COMPUTER OVRVIEW

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know
about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores
data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.

The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.

 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy

 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability
  Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence

 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

 A computer is a very versatile machine.

 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

 A computer is a reliable machine.

 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

 Computer is an automatic machine.

 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program
and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the
cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.

 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency

 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment

 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling

 Computers have no feelings or emotions.

 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike
humans.

Computer - Applications

Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
  Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers
to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
  Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are
−
  Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are
−
  Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Computer - Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.

Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire
computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates
against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Computer - First Generation

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse
frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford
it.

In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape,
and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used
machine code as the programming language.

The main features of the first generation are −

 Vacuum tube technology

 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were −

 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
  IBM-701
 IBM-650

Computer - Second Generation

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the
first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating
system.

The main features of second generation are −

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were −

 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Computer - Third Generation

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable,
and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming operating
system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are −

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
  AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were −

 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Computer - Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
The main features of fourth generation are −

 VLSI technology used

 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were −

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Computer - Fifth Generation

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components.

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)

software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method
of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++,
Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
AI includes −

 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation

The main features of fifth generation are −

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook
Computer - Types

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

S.No. Type Specifications

PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

1
Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system, similar to personal computer

2 Workstation
however has a more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

3 Mini Computer
simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system, capable of supporting hundreds of users

4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software technology is different from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer, which can execute hundreds of millions of

5 Supercomputer
instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU
on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the
most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,

software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass
storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless workstation,
comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations
are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area
network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching).
For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as
2 Store Data
and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to
3 Processing Data
convert them into useful information.
Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user,
4
Information such as a printed report or visual display.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations
5
workflow are performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit
creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into
a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

  It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging of data.

Computer processor history

Listed below are the important events in history relating to computer processors, including
release dates for many popular and widely-used computer processors. Not all computer
processors are listed, as there are too many to list.

Year Event
Baron Jons Jackob Berzelius discovered silicon (Si), which today is the basic
1823
component of processors.
1903 Nikola Tesla patented electrical logic circuits called "gates" or "switches" in 1903.
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented the first transistor
1947
at the Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947.
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley patented the first transistor
1948
in 1948.
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley were awarded the Nobel
1956
Prize in physics for their work on the transistor.
1958 The first working IC (integrated circuit) was developed by Robert Noyce of
 Fairchild Semiconductor and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments. The first IC was
demonstrated on September 12, 1958. (Geoffrey Dummer is credited as the first
person to conceptualize and build a prototype of the integrated circuit.)
IBM developed the first automatic mass-production facility for transistors in New
1960
York in 1960.
On April 19, 1965, Gordon Moore made an observation about integrated circuits
1965
that became known as Moore's Law.
1968 Intel Corporation was founded by Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore in 1968.
1969 AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) was founded on May 1, 1969.
Intel, with the help of Ted Hoff, introduced the world's first microprocessor, the
Intel 4004, on November 15, 1971. The 4004 had 2,300 transistors, performed
1971
60,000 OPS (operations per second), addressed 640 bytes of memory, and cost
$200.00.
1972 Intel introduced the 8008 processor on April 1, 1972.
Motorola introduced their first processor in 1974, the MC6800, an 8-bit processor
1974
featuring a 1-2 MHz clock frequency.
Intel's improved microprocessor chip was introduced on April 1, 1974; the 8080
1974
became a standard in the computer industry.
The MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) Technology 6502 processor was
introduced in 1975 as a faster and less expensive version of the Intel 8080. The
1975
6502 was used in video game consoles, like the Atari 2600 and Nintendo
Entertainment System, and computers, like the Apple II and Commodore 64.
The MN1610 processor was released by Panafacom in 1975. The MN1610 was
1975
the first single-chip 16-bit processor, as reported by Fujitsu.
1976 Intel introduced the 8085 processor in March 1976.
Zilog released its first processor, the Z80, in July 1976. An 8-bit processor, the
1976 Z80 was primarily designed for embedded systems and used in many desktop
computers.
1978 The Intel 8086 was introduced on June 8, 1978.
1979 The Intel 8088 was released on June 1, 1979.
The Motorola 68000, a 16/32-bit processor, was released in 1979 and later chosen
1979
as the processor for the Apple Macintosh and Amiga computers.
National Semiconductor released the 32016 processor, the first 32-bit general use
1982
processor, in 1982.
1982 The Intel 80286 was introduced on February 1, 1982.
Acorn Computers completed the development of the first ARM (Advanced RISC
1985 Machine) processor prototype, the ARM1 (Acorn RISC Machine 1), on April 26,
1985.
1985 Intel introduced the first 80386 in October 1985.
The SPARC (Scalar Processor Architecture) processor was first introduced by
1987
Sun.
1988 Intel 80386SX was introduced in 1988.
1989 Cyrix released their first coprocessors, the FasMath 83D87 and 83S87, in 1989.
These were x87 compatible and designed for 386 computers. The FasMath
 coprocessors were up to 50% faster than the Intel 80387 processor.
1991 AMD introduced the AM386 microprocessor family in March 1991.
Intel introduced the Intel 486SX chip in April to help bring a lower-cost processor
1991
to the PC (personal computer) market selling for $258.00.
Intel released the 486DX2 chip on March 2, 1992, with a clock doubling ability
1992
that generates higher operating speeds.
The first processor based on the 32-bit PowerPC instruction set, the PowerPC 601,
1993 was released in 1993. It was developed by the AIM alliance, a partnership
between Apple, IBM, and Motorola.
Intel released the Pentium processor on March 22, 1993. The processor was a 60
1993
MHz processor, incorporates 3.1 million transistors, and sells for $878.00.
1993 Rise Technology was founded in 1993 by David Lin.
Intel released the second generation of Intel Pentium processors on March 7,
1994
1994.
Cyrix released the Cx5x86 processor in 1995 to compete with the Intel Pentium
1995
processors.
1995 Intel introduced the Intel Pentium Pro in November 1995.
Cyrix released its MediaGX processor in 1996. It combined a processor with
1996
sound and video processing on one chip.
Intel announced the availability of the Pentium 150 MHz with 60 MHz bus and
1996
166 MHz with 66 MHz bus on January 4, 1996.
AMD introduced the K5 processor on March 27, 1996, with speeds of 75 MHz to
1996 133 MHz and bus speeds of 50 MHz, 60 MHz, or 66 MHz. The K5 was the first
processor developed completely in-house by AMD.
AMD released their K6 processor line in April 1997, with speeds of 166 MHz to
1997
300 MHz and a 66 MHz bus speed.
1997 Intel Pentium II was introduced on May 7, 1997.
AMD introduced their new K6-2 processor line on May 28, 1998, with speeds of
1998 266 MHz to 550 MHz and bus speeds of 66 MHz to 100 MHz. The K6-2
processor was an enhanced version of AMD's K6 processor.
Intel released the first Xeon processor, the Pentium II Xeon 400 (512 K or 1 M
1998
cache, 400 MHz, 100 MHz FSB) in June 1998.
1999 Intel released the Celeron 366 MHz and 400 MHz processors on January 4, 1999.
AMD released its K6-III processors on February 22, 1999, with speeds of 400
1999 MHz or 450 MHz and bus speeds of 66 MHz to 100 MHz. It also featured an on-
die L2 cache.
1999 The Intel Pentium III 500 MHz was released on February 26, 1999.
1999 The Intel Pentium III 550 MHz was released on May 17, 1999.
AMD introduced the Athlon processor series on June 23, 1999. The Athlon would
1999
be produced for the next six years in speeds ranging from 500 MHz to 2.33 GHz.
1999 The Intel Pentium III 600 MHz was released on August 2, 1999.
1999 The Intel Pentium III 533B and 600B MHz was released on September 27, 1999.
The Intel Pentium III Coppermine series was first introduced on October 25,
1999
1999.
 AMD introduced the Athlon K75 processor on November 29, 1999. The K75 was
1999
the world's first processor to reach a speed of 1 GHz.
2000 On January 5, 2000, AMD released the 800 MHz Athlon processor.
Intel released the Celeron 533 MHz with a 66 MHz bus processor on January 4,
2000
2000.
AMD first released the Duron processor on June 19, 2000, with speeds of 600
2000 MHz to 1.8 GHz and bus speeds of 200 MHz to 266 MHz. The Duron was built
on the same K7 architecture as the Athlon processor.
Intel announced on August 28th that it would recall its 1.3 GHz Pentium III
2000 processors due to a glitch. Users with these processors should contact their
vendors for additional information about the recall.
On January 3, 2001, Intel released the 800 MHz Celeron processor with a 100
2001
MHz bus.
2001 On January 3, 2001, Intel released the 1.3 GHz Pentium 4 processor.
AMD announced a new branding scheme on October 9, 2001. Instead of
identifying processors by their clock speed, the AMD Athlon XP processors
2001
would bear monikers of 1500+, 1600+, 1700+, 1800+, 1900+, 2000+, etc. Each
higher model number represented a higher clock speed.
Intel released the Celeron 1.3 GHz with a 100 MHz bus and 256 kB of level 2
2002
cache.
2003 Intel Pentium M was introduced in March 2003.
AMD released the first single-core Opteron processors, with speeds of 1.4 GHz to
2003
2.4 GHz and 1024 KB L2 cache, on April 22, 2003.
AMD released the first Athlon 64 processor, the 3200+ model, and the first
2003
Athlon 64 FX processor, the FX-51 model, on September 23, 2003.
AMD released the first Sempron processor on July 28, 2004, with a 1.5 GHz to
2004
2.0 GHz clock speed and 166 MHz bus speed.
AMD released their first dual-core processor, the Athlon 64 X2 3800+ (2.0 GHz,
2005
512 KB L2 cache per core), on April 21, 2005.
AMD released their new Athlon 64 FX-60 processor, featuring 2x 1024 KB L2
2006
cache, on January 9, 2006.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E6320 (4 M cache, 1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz
2006
FSB) on April 22, 2006.
Intel introduced the Intel Core 2 Duo processors with the Core 2 Duo processor
2006
E6300 (2 M cache, 1.86 GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) on July 27, 2006.
Intel introduced the Intel Core 2 Duo processor for the laptop computer with the
2006 Core 2 Duo processor T5500 and other Core 2 Duo T series processors in August
2006.
Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q6600 (8 M cache, 2.40 GHz, 1066
2007
MHz FSB) in January 2007.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E4300 (2 M cache, 1.80 GHz, 800 MHz
2007
FSB) on January 21, 2007.
Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q6700 (8 M cache, 2.67 GHz, 1066
2007
MHz FSB) in April 2007.
 Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E4400 (2 M cache, 2.00 GHz, 800 MHz
2007
FSB) on April 22, 2007.
AMD renamed the Athlon 64 X2 processor line to Athlon X2 and released the
2007 first in that line, the Brisbane series (1.9 to 2.6 GHz, 512 KB L2 cache) on June 1,
2007.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E4500 (2 M cache, 2.20 GHz, 800 MHz
2007
FSB) on July 22, 2007.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E4600 (2 M cache, 2.40 GHz, 800 MHz
2007
FSB) on October 21, 2007.
AMD released the first Phenom X4 processors (2 M cache, 1.8 GHz to 2.6 GHz,
2007
1066 MHz FSB) on November 19, 2007.
Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q9300 and the Core 2 Quad processor
2008
Q9450 in March 2008.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E4700 (2 M cache, 2.60 GHz, 800 MHz
2008
FSB) on March 2, 2008.
AMD released the first Phenom X3 processors (2 M cache, 2.1 GHz to 2.5 GHz,
2008
1066 MHz FSB) on March 27, 2008.
Intel released the first of the Intel Atom series of processors, the Z5xx series, in
2008 April 2008. They are single-core processors with a 200 MHz GPU (graphics
processing unit).
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E7200 (3 M cache, 2.53 GHz, 1066 MHz
2008
FSB) on April 20, 2008.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E7300 (3 M cache, 2.66 GHz, 1066 MHz
2008
FSB) on August 10, 2008.
Intel released several Core 2 Quad processors in August 2008: the Q8200, the
2008
Q9400, and the Q9650.
2008 AMD announced on October 7, 2008 it planned to go fabless.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E7400 (3 M cache, 2.80 GHz, 1066 MHz
2008
FSB) on October 19, 2008.
Intel released the first Core i7 desktop processors in November 2008: the i7-920,
2008
the i7-940, and the i7-965 Extreme Edition.
AMD released the first Phenom II X4 (quad-core) processors (6 M cache, 2.5 to
2009
3.7 GHz, 1066 MHz, or 1333 MHz FSB) on January 8, 2009.
AMD released the first Athlon Neo processor, the MV-40 model (1.6 GHz and
2009
512 KB L2 cache) on January 8, 2009.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E7500 (3 M cache, 2.93 GHz, 1066 MHz
2009
FSB) on January 18, 2009.
AMD released the first Phenom II X3 (triple-core) processors (6 M cache, 2.5 to
2009
3.0 GHz, 1066 MHz, or 1333 MHz FSB) on February 9, 2009.
2009 AMD breaks off its manufacturing and forms GlobalFoundries on March 4, 2009.
Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q8400 (4 M cache, 2.67 GHz, 1333
2009
MHz FSB) in April 2009.
Intel released the Core 2 Duo processor E7600 (3 M cache, 3.06 GHz, 1066 MHz
2009
FSB) on May 31, 2009.
 AMD released the first Athlon II X2 (dual-core) processors (1024 KB L2 cache,
2009
1.6 to 3.5 GHz, 1066 MHz, or 1333 MHz FSB) in June 2009.
AMD released the first Phenom II X2 (dual-core) processors (6 M cache, 3.0 to
2009
3.5 GHz, 1066 MHz, or 1333 MHz FSB) on June 1, 2009.
AMD released the first Athlon II X4 (quad-core) processors (512 KB L2 cache,
2009
2.2 to 3.1 GHz, 1066 MHz, or 1333 MHz FSB) in September 2009.
Intel released the first Core i7 mobile processor, the i7-720QM, in September
2009 2009. It uses the Socket G1 socket type, runs at 1.6 GHz, and features a 6 MB L3
cache.
Intel released the first Core i5 desktop processor with four cores, the i5-750 (8 M
2009
cache, 2.67 GHz, 1333 MHz FSB), on September 8, 2009.
2009 AMD released the first Athlon II X3 (triple-core) processors in October 2009.
Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q9500 (6 M cache, 2.83 GHz, 1333
2010
MHz FSB) in January 2010.
Intel released the first Core i5 mobile processors, the i5-430M and the i5-520E, in
2010
January 2010.
Intel released the first Core i5 desktop processor over 3.0 GHz, the i5-650, in
2010
January 2010.
Intel released the first Core i3 desktop processors, the i3-530, and i3-540 on
2010
January 7, 2010.
Intel released the first Core i3 mobile processors, the i3-330M (3 M cache, 2.13
2010
GHz, 1066 MHz FSB) and the i3-350M, on January 7, 2010.
2010 AMD released the first Phenom II X6 (hex/six-core) processors on April 27, 2010.
Intel released the first Core i7 desktop processor with six cores, the i3-970, in July
2010
2010. It runs at 3.2 GHz and features a 12 MB L3 cache.
Intel released seven new Core i5 processors with four cores, the i5-2xxx series, in
2011
January 2011.
AMD released the first mobile processors in their A4 line, the A4-3300M and the
2011
A4-3310MX, on June 14, 2011.
AMD released the first mobile processors in their A6 line, the A6-3400M and the
2011
A6-3410MX, on June 14, 2011.
AMD released the first mobile processors in their A8 line, the A8-3500M, the A8-
2011
3510MX, and the A8-3530MX, on June 14, 2011.
AMD released the first desktop processor in their A6 line, the A6-3650 (4 M L2
2011
cache, 2.6 GHz, 1866 MHz FSB), on June 30, 2011.
AMD released the first desktop processor in their A8 line, the A8-3850 (4 M L2
2011
cache, 2.9 GHz, 1866 MHz FSB), on June 30, 2011.
AMD released the first desktop processors in their A4 line, the A4-3300 and the
2011
A4-3400, on September 7, 2011.
AMD released the first desktop processors in their A10 line, the A10-5700 and the
2012
A10-5800K, on October 1, 2012.
AMD released the Athlon II X2 280 on January 28, 2013. It has two cores and
2013
runs at 3.6 GHz.
2013 Intel released their first processor to utilize the BGA-1364 socket and feature an
 Iris Pro Graphics 5200 GPU. Released in June 2013, it runs at 3.2 GHz and has 6
MB of L3 cache.
AMD introduced the socket AM1 architecture and compatible processors, like the
2014
Sempron 2650, in April 2014.
AMD released their first Pro A series APU (accelerated processing unit)
2014 processors, the A6 Pro-7050B, A8 Pro-7150B, and A10 Pro-7350B, in June 2014.
They feature on or two cores and run at 1.9 GHz to 2.2 GHz.
AMD released their first Ryzen 7 processors, the 1700, 1700X, and 1800X
2017 models, on March 2, 2017. They have eight cores, running at 3.0 to 3.6 GHz, and
feature a 16 MB L3 cache.
AMD released their first Ryzen 5 processors, the 1400, 1500X, 1600, and 1600X
2017 models, on April 11, 2017. They have four to six cores, running at 3.2 to 3.6 GHz,
and feature 8 to 16 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first Core i9 desktop processor, the i9-7900X, in June 2017. It
2017 uses the LGA (land grid array) 2066 socket, runs at 3.3 GHz, has 10 cores, and
features a 13.75 MB L3 cache.
AMD released their first Ryzen 3 processors, the Pro 1200 and Pro 1300 models,
2017 on June 29, 2017. They have four cores, running at 3.1 to 3.5 GHz, and feature an
8 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first desktop processor with 12 cores, the Core i9-7920X, in
2017
August 2017. It runs at 2.9 GHz and features a 16.50 MB L3 cache.
AMD released their first processor with 16 cores, the Ryzen Threadripper 1950X,
2017
on August 10, 2017. It runs at 3.4 GHz and features a 32 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first desktop processor with 14 cores, the Core i9-7940X, in
2017
September 2017. It runs at 3.1 GHz and features a 19.25 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first desktop processor with 16 cores, the Core i9-7960X, in
2017
September 2017. It runs at 2.8 GHz and features a 22 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first desktop processor with 18 cores, the Core i9-7980X, in
2017
September 2017. It runs at 2.6 GHz and features a 24.75 MB L3 cache.
Intel released the first Core i9 mobile processor, the i9-8950HK, in April 2018. It
2018 uses the BGA (ball grid array) 1440 socket, runs at 2.9 GHz, has six cores, and
features a 12 MB L3 cache.
2020 NVIDIA announced acquiring Arm for $40 billion on September 13, 2020.
2020 AMD announced it was buying Xilinx for $35 billion on October 27, 2020.

CPU Sockets Types [LGA, PGA, ZIF, BGA], Intel vs AMD Sockets

There are different CPU sockets types available for PC motherboards; despite that, why
should you care about processor sockets. Well, if you want to upgrade your processing chip, you
need to know the types of CPU sockets.
The socket type of your motherboard determines what kind of processor you can use, whether it
is worth upgrading your processor, or upgrading your entire system. Even if you have to
assemble a new computer, you need to know that the socket, in such a case, is one of the basic
concepts.

Socket types must be differentiated, with the variety of sockets that we see between Intel and
AMD, both on desktop and laptops.

There are not many types, but it is useful to see the different types of CPU sockets, their
dimensions, and the compatibilities they offered. In this article, let’s know different CPU
socket types and the specifics of their use in a PC, and the processors that are fit with them.

CPU Socket – What is it?

A socket is a place on the motherboard plate of the computer where the processor is inserted. It
acts as a connector to connect and provide mechanical and electrical connections between the
central processing unit (CPU) to the motherboard.

As we how motherboard is important for determine chip compatibility for CPU sockets either in
desktops or servers. But in a case of laptops, they generally use surface-mounted processors
instead of socket processors to save space on the motherboard and reduce its overall physical
size.

The processor, before it is installed in the motherboard, must match its socket. So the processor
socket is almost the most important characteristic. It is this that you should pay attention to when
buying a new processor because it may happen that the processor does not fit the computer’s
motherboard precisely because of the socket.

Sockets differ in the number of pins, which usually grows with the power and complexity of the
processors. Some of the pins are used to power the processor, and some are in use for the
operation of the processor itself, PCI Express bus, RAM, etc. For each socket, there is a unique
pinout, and it looks something like this:

On the other hand, some CPU socket types have several holes known as great matrix, whose
sizes and shapes can vary depending on the pins that are going to be inserted and each port
having a specific function. Through this matrix, it is possible to maintain a connection with the
microprocessor where all the equipment works simultaneously.

4 Types of CPU Sockets

There is a wide variety of sockets where each one is used in different types of microcomputers.
They have different pins and have differences in terms of the interconnection made and their
geometric arrangement.
Depending on the physical arrangement of the socket components, there are mainly four types of
computer processor sockets:

1. LGA Sockets
The LGA (Land Grid Array) is a socket whose assembly is in packaging for integrated circuits.
In these types of sockets, the needles are located in the CPU socket, and there are metallic points
of contact in the lower area of the processor. The LGA can be electrically connected to a
motherboard through a connector or by soldering the board directly.

Since the socket has the pins on the motherboard instead of on the microprocessor, the
microprocessor contains holes in its lower part where they insert; this prevents the
microprocessor pins from being damaged, and it is the most current of all sockets.

Many Intel sockets have seen LGA types, such as the LGA 1150, LGA 1155, or LGA 1200.
AMD has also used this type of socket since the powerful “Opteron” chips in the early 2000s.

Going to more advanced dates, the TR4 or sTRX4 (Threadripper) socket is the first “consumer”
LGA introduced by AMD (LGA 4094). Instead, Intel uses LGA for all processor ranges: servers,
desktops, etc.
LGA plugs apply a compressive force after attaching a faceplate. Therefore, it can provide
superior mechanical retention while avoiding the risk of bending the pins when installing the
processor in the socket.

Also, the LGA sockets are much more profitable and better than some of the previous ones, and
that is that they have the great advantage of allowing a larger and safer power source for the
processor than the others.

2. PGA Sockets
The PGA (Pin Grid Array) is an integrated circuit packaging identified by being rectangular or
square, whose pins are aligned in a regular matrix. Here, the pins may not cover the entire
surface but leave gaps between them, with the standard spacing of 2.54mm.

It is designed to contain processors with a set of pointing pins. A PGA grip applies a
compressive force once the handle is in place. This allows for better mechanical retention and
avoids the risk of bending the pins when inserting the processor into the socket.

It falls within the oldest types of CPU sockets in computing, although they are not the most
senior. Their configuration allows more pins per circuit than DIP sockets, which are much older.
The big problem with the PGAs was that if a pin broke, it becomes worthless.

Examples of processors that have used PGA, like the legendary Intel 80386 or 80486, used this
socket.
To say that we have seen variables of this socket, mainly PPGA (Plastic Pin Grid Array) and
FCPGA (Flip-Chip Pin Grid Array), created by Intel for Pentium processors. Also, we saw the
CPGA or OPGA, but they are much less known.

This configuration allows the motherboard socket to be stronger because the pins go into the
processor. It is the typical AMD socket, from Athlon’s socket A to Ryzen’s AM4.

LGA vs PGA Sockets

LGA and PGA sockets can be perceived as opposites. A “Land Grid Array” (LGA) comprises of
a socket with pins on which you install the CPU chip. The PGA (“Pin Grid Array”), in contrast,
places the pins on the processor chip, which is then embedded into a socket with fittingly spaced
holes.

In the present day computing era, Intel processors use mostly LGA sockets type, and AMD
processors use PGA sockets. However, there are major exceptions to this lead.

For example, the monstrous AMD Threadripper (has Simultaneous Multi-Threading tech) uses
Socket TR4 (Threadripper 4) is a LGA socket. Previously, with Intel processors such as the
Pentium, Pentium 2, and Pentium 3 were PGA sockets.

LGA sockets have important advantages over older PGA sockets:

1. Cheaper production of the processor,

2. Less leakage current,
3. The ability to manufacture very large sockets like Intel’s LGA 3647 or AMD’s TR4,
4. Very reliable CPU retention compared to PGA sockets.

But PGA sockets also have their advantages:

1. The socket itself is cheaper, which makes the motherboard more affordable,
2. The feet on the processor are more reliable than the feet on the LGA socket and allow for the
repair of dented feet. It is very easy to get damage of the legs in the LGA socket, also it is so
difficult to straighten,
3. PGA socket is more compact and more suitable for mobile technology.

3. ZIF sockets
ZIF (Zero Insertion Force): This is an evolution of the PGA, where the pins are carried by the
microprocessor and inserted into the socket connectors. This mechanism is defined by not
exerting any pressure (Zero Insertion Force) when installing or removing the processor
from the socket.
But rather uses a lever that acts as a safety device, the lever next to the socket allows it to be
inserted without force, preventing the pins from bending and blocking it so that it does not come
off even if the heatsink is not installed.

For CPU chips with many pins, the ZIF type of CPU sockets is preferred. To install a processor
in a ZIP CPU socket, simply remove the chip. Once the chip is in place, turn a lever to lock the
CPU in place. To remove the processor, turn the lever in the other direction and lift the chip.

ZIF sockets are widely used in memories or any computer component that allows the
modification of informative data.

AMD is the one who has used the ZIF socket for its 939, AM2, 757, 940, M2 or S1 sockets. This
is ideal to avoid damaging the processor’s pins when we manage it. The AM4 socket is also ZIF
because it comes with its lever.

We also saw the LIF (Low Insertion Force). This mechanism lacked a lever and was a
technology used in integrated circuit sockets designed to exert (little) force when inserting or
removing the processor. Ultimately, they dropped to the ZIFs because they were safer.

4. BGA Sockets
Not as famous as other types of sockets, the BGA (Ball Grid Array) socket is not technically a
socket because its main characteristic is that the microprocessors are permanently mounted in
this socket.
In this case, instead of pins, some copper balls are soldered directly to the motherboard.
Eliminate any possibility of upgrading or replacing the microprocessor.

The BGA connector and motherboard could cost less, but there are very few equivalents between
consumer BGA and LGA and PGA products. So, where do you find this socket? Well, in
laptops, mobiles, memory chips, or any other small electronic board.

However, with the increase in system-on-a-chip (Intel) hardware, Intel has expanded the use of
its BGA socket. Likewise, ARM, Broadcom, Qualcomm, Nvidia, and other SoC manufacturers
rely heavily on BGAs.

Some devices use BGA-type sockets, which require the CPU processors to be soldered into their
bay. Therefore, this type of CPU socket does not allow the CPU to be replaced after one has been
installed.

Why are there different processor sockets?

Different types of CPU sockets are a result of the continuous development of computer
technology. Each of the connectors replaces the previous one when it cannot provide the normal
operation of new processors for some parameters.
At the physical level, all sockets differ in size and shape, processor architecture, number of
contacts, type, and location. In addition, they differ in the mounting of the processor cooling
system. These often new requirements make different kinds of sockets incompatible with each
other.

A processor using a specific socket type isn’t necessary to fit any motherboard with that socket.
Thus, only a processor designed specifically for it can connect to a certain type of socket. You
cannot remove the processor from the computer and replace it with any other. Only a processor
with the same socket will operate.

Likewise, there are two main manufacturers of x86 processors: AMD and Intel. Both AMD and
Intel processors have separate processor architectures, and most of the time, no compatibility is
possible between them.

Intel vs AMD CPU Sockets

CPU Sockets are located near the VRM section of the motherboard for modern Intel processors
in which the pins are located in the socket itself (in the image below on the right), and for AMD
processors, they are slotted, when the pins are soldered to the processor, and the slot has slots
into which these pins are inserted.

1. Intel CPU Sockets

There are several types of sockets that INTEL has used from its origins, some of them are:
  Socket 423: It was used in the versions that gave rise to the Pentium 4 – a kind of legend: the
“quality mark” that every computer geek dreamed of.
 LGA 771: To install server and desktop Xeons and Core 2.
 LGA 775: Released in 2004 for 4 Stumps, Dual-Core, and Core 2 Duo.
 LGA 1155: Introduced in 2011. For “stones” on Sandy Bridge architecture.
 LGA 1356: It appeared in 2012 as a solution for dual-processor servers.
 LGA 1151: Replacement LGA1150, introduced in 2015. In 2017, version 1151v2 appeared, which
is currently supported.
 LGA 2066: Replacement of LGA 2011-3 released in 2017.
 LGA 1200: Released in Q2 2020 for Comet Lake architecture (generally new!)

2. AMD CPU Sockets

Concerning AMD, several types of sockets have been used that has even existed since its origins,
such as:

 Socket A: Introduced in 1999 as a solution for the new Athlon CPU, the main competitor to the
Pentium III.
 Socket 754: This is the first socket to be used in the AMD Athlon 64 processor. This type allows
the use of Turion and Sempron.
 Socket 939: “Simplified” version of the server Socket 940. Used since 2004.
 AM3. It appeared in 2009. Designed for processors that already support DDR3.
 FM1. Introduced in 2011 as a solution for hybrid CPUs with Fusion architecture.
 AM1. Introduced in 2014 for budget Kabini CPUs with Jaguar microarchitecture.
 AM4. Introduced in 2016 as a slot for Ryzen brand processors on Zen architecture.
 TR4. Modification for Ryzen Threadripper processors, released in 2017.

As in the previous case, the last two sockets in the list are still the most relevant at the moment.

How to find out which Socket type does my computer has?

To determine which socket is on your motherboard, it is just to remove the processor cooler and
clear the CPU from thermal paste; the processor itself will say which socket it has so that the
motherboard will have the same socket. Well, it may be not possible for everyone.

So, you can use free software called Speccy weighs a couple of megabytes, which detects a
socket type on your computer. As you can see below’s image, it identified the ‘Socket 1151
LGA’.
Also, if you are only going to purchase or have already purchased a processor. In that case, the
socket marking will also be written on the box itself or in the documentation for the processor.
For the motherboard, manufacturers indicate the socket directly on the packaging box, in rather
large letters.

Which socket should you choose?

As a rule, no one chooses the Socket itself when assembling a computer. The Socket affects
which cooler you will need to buy to fit the motherboard the way the Socket also selects it.

The choice of Socket can only fall if you want to upgrade the processor in the future, but this
option will suit you if you intend to buy an AMD processor. But if you’re going to use an Intel
processor, then you do not have to choose a socket as with the release of a new processor, the
socket version changes, and the motherboard will need to be replaced.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
  Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad
 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17
keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.
Function Keys

3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the
top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose.
Control keys

4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys
5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
  Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

  Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines
per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Memory

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

  Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts
as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and
program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Computer memory is an umbrella term for all types of data storage technology that’s built into or
can be externally connected to a computer device or server. There are two memory types,
primary and secondary, which are accessed depending on their use by the computer.

Some types of computer memory are designed to be fast, meaning the central processing unit
(CPU) can access data stored there quickly. Other types are designed to be low cost, so large
amounts of data can be stored economically.

This article will help you understand the various types of computer memories, their use cases,
importance, and subcategories.

Table of Contents
 Primary memory is memory the CPU can access directly.
o Random-access memory (RAM) is short-term memory, where only the data currently in
use by the CPU is kept.
o Read-only memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory that connects by electronically
modified post manufacturing.
 Secondary memory is long-term and persistent data storage that’s not directly accessed by the
CPU.
o A hard disk drive (HDD) is a non-volatile, electro-mechanical data storage hardware for
persistent and long-term data storage.
o A solid-state drive (SSD) is a solid-state, non-volatile storage hardware that uses
integrated circuit assemblies.
 o An optical (CD or DVD) drive is persistent storage written and read with a specialized
laser.
o A tape drive is persistent data storage hardware that uses magnetic tape.
o A storage array is a data storage system containing multiple disk drives.
o Network-attached storage (NAS) is a dedicated file storage that supports simultaneous
multi-user access.
o Cloud storage is an off-site server where digital data can be stored in logical pools.

Primary Memory Types

RAM ROM

Stands for Random-access memory Read-only memory

Storage volatility Volatile Non-volatile

Storage capacity Up to 256GB per chip up to 8MB per chip

Speed Faster Slower

Use In standard computing operations During the boot process

Types DRAM, SRAM PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

Cost Higher Lower

Chip size Larger Smaller

Primary memory is the segment of computer memory the CPU is able to access directly. It’s
usually placed in close physical proximity to the CPU in order to minimize communication
times.

Both RAM and ROM are used to store data for direct access by the CPU. However, only RAM is
volatile, meaning its data is deleted once the system has been powered down, whereas ROM is
non-volatile, meaning it keeps its data after the system has been powered down.

Random Access Memory

Random-access memory gets its name from the way the CPU accesses it and scans its lines for
the appropriate information randomly, not following strict directions. This is to equalize the time
of access between all stored bits of data.

One of the defining features of RAM memory is that it’s incredibly fast, only marginally slower
than the CPU itself. RAM is used to hold the data the CPU needs while it runs a program, which
saves it time to reach the secondary storage every time it needs a piece of data or instruction.
However, RAM is also one of the most expensive components of a computer device, with its cost
often measured per gigabyte. In fact, the high cost of RAM is the main reason why computers
have to rely on both primary and secondary memory.

Types of RAM

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM is the most common and beneficial variety of RAM used in computers, containing both a
transistor and a capacitor in each of its cells. All computers must contain both RAM and DRAM
to function and operate effectively.

Over the past few decades, there have been numerous versions of DRAM. The oldest is known
as a single data rate (SDR) DRAM. However, newer devices use evolved versions such as
DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4, as they tend to be more energy-efficient and more productive than
their older counterparts. But since the different types aren’t compatible, a computer device only
includes one type of DRAM throughout.

Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM is faster than both the RAM and DRAM, but it’s considerably more expensive and bulky,
including six transistors in each cell.

That’s why SRAMs are only used in small quantities in the computer. They’re almost always
employed as cache memory, used to mediate the communication between the device’s main
RAM and CPU to bridge the gap in clocking speeds.

The fastest and smallest implementation of an SRAM is as a cache memory inside the CPU’s
core, working at the same speed to eliminate delays.

Read-Only Memory

ROM gets its name because data stored on it is immutable and cannot be removed or changed
using ordinary methods. It’s another incredibly fast type of computer memory that can be found
in close proximity to the device’s CPU.

Unlike RAM, ROM is a non-volatile memory that doesn’t lose its data when it no longer
receives power—like when the computer is turned off. In this aspect, it overlaps with secondary
memory in which the storage of data on it is long-term.

Instructions on the ROM are the first thing the CPU begins to read and execute when a device is
turned on. It usually contains “bootstrap code” which allows the computer to carry out the
necessary steps for launching the operating system on the secondary memory.

You can find ROM in all types of electronic devices such as game consoles and car radio and
navigation systems.
Types of Rom

Programmable ROM (PROM)

PROM is different from true ROM by being manufactured in its empty state instead of sold and
distributed with the instructions already on it. PROMs can be programmed later using a PROM
programmer or burner.

Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)

The information stored on an EPROM can be erased and then reprogrammed. This can only be
done by taking it out of the device and exposing it to ultraviolet light. Then, new data is reburned
on it.

Electronically Erased Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM differs from both PROM and EPROM by not needing to be taken out to erase and
reprogram. While the reformatting process can be slow, it’s not done often and usually only to
update critical code such as firmware or BIOS.

Secondary Memory Types

Secondary memory is a segment of computer memory defined by being persistent, non-volatile,
and not directly accessed by the device’s CPU.

It tends to be more affordable than primary memories and is available with much greater
capacities. These enable users to store personal data and information along with software,
applications, and services that can be accessed indirectly by the computer’s CPU through its
RAM.

Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk drives, also referred to as hard disks or hard drives, are electro-mechanical data
storage devices that are capable of keeping and restoring data over a long period of time.

They’re built from a stack of rotating disks held in place by spindles. While the plates
themselves aren’t magnetic, they’re coated with a magnetic material that stores the data.

The part that reads and writes the data is called the head. It’s capable of moving over the platter
and inscribing it with 1s and 0s to write and read data. The platter spins fast, enabling the head to
read the data stored on it with great efficiency.

HDDs are the cheapest option per gigabyte when compared to other long-term secondary
storage. However, it’s not the go-to solution for many tech enthusiasts, as it’s less durable. If the
platter’s surface is scratched, information can be lost.

Not to mention, HDDs have many moving parts, all of which have their own possible points of
error. As for convenience, they are noisy, consume a lot of power, and can be slower to access
and write compared to the speed of the average RAM.
That said, HDDs are great for long-term storage and archiving. They’re often found in older and
more budget-friendly desktop computers and laptops.

Read more about hard disk drives, their types, and how they work.

Solid State Drives

Solid-state drives are a type of semiconductor, long-term, non-volatile storage. They use NAND
flash memory in persistent data storage and are typically used as secondary storage in a computer
to hold personal files.

An SSD unit consists of a controller, NAND flash for memory storage, and a DRAM. The three
components work together to create a miniature ecosystem for persistent data storage for a
device.

SSDs work by using flash memory that keeps data inside an integrated circuit. Each flash
memory chip within an SSD is made up of an array of blocks lined in a grid. Within individual
blocks are memory cells, called sectors, where the data is kept.

This delicate architecture means data on an SSD can be written, read, duplicated, and transferred
electronically without making noise or requiring movement. Without the mechanical parts found
in their HDD counterparts, SSDs are capable of operating silently and efficiently with minimal
chances of physical damage.

While SSDs aren’t as durable, they can last up to five years, and some units can be guaranteed by
their manufacturer for up to 10 years. This means they aren’t as effective for archival and long-
term storage.

The same goes for cost. They’re faster and more compact, but SSDs are considerably more
expensive. They also tend to be smaller in capacity, but you can still find units going up to 30TB
for a premium.

Read more about solid-state drives in an enterprise setting, their performance, and pricing.

Optical (CD or DVD) Drives

Optical storage is an umbrella term used to define data storage methods where a laser is used to
store and retrieve data on optical storage media. The most common variety of optical storage are
CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.

Most optical storage discs available nowadays are read/write, allowing you to repeatedly erase
and reburn new information onto their surface.

CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs don’t work independently. They require a specialized drive for
reading and writing called an optical drive. Those can either be built into the laptop or desktop
computer, or they can be connected externally using a data-transfer cable.
An optical drive works by shooting a low-energy laser beam to scan the surface of the spinning
optical storage media. How fast the writing and reading process depends on the spinning speed
of the disc.

On a micro level, optical discs have grooves and protrusions the optical drive can detect by
analyzing how the laser reflects off of its surface.

They are incredibly cheap and easy to carry, making them ideal for offline data exchange and
transfers between individuals. However, their storage capacity is minuscule in comparison to
other secondary memory solutions. While the average CD is 640MB, DVDs can range between
4.7GB and 18GB, while quad-layer Blu-ray discs can reach 128GB.

Tape Drives

Tape drives are long-term, persistent, and non-volatile data storage devices that use magnetic
tapes to store, read, and write bits of data. They consist of an outer covering that protects a loop
of flexible material that carries the data.

Similarly to optical storage, tape storage cannot be accessed without specialized equipment. A
tape drive is the device where a tape is inserted to be read. It uses linear tape technology or a
helical scan to read the magnetic markings on the tape.

Tape drives are ideal for long-term and archival storage, as the average unit can last for up to 30
years. They’re also cost-efficient and easy to maintain, making them suitable for keeping large
volumes of data.

That said, they’re rarely used in computer desktops and laptops because they’re bulky and
incredibly slow. That’s because the tape drive would have to rewind and go through the length of
the entire tape to reach a specific point and pull data from it, unlike HDDs and SSDs that can be
accessed more efficiently.

Read more about tape storage and its latest trends in the storage industry.

Storage Arrays

Storage arrays, also known as disk arrays, are storage systems that consist of a collection of fast-
spinning HDDs, SSDs, or a hybrid of both storage types. This is mostly used for storing data as
object-based, file-based, or block-based.

As secondary storage on a large scale, storage arrays include more than the storage devices
themselves. Physical components of an array include storage drives, power canisters, controller
fans, humidity fans, disk shelves, and storage controllers.

They’re the most common alternative to server storage, as arrays combine multiple drives into a
single, large-scale data storage system with centralized management.
This system is capable of storing and reliably maintaining petabytes of data at a time. Data in
storage arrays is accessible by local client nodes as well as remote computers through an
application programming interface (API) or a dedicated graphical user interface (GUI) control
panel.

The limitation of a storage array is the high possibility of wasted memory space. This is because
individual arrays must be homogeneous, containing only a single type of value and being
categorized as such, like an integer array or a float array.

Storage arrays are employed by organizations, businesses, and enterprises with a large volume of
data that needs to be managed centrally but accessed remotely by multiple users. This type isn’t
suitable for individual users, as the upkeep and maintenance surpass the capabilities of a single
person.

Read more about storage arrays and SSDs.

Network-Attached Storage

Network-attached storage is a file-based storage that’s connected to a wider computer network.

This enables multiple groups of users and heterogeneous devices to access the storage and
retrieve data as needed for processing.

A NAS comprises a NAS unit, a NAS box, and a NAS head or server, where the data is stored on
discs, drives, or a combination of the two. The system part includes its own CPUs and RAM to
facilitate the communication between clients and the storage. The term NAS refers to both the
software and hardware components used in this storage type.

NAS combines both software and hardware and a collection of communication and file-sharing
protocols over a network. Those protocols, also called rules, control how authorized computers
and user accounts can access the data remotely but feel like the data is stored locally on their
device.

Generally, they tend to be limited in scalability and only perform as well as the protocols used to
govern them. Also, relying on NAS for storage can direct a lot of traffic toward your local area
network (LAN) line and reduce availability.

While NAS is mostly used by large corporations and enterprises, it can be adapted to suit the
needs of a small team of professionals. It’s ideal for situations where more than one device needs
to access the same data simultaneously. It’s also great for collaborative work, as it only offers the
latest version of a file.

Read more about network-attached storage, how it works, and how it’s used in real-life
situations.

Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is a type of persistent and non-volatile data storage where data is kept off-premises
in logic pools. The term “cloud” refers to physical storage devices that span multiple servers.

The ownership along with the upkeep and maintenance of those remote servers is more often the
responsibility of the host company. However, some companies, especially larger ones,
sometimes prefer to own their cloud operations even when off-premises.

The components of a cloud storage solution include software, hardware, and services. This
includes storage servers, client infrastructure, cloud infrastructure, access applications, security
software, and an internet connection.

Cloud storage, however, isn’t recommended for companies handling sensitive information such
as financial information and customer data, as it poses a security risk compared to other varieties
of data storage. Also, it shouldn’t be used to store operation-critical data, as any downtime or
loss in connection could remove access to the entirety of the cloud.

In cloud storage, the data is kept remotely on servers but can be accessed through an internet
connection from anywhere and using any device. It’s widely used by both businesses and
individuals to store data and files they need to access regularly, without having to carry them
around locally or on external storage.

Read more about cloud storage, how it works, and the different types of cloud
architectures.

What Is the Difference Between Primary and Secondary

Memory?
While there are many ways data storage devices can be categorized, one is by how they’re used
by a computer.

If the computer’s CPU directly communicates with a type of data storage, it’s considered
primary storage, meaning it’s essential to the functioning and operation of the device. Secondary
memory, on the other hand, encompasses a variety of storage device types that aren’t accessed
directly by the CPU but through the primary storage.

Volatility is another difference between primary and secondary storage. RAM and its types are
considered volatile storage, where all data stored is erased if the hardware was powered down.
Secondary memory, alternatively, is capable of keeping its data even after it loses power.

When it comes to speed, primary storage needs to be fast in order to keep up with the rate of the
CPU core. Secondary memory is relatively slower and isn’t suitable for direct CPU access.

Another element is the cost per gigabyte. Because primary memory storage is designed to be
incredibly fast, it’s also expensive and sold with smaller storage capacities. A single secondary
storage device can reach terabytes in size and still be reasonably priced.
Understanding the Types of Computer Memory
Computer memory is a term used to refer to any device capable of storing data. It’s divided into
two categories depending on its relationship to the computer’s CPU and storage volatility.

Primary storage is accessed directly by the CPU and works at high speeds, but it’s volatile and
loses data when disconnected from power. This includes RAM in all types and ROM in all types.

Secondary storage is rarely accessed directly by the CPU and therefore can be made to run
slower to save on costs. It’s non-volatile and capable of keeping data long-term for anywhere
from a few years to over three decades. Examples include HDD, SDD, tape, NAS, and optical
drives.

Computer memory history

Year Event
Charles Babbage first proposed the Analytical Engine, which was the first
1837
computer to use punch cards as memory and a way to program the computer.
1932 Gustav Tauschek developed drum memory in 1932.
John Atanasoff successfully tested the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer) which
1942
was the first computer to use regenerative capacitor drum memory.
Freddie Williams applied for a patent on his CRT (cathode ray tube) storing
device on December 11, 1946. The device became known as the Williams tube or,
1946
more appropriately, the Williams-Kilburn tube. The tube stored only stored 128
40-bit words and was the first practical form of random-access memory.
Jan Rajchman began his work on developing the Selectron tube that was capable
1946 of storing 256 bits. Because of the popularity of magnetic core memory at the
time, the Selectron tube was never put into mass production.
Freddie Williams memory system known as the Williams-Kilburn tube was in
1947
working order in 1947.
Frederick Viehe filed several of the first patents relating to magnetic-core
1947 memory. Others who helped with the development of magnetic-core memory and
magnetic drum memory include An Wang, Ken Olsen and Jay Forrester.
Jay Forrester and other researchers came up with the idea of using magnetic-core
1949
memory in the Whirlwind computer in 1949.
The United States government received the UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
1950 Computer) 1101 or ERA 1101. This computer was considered to be the first
computer that was capable of storing and running a program from memory.
Jay Forrester applied for a patent for magnetic-core memory, an early type of
1951
RAM (random-access memory) on May 11, 1951.
In his master's thesis, Dudley Allen Buck described Ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM)
1952
that was not developed until the 1980s and early 1990s.
In July 1953 a core memory expansion was added to the ENIAC (Electronic
1953
Numerical Integrator and Computer).
1955 Konrad Zuse completed the Z22, the seventh computer model and the first
 computer that used magnetic storage memory.
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) introduced the Whirlwind machine
1955 on March 8, 1955, a revolutionary computer that was the first digital computer
with magnetic core RAM.
An Wang was issued U.S. patent #2,708,722 on May 17, 1955, for the invention
1955 of the magnetic "Pulse Transfer Controlling Device," which made magnetic core
memory a reality.
Bell Labs introduced its first transistor computer. Transistors are faster, smaller,
1955 and create less heat than traditional vacuum tubs, making these computers more
reliable and efficient.
John Schmidt designed a 64-bit MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) p-channel
1964
Static RAM while at Fairchild in 1964.
Kenneth Olsen was issued U.S. patent #3,161,861 on December 15, 1964, for
1964
magnetic core memory.
On June 4, 1968, Dr. Robert Dennard at the IBM T.J. Watson Research center
was granted U.S. patent #3,387,286 describing a one-transistor DRAM (dynamic
1968
random-access memory) cell. DRAM will later replace magnetic core memory in
computers.
Charles Sie published a dissertation at Iowa State University where he described
and demonstrated phase-change memory called PRAM. Although PRAM has still
1969
never been commercially practical, it was still being developed at companies like
Samsung.
Intel released its first product, the 3101 Schottky TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
1969 bipolar 64-bit SRAM (static random-access memory). In the same year, Intel
released the 3301 Schottky bipolar 1024-bit ROM (read-only memory).
Intel released its first commercially available DRAM, the Intel 1103, in October
1970
1970. It was capable of storing 1024 bits or 1 kb of memory.
While at Intel, Dov Frohman invented and patented (#3,660,819) the EPROM
1971
(erasable programmable read-only memory) in 1971.
While at Intel, Federico Faggin was granted patent #3,821,715 on June 28, 1974,
1974
that describes a memory system for a multichip digital computer.
George Perlegos with Intel developed the Intel 2816, the first EEPROM
1978
(electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) in 1978.
1983 Wang Laboratories created the SIMM (single inline memory module) in 1983.
1984 Fujio Masuoka invented flash memory in 1984.
Samsung introduced the KM48SL2000 SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) and
1993
quickly became an industry standard in 1993.
1996 DDR (double data rate) SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) began being sold in 1996.
RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic Random-Access Memory) became available for
1999
computers in 1999.
2003 DDR2 SDRAM began being sold in 2003.
2003 XDR DRAM began being sold in 2003.
2007 DDR3 SDRAM began being sold in June 2007.
2014 DDR4 SDRAM began being sold in September 2014.
Computer hard drive history
Year Event
Herman Hollerith developed a method for machines to record and store
1890 information onto punch cards to be used for the US census. He later formed the
company we know as IBM today.
Freddie Williams applied for a patent on his CRT (cathode ray tube) storing
1946 device in December. The device that became known as the Williams tube was
capable of storing between 512 and 1024 bits of data.
1946 The Selectron tube capable of storing 256 bits of information began development.
Before using disks, storage units used magnetic drums called drum machines or
drum-memory computers. The first commercial drum machine was developed by
1950
the Engineering Research Associates of Minneapolis and used by the U.S. Navy
ERA 110. Drum machines were used throughout the early '50s.
On September 13, 1956, the IBM 305 RAMAC was the first computer to be
shipped with a hard drive. The drive contained 50 24-inch platters, was the size of
1956
two refrigerators, and weighed a ton. It could store only five megabytes of
information and each megabyte cost $10,000.
1959 Chucking Grinder Co. began working on disk drives.
Chucking Grinder Co. moved to Walled Lake Michigan and became Bryant
1961
Computer Products, a subsidiary of Ex-Cello Corp. company.
IBM introduced the IBM 1301 disk storage unit on June 2, 1961, capable of
1961
storing 28 million characters.
On October 11, 1962, IBM introduced the IBM 1311 disk storage drive, which
1962
stored 2 million characters.
IBM shipped the 3340 Winchester hard drive with two spindles and a capacity of
1973
30 MB. This drive was the first drive to utilize the Winchester technology.
Seagate introduced the ST506 hard drive, the first hard drive developed for
1980
microcomputers.
The first gigabyte hard drive was introduced by IBM and weighed 550lbs with a
1980
price of $44,000.
1986 The original SCSI, SCSI-1, was developed.
1990 SCSI-2 was approved.
Sandisk (formerly SunDisk) developed the first non-flash SSD (solid-state drive)
1991
with a capacity of 20 MB.
1995 The first flash-based, non-volatile SSD was developed by M-Systems.
1996 SCSI-3 was approved.
1998 SanDisk released the first SSD with PATA interfaces in 1998.
Hitachi closed deal to purchase IBM's hard drive operation for $2.05 billion on
2002
December 31, 2002.
The first 1 TB (terabyte) hard drive, developed by Hitachi, was released in
2007
January 2007.
Computer USB history
Year Event
In December 1994, the very first version of USB was released as USB 0.8.
1994
Considered a pre-release version, it was not available to the commercial market.
USB 0.9 was released in April 1995 and like USB 0.8, it was a pre-release version
1995
and not available commercially.
Another pre-release version, USB 0.99 was released in August 1995. It too was
1995
not available on the commercial market.
USB 1.0, the first commercial version of USB, was released in January 1996. It
1996
had a data transfer rate of 12 Mbps.
In August 1998, USB 1.1 was released and much better received in the market.
1998
Many more USB devices were sold with the release of USB 1.1.
The Apple iMac G3, released in 1998, was the first computer to have USB ports
1998
only, with no serial ports or parallel ports for external device connectivity.
USB 2.0 was released in April 2000 and was stated to have a data transfer rate of
2000 up to 480 Mbps. However, bus limitations resulted in maximum data transfer rates
of up to 280 Mbps.
The first USB flash drives were released and sold on the commercial market in
2000
late 2000 by IBM and Trek Technology.
On November 12, 2008, USB 3.0 was released, allowing for data transfer rates up
2008
to 5 Gbps.
2013 USB 3.1 was released in July 2013, providing data transfer rates up to 10 Gbps.
USB 3.2 was released in September 2017. It introduced the USB-C connector,
2017
providing data transfer rates up to 20 Gbps.

Computer - Motherboard

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports
and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.
Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

 Motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
 Video cards, hard disks, sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to
function properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the motherboard.

 Intel
 ASUS
 AOpen
 ABIT
 Biostar
 Gigabyte
 MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through
pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It
provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon
cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards,
and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive, digital
cameras, etc.

Computer motherboard history

Year Event
The first motherboard, originally called a "planar," was used in the IBM Personal
1981
Computer.
The AT (advanced technology), or Full AT, motherboard form factor was
1984
introduced by IBM in August 1984.
1985 IBM introduced the Baby AT motherboard form factor in 1985.
The LPX (low profile extension) motherboard form factor was developed by
1987
Western Digital in 1987.
Intel released the first version of the ATX (advanced technology extended)
1995
specification for motherboards in July 1995.
Intel, in a joint effort with DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) and IBM,
1997
developed the NLX (new low profile extended) form factor in March 1997.
The first motherboards with AGP (accelerated graphics port) support are released
1997
in August 1997 by Intel and November 1997 by FIC.
The microATX motherboard and specification was introduced by Intel in
1997
December 1997.
1998 Intel introduced the WTX motherboard form factor in September 1998.
1999 Intel introduced the FlexATX motherboard form factor in 1999.
2000 Kontron introduced the ETX motherboard specification in early 2000.
2001 The UTX motherboard form factor was introduced by TQ-Components in 2001.
The Mini-ITX form factor was developed and introduced to the market by VIA
2001
Technologies in November 2001.
The PCI Express standard was introduced in 2003 by the PCI-SIG. Motherboards
2003
with a PCI Express slot were released later the same year.
2003 The Nano-ITX form factor for motherboards was introduced in March 2003.
NVIDIA introduced their SLI (Scalable Link Interface) technology in 2004,
2004
allowing the ability to link two video cards together on a motherboard.
Intel released the BTX (balanced technology extended) form factor and
2004 specification for motherboards in February 2004. The microBTX and PicoBTX
form factors were also released the same year.
2004 The Mobile-ITX form factor for motherboards was introduced in March 2004.
The PICMG, a group of over 150 companies, introduced the COM Express form
2005
factor in 2005.
2005 The XTX motherboard form factor and specification was released in 2005.
Using two video cards with a microATX motherboard became possible in 2006
2006
for computer gamers.
2006 Supermicro released the SWTX motherboard form factor in 2006.
2007 The Pico-ITX form factor for motherboards was introduced in April 2007.
AMD developed the DTX form factor in January 2007. AMD also developed and
2007
released the Mini-DTX form factor in 2007.
2010 EVGA released the HPTX motherboard form factor in 2010.

Computer Motherboard Components And The Functions , Manufactures

& Others

1. Mouse & keyboard

2. USB

3. Parallel port
4. CPU Chip

5. RAM slots

6. Floppy controller

7. IDE controller

8. PCI slot

9. ISA slot

10. CMOS Battery

11. AGP slot

12. CPU slot

13. Power supply plug in

1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board
port connected directly to the motherboard. The oldest, but still quite common type, is a special
DIN, and most PCs until recently retained this style connector. The AT-style keyboard connector
is quickly disappearing, being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard connector.

You can use an AT-style keyboard with a PS/2-style socket (or the other way around) by using a
converter. Although the AT connector is unique in PCs, the PS/2-style mini-DIN is also used in
more modern PCs for the mouse. Fortunately , most PCs that use the mini-DIN for both the
keyboard and mouse clearly mark each mini-DIN socket as to its correct use. Some keyboards
have a USB connection, but these are fairly rare compared to the PS/2 connection keyboards.

2. USB (Universal serial bus): USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find
USB versions of many different devices, such as mice, keyboards, scanners, cameras, and even
printers. a USB connector's distinctive rectangular shape makes it easily recognizable.

USB has a number of features that makes it particularly popular on PCs. First, USB devices are
hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting your system.

3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port carry
data on more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel
ports use a 25-pin female DB connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the motherboard
through a direct connection or through a dangle.

4. CPU Chip : The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the
calculations that take place inside a pc. CPUs come in Variety of shapes and sizes.
Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink. The cooling
device (such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU with
a fan permanently attached.

5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being used
by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in many different
ways. The most current package is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module).

6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable,
which in turn connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to control the
floppy drive.

7. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and SCSI.
Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as network
servers or graphical workstations. The EIDE drive connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide,
40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE controller is responsible for
controlling the hard drive.

8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus
is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the
computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA bus.

9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion
bus. Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards.

10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all
motherboards comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three
ways: the obsolete external battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery.

11. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single
connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also probably
have a video card inserted into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot.

12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in the
slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is
probably not correct. Be sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.

13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary
electrical power to make the pc operate. the power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and
converts into 12-Volt, 5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

The following table explains the main memory storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description
Bit (Binary Digit)
1
A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a component in
an electric circuit.
Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte
3
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.
Word

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8
bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.

The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB
Computer - Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −

 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of ports −

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse
 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
  Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port
 25 pin model
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.

VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
 It has 15 holes.
 Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port
has holes.

Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug.
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
 Invented by Apple.
 It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-
Pin FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port
  Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
 Connects the network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
 Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.

Computer - Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer, i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are the following −

 Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.

 Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
 Secondary storage devices − Hard disk, CD, DVD, etc.
 Internal components − CPU, motherboard, RAM, etc.
Relationship between Hardware and Software
 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware.
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
 A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
 If the hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then the software is its 'soul'. Both are
complementary to each other.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program
is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,
etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −

 Close to the system

 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following −

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
  Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

 Close to the user

 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system where there
are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on
the position they occupy in the number.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number

systems which are frequently used in computers.

S.No. Number System and Description

Binary Number System
1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1
Octal Number System
2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
Hexa Decimal Number System
3
Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −

 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where
x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 101012 ((1 x 2 ) + (0 x 2 ) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
4 3

Step 2 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012 2110

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System
Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −

 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
represents the last position - 1

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 x 8 ) + (2 x 8 ) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
4 3

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F
= 15
 Also called as base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example,
160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number
 Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10
Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10
Step 3 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number Conversion

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following −

 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes
the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.

Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example

Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
4 3

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10
Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may
be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012

Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012

Computer - Data and Information

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized
manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics −

 Timely − Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their
usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following
basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

 Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing.
The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electronic
computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the several types of
input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
 Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful
form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of
sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.
 Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The
particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output
data may be pay-checks for employees.

Computer - Networking
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.
Characteristics of a Computer Network
 Share resources from one computer to another.
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

Following is the list of hardware's required to set up a computer network.

 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards

Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category 5
cable RJ-45.
Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners, etc. can be
connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other devices
that are a part of the network. It is equipped with holes called ports. Computers and other devices
are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes
using which computers can be connected without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is also known as the network adapter or Network Interface Card
(NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two
types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal network cards
are of two types in which the first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
connection, while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are
required to provide network access.
External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs
to be inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required to connect to the
network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB port. Computers automatically detect USB card
and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.
Computer - Operating System
The Operating System is a program with the following features −

 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware.
 It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and
operations of the computer.
 It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs
that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software.
Objectives of Operating System
The objectives of the operating system are −

 To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.

 To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the
users to access and use other resources.
 To manage the resources of a computer system.
 To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System

Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems −

 Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in
use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or
program requests it.
 Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates
the processor when it is no longer required.
  Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller
that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
 File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the
resources.
 Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords
and other similar techniques.
 Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
 Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service
and from the system.
 Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the
computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does
the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display screen.
 Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error-detecting methods.
 Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Computer - Internet and Intranet

Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the standard
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP
Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s
location.

A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so
that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS server will resolve a name
https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on
which this website is hosted.
Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not
available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each organization has its own Intranet
network and members/employees of that organization can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the
computers in that Intranet.

Similarities between Internet and Intranet

  Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.
 Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in the
internet. However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.
 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over
the internet.

Differences between Internet and Intranet

 Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.
 Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population, whereas
Intranet is restricted.
 Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.