaches towards electric propulsion can
Although electric aviation possesses several benefits to the environ­ be described as a three-point approach predicated on: 1. battery chem­
ment, the primary concern that inhibits its development is range limi­ istries of minimum 600 Wh/kg, 2. advancement in electric motor design
tations due to the low energy density of the state-of-the-art battery for high power applications, and 3. efficient aerodynamic design. Fig. 7
technology, which results in heavier battery packs. Caset et al. [43] shows a comparative analysis of electric propulsion and conventional
argue that to match the electrical energy equivalent required to power aircraft.
an Airbus A320 using present technology, the batteries’ weight will The following sections discuss developments in these three techno­
exceed the maximum take-off weight by a factor of 38. Epstein and logical areas, where they currently stand, and their potential to make
O’Flarity [26], on considering the possibility of aviation CO2 emission electric aviation viable in the medium and long term.
reduction using electric propulsion, identified that 92% of the current
global fleet could not take off using present battery technology due to
increased weight. For this reason, NASA proposes that the threshold of 3.1. Battery technology
energy densities of batteries to enable the full implementation of electric
aircraft for general aviation and regional aircraft are 400 Wh/kg and Research in battery technology is advancing rapidly, mainly due to
750 Wh/kg, respectively [44]. Viswanathan et al. [45] confirm these the growing popularity of electric vehicles [50]. The successful appli­
figures by specifying that batteries of energy densities of 600 Wh/kg and cation of batteries in powering aviation has been demonstrated by the
820 Wh/kg are required for commercial regional and narrow-body trainers Pipistrel’s Velis Electro and Bye Aerospace’s eFlyers with bat­
aircraft, respectively. teries with specific energy densities between 250 and 270 Wh/kg [51].

Fig. 7. Comparative characteristics of electric propulsion to conventional aircraft for general aviation and regional jets based on values from [46–48].

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However, the Uber-Elevate white paper published in 2016 [52] cited weight-sensitive applications such as aviation [66–68]. Lighter cell as­
that energy densities of 400 Wh/kg and above are required for electric semblies may be achieved with the relatively lightweight nature of both
aviation to take off fully. Tesla and SpaceX founder Elon Musk also lithium and sulfur elements. However, Cerdas et al. [54] indicated that
echoed that batteries with an energy density of 400 Wh/kg with a high lighter cell assemblies imply a lower volumetric density which implies
cycle life could be realized within 3 to 4 years [51]. Therefore, it is more space is required per unit of energy stored.
evident that significant improvement in battery technology will char­ Although Li-S battery demonstrates higher specific energies, several
acterize the possible application and time-to-market of electric aircraft. problems restrict their practical utilization and large-scale production.
Armand and Tarascon [53] specify that the ideal battery for use in air­ Firstly, sulfur is non-conductive and requires conductive additives such
planes should be light, rechargeable, safer, have long durability, and as carbons into its electrodes [65]. The addition of conductive additives
have the highest energy density possible. Fig. 8 compares the theoret­ leads to slow electron migration, limited utilization of active substance,
ical, expected, and state-of-the-art energy densities of lithium-based and poor reaction kinematics [69], limiting Li-S batteries to a lower
battery chemistries, demonstrating their significant potential in avia­ discharge rate of 0.2 C and shorter cycle life between 180 and 300 cycles
tion. These battery types are further discussed in this section. [67].
Moreover, sulfur expands significantly in volume by approximately
3.1.1. Lithium-ion batteries 80% during discharge, which may lead to detachment of active com­
Li-ion batteries are becoming increasingly popular in research and ponents and electrical disconnection [56,65,66]. Lastly, the discharge
development for electric aviation due to their higher specific power and intermediates (lithium polysulfides) formed during the conversion re­
demonstrated success in portable electronic devices and the automobile action can dissolve in the electrolyte producing a shuttle effect which
industry [53,59–61]. Comparing Li-ion to other high-quality results in a low sulfur utilization [56,65]. To address the issue of shorter
rechargeable battery technologies such as nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) or cycle life and lower discharge rates, Zhang et al. [66] developed a
nickel-metal-hydride (Ni-MH), Li-ion cells have higher energy densities graphene-oxide cathode and successfully improved the cycle life up to
as well as higher cell voltage up to 3.6 V, which is three times greater 500cycles. Song et al. [67] improved it further by developing a
than these battery technologies [61]. This implies that they can produce sulfur-graphene-oxide nanocomposite cathode and an ionic liquid-based
a large amount of current for high-power applications. novel electrolyte. The authors achieved a Li-S that could achieve a
However, despite the technological success and promise of Li-ion discharge and charge rate of 6C and 3C, respectively, with 1500cycles.
technology, several challenges restrict their application and raise Li-S batteries with energy densities higher than 500 Wh/kg, about
numerous concerns regarding safety and lower specific energy two times greater than the state-of-the-art lithium-ion battery, have
compared to jet fuels. Li-ion batteries can overheat at higher voltages, been successfully demonstrated [70]. It is currently the only recharge­
resulting in battery damage leading to thermal runaway and explosion able battery technology to have reached such high energy density and
[62,63], which led to the grounding of the Boeing 787 fleet when on­ 1350 cycles [71]. The application of Li-S in aviation was successfully
board battery fires were reported. Solving the issue of lower specific demonstrated by the Airbus Zephyr aircraft (a solar-powered UAV),
energy in Li-ion cells requires a further increase in the energy density of which made the longest endurance flight of 14 days [72,73]. In 2019,
the cathode and anode material. However, the electrochemical stability Oxis Energy and Bye Aerospace collaborated and developed a 500
window of the currently available electrolyte does not allow an increase Wh/kg Li-S battery, which offered a two-fold reduction in battery weight
in cathode voltage above ~4.3 V [64]. Also, the graphite anode capacity [74].
is limited to ~370 mAh g–1. Therefore advanced cathode and anode
materials that allow for higher capacity need to be developed [65]. 3.1.3. Solid-state batteries
Li-ion battery technology has achieved specific energy densities over Solid-state battery technology presents a perfect solution for the
250 Wh/kg [54] and is currently the technology to which all other po­ intrinsic shortcomings of current lithium-ion batteries’ poor cycle per­
tential battery technologies for aviation and automobile applications are formance, electrolyte leakage, flammability, and limited voltage [75].
compared. Extensive research on developing battery technologies has led to the
development of solid electrolyte, which provides high lithium conduc­
3.1.2. Lithium-Sulfur tivity at room temperature while providing high processing flexibility
Li-S batteries consist of a lithium metal anode and a sulfur-based and stability [76]. The unique feature of this battery is a solid-state
cathode and possess a high theoretical energy density of 2600 Wh/kg, ceramic separator (solid electrolyte) and a pure lithium metal anode
making it the most promising choice for energy storage for large-scale [77]. The highest theoretical capacity (3860 mAh g − 1) and lowest
grids and aviation applications [55,56]. Moreover, sulfur is abundant, potential (− 3.04 V) of lithium metal make it the ultimate anode material
cheap, nontoxic, and light in nature, making it suitable for for all-solid-state batteries [78]. The advantage of solid-state technology
is reflected in its shorter charging time, higher energy density, and
inherent safety compared to aqueous Li-ion battery electrolyte. These
qualities put solid-state batteries ahead of conventional Li-ion batteries
and is currently envisioned as the future battery technology for energy
storage.
In 2020, NASA launched the Solid-state Architecture Batteries for
Enhanced Rechargeability and Safety for Electric Aircraft (SABERS)
project [79]. The preliminary results showed a carbon-sulfur cathode
capable of achieving 1100 Wh/kg at a discharge rate of 0.4C and 804
Wh/kg at 1C discharge rate. In July 2021, Quantum Scape also unveiled
a 10-layer solid-state battery with 390–500 Wh/kg energy density. This
battery could charge from 0 to 80% of its capacity in 15 min and ach­
ieved 800 cycles to meet the current automobile standard [80]. The real
challenge with solid-state batteries lies in developing methods for mass
production. However, Quantum Scape has mentioned entering mass
production by 2025.
Fig. 8. Comparison of cell-level energy densities of potential battery chemis­
tries for aviation applications based on values from [54–58].

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3.1.4. Lithium-air batteries the stator and rotor windings with high-temperature superconductive
Based on the electrolyte used, Li-air batteries are classified into the coils [88].
non-aqueous electrolyte, aqueous electrolyte, hybrid electrolyte, and Sivasubramaniam et al. [92] studied HTS motor design for aerospace
solid-state electrolyte [81,82]. Although a complete description of the applications where they replaced the stator with HTS coils. Their pre­
various Li-air chemistries is beyond the scope of this paper, the liminary results showed a significant increase in specific power up to 10
non-aqueous Li-air battery is considered the most advantageous since it kW/kg, which meets the power output of the modern internal com­
has the highest specific energy density and can sustain a reversible cycle bustion engine. On the other hand, Luongo et al. [88] conducted a study
[83]. For the charged state, 1 kg of lithium metal oxidation produces 11, on the potential application of HTS motors for aviation. They concluded
680 Wh/kg without oxygen. The discharge reaction produces an energy that replacing both rotor and stator windings with HTS coils could
density of 3460 Wh/kg (usable energy) [57,58]. However, Li-air batte­ produce a staggering 40 kW/kg specific power at efficiencies greater
ries are confronted with several challenges, including lower electrical than 99%. This is over three times more power per unit weight than gas
efficiency in the range of 60% to 70% compared to other battery turbine engines. However, the authors specified that it would take
chemistries, lower specific power, and low discharge rates [58]. At 20–25 years for the first fully HTS motors to be implemented. To meet
present, no practical application of a Li-air battery exists. To demon­ the Flightpath 2050 objectives, the EU sponsored the Advanced Super­
strate the feasibility of utilizing Li-air batteries in aviation, NASA built a conducting Motor Experimental Demonstrator (ASuMED) project [94]
5-cell battery pack that consisted of a lithium-metal anode, a porous led by the German electric motor manufacturer Oswald Elektromotoren.
carbon cathode, and an ether-based electrolyte [84]. However, this The ASuMED motor presented in Fig. 10 is a 1MW motor with a power
demonstrator achieved only 200 Wh/kg, representing 5% of the calcu­ density of 20 kW/kg. It uses HTS material for both its stator and rotor
lated energy density, and could only achieve 5–25 cycles. NASA further and operates at an efficiency of 99.9%.
explained that the battery pack could reach 700–800 Wh/kg energy The disadvantage with HTS motors is the cooling system. Since the
densities when optimized. Girishkumar et al. [58] predict that Li-air superconductive materials operate at extremely low temperatures, cry­
batteries with an energy density of 1700 Wh/kg may be achieved, ocoolers are required to keep the HTS material at its required operating
while Thielmannl et al. [85] predict that Li-air batteries may be temperature. This adds on additional weight, which must be accounted
market-ready by 2030. For this reason, Airbus and EADS are considering for during the sizing of the aircraft [90].
a Li-air battery to power the Voltair aircraft they estimate to enter the Although electric motors with HTS material appear to be the future
market in 2035 [86]. of motor technology for electric airplanes, this narrative could be
changed shortly due to advancement and optimization in PMSM designs.
In March 2021, the electric motor manufacturer H3X unveiled its 250
3.2. Electric motor technology kW HPDM-250 electric motor, consisting of a permanent magnet stator
and a rotor made of copper windings and weighs only 15 kg and pro­
Electric motors convert the magnetic and electric field energies into duces a continuous output power of 13 kW/kg [95]. This motor has
mechanical energy, which translates into propeller motion in an aircraft about four times more peak power than the 60 kW motor employed by
[87]. Conventional electric motor technologies are not designed for Pipistrel in the Alpha Electro trainer aircraft [38] and three times better
weight-sensitive applications, are limited by heat generation in the specific power than current systems. While the focus of H3X is on lighter
copper windings, are heavier, and have a specific power of 1–5 kW/kg, airplanes, in September 2021, Wright Electric successfully tested a 2 MW
which is very low compared to gas turbines [88,89]. electric motor with a specific output power of 10 kW/kg, which is twice
For this reason, current research into motor technology for high the power density of state-of-the-art electric motors [96]. CEO of Wright
power applications has mainly focused on using high-temperature Electric, Jeff Engler, explained that using an array of 10 of these motors
superconducting materials (HTS). HTS motor design utilizes a perma­ in a distributed propulsion architecture is enough to power an Airbus
nent magnet such as Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) as its rotor ma­
terial. To ensure a constant interaction between the rotor poles and the
electromagnetic field of the stator windings, active power control and
management unit (PMAD) is employed to control the current in the
stator windings [90,91]. Fig. 9 shows a basic layout of an HTS motor
with a superconductive rotor.
Superconductivity is an effect that causes the ohmic resistance of a
particular group of materials to be lost at specific temperatures, usually
at extremely low temperatures (between − 192 ◦ C and − 246 ◦ C) [49,
91–93]. This effect can increase the armature’s electric field capability
and electric field intensity in electric motors. Since superconductors can
carry high current density with no resistive losses, very light machine
assemblies with high specific power can be achieved by replacing either

Fig. 10. Mockup of the ASuMED motor presented at the 2019 Hannover
Fig. 9. A basic layout of an HTS motor with a superconductive rotor [92]. Fair [94].

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B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

A320. These developments implies that full-electric and hybrid pas­ The most commonly used technique is the Leading-Edge Asynchro­
senger air transport could be achieved sooner than expected, although nous Propellers Technology (LEAPTech) by NASA in their SCEPTOR
far from reality. program [11]. The NASA X-57 DEP aircraft (see Fig. 12) has a total of 14
smaller tractor propellers distributed along the leading edge of the wing,
3.3. Airframe design and propulsion technology which significantly augments the lift by causing an increase in the dy­
namic pressure and air circulation experienced by the downstream wing
Airframe design is a crucial factor to consider when considering at low speeds [100]. High lift augmentation through distributed pro­
electric aviation. This study discusses two distinct pathways towards pulsion reduces cruise drag by enabling higher wing loading [19]. The
aviation electrification regarding airframe design: retrofitting and new wing then acts as a stator vane which reduces the effective swirl of the
design concepts. downstream airflow, thereby causing a significant increase in propeller
efficiency and a reduction in wing-induced drag. This configuration
3.3.1. Retrofitting enables smaller wing surfaces to achieve high lift, which results in a
Airframe designs for modern aircraft are still based on the tube-and- higher-cruise efficiency without affecting its low-speed performance
wing configuration from 60 years ago [97]. This is mainly because new [100]. The X-57′ s distributed electric propulsion offers a 20% reduction
aircraft design concepts take approximately ten years to get certified, in required engine power, better low-speed thrust and rates of climb, and
which is the second most significant challenge for the electric aviation reduced noise. The distributed propellers also act as control surfaces,
market after batteries [15,98]. However, some companies have resorted resulting in better stability and control of the aircraft.
to retrofitting existing airplanes with electric propulsion systems to get In 1994, NASA sponsored a feasibility study on implementing a
certified quicker. The Slovenian company Pipistrel successfully retro­ turboelectric distributed propulsion system in a blended wing body
fitted a glider with an electric motor, becoming the first electric aircraft airframe design. The preliminary results by Liebeck [103] showed a 27%
to get certified [38]. The Vancouver-based airline Harbour Air and reduction in fuel burn, 15% reduction in take-off weight, 12% empty
electric motor manufacturer MagniX retrofitted and flew a 62-year-old weight reduction, and 27% improvement in total thrust. In 2011, NASA
plane for 15 min in 2019 [99]. Fig. 11 shows the retrofit aircraft by developed the conceptual design of the previous study and referred to it
Pipistrel and Habour Air. as the N3-X TeDP aircraft. Two gas turbine engines fitted at the wing tip
However, conceptual designs of aircraft are mission-specific. are each fitted with two electric generators that generate electric power
Therefore, retrofitting an existing airframe with electric motors limits for 16 electric motors distributed at the rear of the body wing of the
the operational capability of the aircraft. aircraft, as shown in Fig. 13 [104]. This configuration offers greater
redundancy and inherent safety in the event of engine failure. The N3-X
3.3.2. New airframe design concepts TeDP aircraft achieved up to 72% reduction in fuel burn depending on
The era of electric aviation has spiked a growing interest in the the cooling system used. Another aircraft concept based on this config­
research and development of efficient and advanced airframe design uration is the ECO-150 developed by ESAero, which has also achieved a
concepts targeted explicitly at increasing efficiency, weight, and energy 40% reduction in fuel burn [105].
reduction during flight. These concepts significantly shift from the
current commercial aircraft design, certification, and operation [19,98]. 3.3.2.2. Boundary layer ingestion (BLI). Novel aircraft concepts under
Industry leaders such as Airbus, NASA, and individual authors have development make use of configurations that uses both the airframe and
proposed several futuristic aircraft design concepts. These concepts are the propulsion system performance benefits to achieve efficiency
based on either one or both of two advanced aircraft propulsion con­
cepts, namely distributed propulsion (DP) and boundary layer ingestion
(BLI), described in the following sections.

3.3.2.1. Distributed propulsion. Although there is a limitation in the

energy density of batteries to enable full implementation of electric
aircraft technology, distributed propulsion is widely envisioned as a
steppingstone into achieving more powerful and high-performance
electric aircraft [100]. The two most common distributed propulsion
techniques used are Distributed electric propulsion (DEP) and
Turbo-electric distributed propulsion (TeDP). Distributed propulsion
system (DPS) can generally be achieved by using several smaller electric
motors to accelerate airflow [27]. Unlike conventional propulsion con­
figurations where large engines produce concentrated thrust vectors, the
thrust force in DPS is distributed about the airframe using smaller mo­
Fig. 12. NASA X-57 Maxwell DEP aircraft [102].
tors [101].

Fig. 11. Pipistrel Alpha electro and Harbor Airs’ retrofitted aircraft [38,99].

8
B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

Fig. 13. NASA N3-X TeDP aircraft concept [104].

improvements [106]. Boundary layer ingestion (BLI) is a technology Fig. 15. The Airbus E-thrust aircraft concept utilizes boundary layer ingestion
that has been implemented in several aircraft conceptual designs, such and distributed propulsion [111].
as the double bubble D8 by NASA and MIT [107], the SAR-40 [108], and
the Single-aisle Turbo-electric Aircraft with an Aft Boundary Layer battery pack and runs six electric motor-driven propellers distributed
propulsor (STARC-ABL) [28] by NASA (see Fig. 14). In an aircraft, the along the wing’s trailing edge [111]. The turbine engine is embedded in
boundary layer air refers to the slow-moving air along the aircraft’s the airframe at the aircraft’s tail section and ingests the boundary layer
body, which causes airframe-induced drag and reduces momentum air for its operation. This configuration offers a combined efficiency
[109]. In conventional aircraft, the engines are typically located away improvement benefit of BLI and DEP.
from the aircraft’s body to avoid ingesting this slower-moving air However, the benefits of BLI can be undermined if the flow-field
because this layer of air is turbulent and non-uniform, which could effect of the distorted airflow on the engine is not considered. Due to
negatively impact the propulsion system’s performance [110]. Howev­ the turbulent nature of the boundary layer airflow, complex inlet con­
er, using BLI can improve the aircraft’s overall efficiency by reducing the figurations are required to re-arrange the incoming swirling air before
momentum drag of the propulsion system. Ingesting the boundary layer reaching the fan, resulting in intake pressure losses. To address this
means taking the slow-moving air through the engine and using it to challenge, Arend et al. [112] conducted a transonic wind-tunnel
generate the required thrust [106,110]. This is achieved by embedding experiment at the NASA GLEN Research center using a
the engine inlet and the fan into the aircraft body, typically at the air­ distortion-tolerant fan contained in a partly embedded nacelle to ingest
craft’s tail section. The lower inlet velocity of the boundary layer implies the tunnel boundary layer naturally. Their results indicated that the
that a higher propulsive force can be achieved with less power. distortion-tolerant fan was structurally robust and could provide addi­
An example of an aircraft concept that combines the advantages of tional efficiency benefits. In addition, Valencia et al. [113] propose a
BLI with distributed propulsion is the E-thrust concept (Fig. 15), novel inlet and fan configuration that replaces the rotational movement
developed by Airbus in partnership with Rolls Royce and Cranfield with a linear displacement, which helps avoid the circumferential
University [111]. The E-thrust is a series hybrid configuration with one distortion on the propulsor operation.
turbine engine that drives an electric generator to charge an onboard

Fig. 14. Some aircraft concepts employ boundary layer ingestion. (a) The Double bubble D-8 aircraft by NASA, MIT, and Aurora Flight Science [107]. (b) STARC-ABL
aircraft by NASA [108]. (c) The SAR-40 aircraft concept by Cambridge University [28].

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B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

4. Future developments and concepts achieving low emission flights, this assessment can strongly be ques­
tioned since the supporting battery technology remains a significant
To meet the emission reduction goals set through the NASA N + 3 limitation. Pornet et al. [122] concluded in their study on integrating a
program and the ACARE flightpath 2050 strategy, several futuristic hybrid system in a narrow-body aircraft that a high increase in
electric aircraft concepts have been proposed by industry leaders such as maximum take-off weight was experienced due to battery weight and
Boeing and Airbus, academia, governmental bodies, and start-up com­ additional electrical system weight, which counteracts the benefit of
panies. These concepts have been summarized in Table 3, and they HEP. The authors implied that the practical application of hybrid sys­
employ different technological integrations and are expected to enter tems was much more feasible in aircraft designed for short rages. This
service at different timeframes. Most of these concepts assume that validates the claims of Hiserote and Harmon [29] and Glassock et al.
advanced electrical components such as superconductive generators, [30].
HTS motors, and battery chemistries with higher energy densities and Pure-electric and hybrid configurations are more practical in smaller
specific power will be available in the future. However, they differ aircraft designed for shorter ranges up to 500 km, which falls within the
significantly in range, size, emission reduction potential, electric ar­ general aviation and commuter aircraft segment (Between 2 and 12 seat
chitecture, and time of the first introduction. Since these concepts differ counts). However, this class of aircraft contributes an insignificant
significantly from the present technology and projected technology fraction of the total emissions from the aviation industry, as shown in
development, and the current stringent certification requirements do Fig. 16. Significant emission savings can be achieved primarily when
not support them, it can be concluded that they are over-optimistic. electrification is targeted on single-aisle and regional fleets, which
Slower development of advanced materials such as HTS, energy stor­ constitute 41% of aviation emissions.
age devices, and new certification pathways may significantly impede Several unknown variables must be considered regarding electric
the time-to-market of these proposed aircraft concepts. aircraft, including advancements in battery chemistries with higher
It can be observed from the literature that most of the proposed energy densities, electric machines with higher specific power, new
concepts for the single-aisle fleet are based on turboelectric architecture, airframe design concepts, and new certification standards. However,
which inherently suffers from lower efficiencies due to energy conver­ turboelectric configurations do not employ a battery system for pro­
sion and transmission losses [119]. However, Kim et al. [49] indicate pulsion, which eliminates the constraint of battery energy density,
that the benefit of turboelectric aircraft can be attained when it takes which remains the main challenge for electric aircraft. It is, therefore,
advantage of the synergy benefits that can be obtained by more likely that turboelectric aircraft may present the first opportunity
airframe-propulsion integration such as DP and BLI. for electric propulsion in regional and single-aisle aircraft, which will
The estimated time-to-market of battery-dependent architectures, significantly reduce aviation-related emissions and support the emission
which include pure-electric and hybrid configurations, could in some reduction goals of the aviation industry.
cases be considered wild guesses, considering that they rely on the
higher predicted battery energy densities compared to the state of art
battery technologies. Although several authors, including [22,120,121], 4.1. Challenges
suggest that hybrid aircraft configurations could be the first step in
Although electric aviation presents numerous environmental

Table 3
Summary of proposed electric aircraft concepts.
Aircraft name Organization Time E- Seat Design Airframe/ Components Emission/Aircraft performance
frame Architecture count range (nm) Propulsion
architecture

SAR-40 [108, Cambridge-MIT 2030 TE 215 5000 BLI Achieved low noise levels below
114] Institute (CMI) 63dBA
Double bubble NASA/MIT 2035 ICE 180 3000 BLI – 8.5% reduction in fuel burn
-D8 [107]
E-Thrust [111] Airbus/Rolls 2050 SHE 90 Regional DP/BLI 1000 Wh/kg A high effective bypass ratio
Royce Li-air batteries, HTS
motors/generator.
VoltAir [86] EADS/Airbus 2035 E 68 900 BLI 1000 Wh/kg 0% CO2 emission, 25% energy
Li-air batteries, HTS efficient.
motors/generator.
N3-X [104] NASA 2045 TE 300 7500 BLI/DP HTS technology. 70% reduction in fuel burn.
SUGAR Volt Boeing 2035 PHE 154 3500 Battery-specific energy 60% reduction in fuel burn, 80%
[115] >750 Wh/kg. reduction in NOx.
X-57 NASA 2019 E 2 87 DEP Li-ion batteries, 14 500% increase in high-speed
“Maxwell” electric motors. cruise efficiency, zero in-flight
[102] CO2 emissions
STARC-ABL NASA 2035 TE 154 3500 BLI Electric motors, electric 12% reduction in fuel burn
[28] generators
Luftfahrt Ce- Bauhaus 2035 E 189 900 DEP with ducted 2000 Wh/kg battery, Zero inflight emission and
Liner [116] fans. HTS technology improved aerodynamic
performance due to C-wing
airframe.
PEGASUS NASA 2030 E 48 200 DEP 750 - 1000 Wh/kg Up to 40% energy efficiency
[117] PHE 400 battery. HTS technology improvement
Alice [40] Eviation 2019 E 9 440 BLI No future technology –
implemented
ECO-150 ESAero 2035 TE 150 1650 DP 8 HTS electric motors 40% reduction in fuel burn
[105] and turboelectric
generator.
ZA10 ZUNUM Aero 2020s SHE 12 700 – Conventional regional 80% reduction in CO2 and noise
[118] jet layout with a V-tail. emission.

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B.A. Adu-Gyamfi and C. Good Transportation Engineering 9 (2022) 100134

aircraft in which the propulsion power or part of the propulsion is

supplied by electric motors [124]. Following this development, the FAA
in September 2021 also released a special condition for the certification
of the magni350 and magni650 electric engines produced by MagniX in
the USA [125]. Although these special conditions are only applicable to
specific electric motors, they set the pace for new certification standards.
They may serve as a basis for validating future certification of electric
airplanes.

5. Conclusions

Electric aviation has the potential to significantly reduce the aviation

industry’s carbon footprint, which supports the emission reduction goals
set out by NASA through its N + 3 program and EU ACARE flightpath
2050 strategy. However, electric aviation’s development and technical
viability are highly dependent on technological advancement in three
significant areas: battery technology, electric motor technology, and
efficient integrated airframe/propulsion design technology, which has
been described in this paper. These three technological areas are all in
their infancy in research which introduces a high degree of uncertainty
in achieving feasible electric air travel and limits the basis of futuristic
electric aircraft concepts on assumptions. Therefore, understanding and
addressing the technological challenges of electric aviation is crucial in
the electrification process of the aviation industry.
This review argues that turboelectric aircraft could open the op­
portunity for the first electric commercial air transport capable of
Fig. 16. Aviation CO2 emission by aircraft type [123]. achieving significant emission reduction since the major technological
risk of low energy density batteries is eliminated. Although other chal­
benefits, and research into the design and development of efficient lenges, including power conversion and distribution, low power gener­
electric airplanes seems to be headed in the right direction, it is still ators, and issues with power management, still exist, these components
confronted with several technological and regulatory challenges. A are also available in both full-electric and HEP architectures. Therefore,
study conducted by the National Academy of Science [123] in which the advancement in turboelectric aircraft technology implies advancement
committee evaluated several futuristic electric aircraft concepts, in all-electric and hybrid aircraft technologies.
concluded that advancement in the state of art battery technology could
only achieve energy densities between 400 and 600 Wh/kg in the next Declaration of Competing Interest
20 years. This value is still significantly lower than the minimum 750
Wh/kg projected by the various studies in Table 3. Concepts such as the The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
VoltAir and the Airbus e-thrust propose Li-air batteries with 1000 interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Wh/kg energy densities to drive the aircraft. However, no practical the work reported in this paper.
application of this battery technology exists despite its high theoretical
energy density. This makes it difficult to prove how soon such a Acknowledgement
non-existing technology can be realized. The same can be said for HTS
technology which can be seen to be implemented in almost all future This work is sponsored by the Arctic center for Sustainable Energy
electric propulsion concepts. Although Luongo et al. [88] projected that (ARC) (Project number 310239143) through UiT The Arctic University
HTS motors might be practical within 20–25 years, that study is over ten of Norway.
years old, yet no practical application has been presented. The closest is
the ASuMED project which was closed in 2019 and whose status remains References
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