SDLS101 Course Overview and Content Synopsis

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Student Development and Life Skills Module
(Course Overview, Synopsis and Assignments)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Course Overview 3
2. Cognitive Development Theories and Life Skills 8
3. Human Metaphysics and Life Skills Development 19
4. Moral Development Theories and Life Skills Development 27
5. Theories of Identity Development and Life Skills 40
6. Theories of Racial and Ethnic Identity Development and Life Skills 47
7. Student Involvement Theories and Life Skills Development 55
8. Sports and Life Skills Development 64
9. Career Development Theories and Life Skills Development 71
10. Student Wellness Theories and Life Skills 79
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Student Development and Life Skills Module
(Course Overview, Course Content Synopsis and Assignments)
1. Module Student Development and Life Skills
2. Course Moderator Dr Munyaradzi Madambi
3. Contact Details Office 7, Student Services Centre;

Phone +263 242 333 Ext 21000
[email protected]
4. Duration:
The Student Development and Life Skills Module is a compulsory online course
which is offered to all undergraduate students from Level 1 until they complete
their studies.
5. Course Overview:
The Student Development and Life Skills Module is designed to complement
academic departments in facilitating balanced and holistic student development. The
Module is premised on the philosophy that man is a social organism with cognitive,
moral, physical, spiritual and emotional dimensions with great potential for growth
through education. Several student development theories have been selected to
create a theoretical framework for students to understand potentialities which exist
in embryonic form within them from birth. These potentialities have inherent
propensities to develop into unique competences and capabilities; which are herein
referred to as life skills. Such skills are necessary for personal efficiency and
effectiveness in life.
For this Module, we have carefully selected student development theories which are
envisaged to enable students to explore various pathways that facilitate the
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realization of cognitive, psychomotor and affective aims of education. The Module

is intentionally and strategically tailored to avert traditional biases towards student
cognitive development (Intelligent Quotient development) at the expense of other
critical areas, such as the SQ (social Quotient- ability to create and sustain strategic
social and professional relationships that are critical for one’s optimum growth and
progression in college and after graduation), EQ (Emotional Quotient- ability to
empathise, have compassion, honesty and integrity ), AQ (Adversity Quotient-
ability to deal with adverse of difficult situations and to survive in any environment,
i.e., devising innovative solutions to life challenges) and MQ (Money Quotient-
ability to use cognitive and psychomotor skills to produce resources that foster self-
reliance and entrepreneurship).
The purpose of this Module is foster in students a broad range of life skills (social,
soft and technical skills) which are usually not taught in class. The ultimate goal of
the Module is to nurture confident, efficacious and dexterous students, with a deep
appreciation of who they are. Personal effectiveness, productive and maximized
living are at the core of the Module. Key competences targeted in this Module
include self-awareness, self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-
actualisation, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, organizational skills,
creativity, innovation, inventiveness, negotiation skills, interpersonal skills,
communication skills, leadership skills, dealing with peer pressure and adversity,
listening and learning skills, entrepreneurship, community consciousness, etc.
6. Teaching and Learning Methods:

This Module is delivered online, allowing students to take charge of their learning
through active interaction with learning materials and the immediate and wide
environment in which they operate. As Albert Einstein would say, “I never teach my
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pupils. I can only attempt to provide the conditions in which they learn.” The
University holds that, a deep student-centred approach to teaching and learning
ought to prepare ‘prepare graduates for the road, instead of creating the road for
graduates’. Methods used in this Module will ensure that students have full
ownership and control of their learning processes.
The following methods will be employed from time to time, as directed by the course
Unit facilitators:
 Introductory lectures (upon request and where necessary),

 Individual practical assignments,
 Group assignments and presentations,
 Edutainment,
 Mentorship and Coaching,
 Field work and community outreach,
 Symposia, conferences and seminars,
 Online sessions, and
 Motivational sessions.
6.1 Student Development Cohorts:

Students shall be required to arrange themselves into Student Development
Cohorts of 10 individuals per group. Running under the mantra, ‘Learning
Together, Growing Together’, students will do most tasks in these Cohorts. This
method of teams is designed to cultivate team spirit, group dynamics and promote
collaboration.
6.2 Accountability Partnerships:

In the context of Student Development Cohorts, group members are expected
select an individual they wish to learn and share with their insights throughout a
given academic year. Accountability Partnerships are designed to promote team
work, shared learning, self-esteem and confidence.
6.3 Plagiarism:
This refers to stealing and passing off the ideas or words of another as one's own;
i.e., to use another's production or intellectual property without crediting the
source. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited, and will lead to disqualification and/or
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serious disciplinary measures taken against the perpetrator. Students can work in
Accountability Partnerships and Student Development Cohorts but their
individual efforts must be standout. These collaborations should not be sources
of overdependence on others.
6.4 Cheating and Misrepresentation:

In contemporary settings, students have developed the habit of recycling old
assignments from their predecessors. Student also tend to generate assessment
reports on their community services and fieldwork. Such habits are strictly
prohibited. Perpetrators of such malpractices will be prosecuted and their
products of cheating or misrepresentation nullified.
7. Course Evaluation:
This is a very practical Module which requires that students acquire practical
knowledge of life skills than mere theory. Coursework and community outreach
will contribute 60% of the total score at the end of the academic year and the
examination at the end of the academic year shall contribute 40%. Students shall
be required to submit written assignments and one Community Service report at
least one month before every end of semester examinations.
See Unit 3 (page 39) and Unit 9 (page 92) for written assignments and
submission deadlines. Please note that assignment submission deadlines
cannot be negotiated. All late assignments will not be marked.
7.1 Community Service Reports and Assessment

Students shall be required to seek placement and conduct Community Service at
any Government institution of their choice. Each host institution shall be required
to assess students using the evaluation instrument provided by the University.
The student shall also be required to submit a written report (of not more than
500 words) highlighting life skills enhanced by embarking in Community
Services during the period under review. Submitting false reports will lead to
automatic disqualification of the entire year’s Student Development and Life
Skills coursework and examination results. Honesty and integrity are some of the
key soft skills students must learn and uphold during the course of their studies.
8. Course Facilitators for the First Year
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COURSE THEMES FACILITATOR

UNIT CODE
Cognitive Development: Mrs. F. Paradza:
 Cognitive Development, Critical [email protected]
Awareness, Problem-solving,
Independent (and Autonomous)
thinking.
Moral Development: Mr. D. Sithole: [email protected]

SDLS101  Character Development,
Integrity, Honesty and Ms. V. Munesi: [email protected]
Interpersonal Skills Development
Identity Development: Mr. B. Machanja:

 Theories of Personal Identity and [email protected]
Life Skills Ms. C.Kunakahakudyiwe
 Racial and Ethnic Identity, [email protected]
Patriotism and Responsibility
 Self-discovery, Self-knowledge,
Self-esteem, Self-confidence and
Self-efficacy.
Student Involvement:
 The Role of Sports, Fraternities Mr. S. Gorejena
and Sororities in Life Skills [email protected]
Development Mr. L. Chemhere
[email protected]
Self-actualisation and Career
Development: Mrs G. Mupupuni
 Soft Skills for Successful Careers [email protected]
 Student Wellness Theories and Mr. G. Chiganga
Life Skills [email protected]
8.1 Faculty-specific Student Development Officers (SDOs)

For any inquiries, please contact the Student Development Officer designated for
your Faculty.
FACULTY RESIDENT S.D.O. SDO CONTACT DETAILS
Agriculture Environment Mr. G. Chiganga

and Food Systems [email protected]
Veterinary Science
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Business Management Ms. Munesi V.

Sciences and Economics [email protected]
Arts and Humanities Mr. Machanja B.

[email protected]
Computer Science and Mr. Chemhere L.

Informatics [email protected]
Engineering and Built Mrs Paradza F.A

Environment [email protected]
Law Mr. Gorejena S

[email protected]
Medicine and Health Ms Kunakahakudyiwe

Sciences C. [email protected]
Science Mupupuni G.
[email protected]
Social and Behavioral Mr. Sithole D.M.

Sciences [email protected]
9. Submission of Assignments
Assignments shall be submitted in a manner prescribed by Module Facilitators.
No assignments or Community Service report should be sent to the Module
Moderator. Students are expected to stay in constant contact with their Faculty-
specific Student Development Officers for updates on the implementation of
this course.
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UNIT 1
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS
1. Areas of Growth
This Unit aims to give students the understanding of dynamics of cognitive development and
to get them to participate in programmes and activities that foster logical, analytical and
sequential thought processes. Development of IQ (Intelligent Quotient) is at the core of the
Unit; cognizant of the fact that intellectual reflection and abstraction form the bedrock of
rationality and lucid thought patterns, thought forms and thought processes. This unit serves
to expose students to situations, programs and activities which stimulate:
 development of knowledge (theoretical and practical knowledge),
 Analytic thinking,
 Interpretation of situations,
 Problem solving capacities,
 Informed decision making,
 Confidence, and
 Self-esteem.
2. Objectives
By the end of this Unit students should be able to:
 Demonstrate knowledge of content learnt and experiences encountered beyond their
face value,
 Explain and interpret situations in ways which show critical analysis and evaluation
of assumptions,
 Provide intellectually sound solutions to problems/challenges in different social
spheres, and
 Assist in providing informed and evidence-based decisions.
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3. Learning Outcomes
 Ability to use theories of cognitive development to facilitate personal growth and
personal effectiveness,
 Improved comprehension of both academic and social situations,
 Improved capacity for abstract and practical thinking and problem-solving,
 Personal confidence and self-efficacy in different academic and social situations,
 Improved love for both academic and social learning, and
 Convergence of diverse views for common good within and beyond the campus
environment.
4. Theoretical Framework
According to Richardson (2017), ideas of three groups of researchers have predominantly
determined the nature of thinking about student learning in higher education. The first line
of research is based on Perry (1970) Theory of Cognitive Development. According to
Perry’s theory and research, as students go through their university years, they progress
along a predictable path which is made up of four positions of development. The second
line is based on the work of Pask (1975) who postulates there being essentially two types
of learners: “serialists” and “holists”. The third line of research is based on the theoretical
framework of Marton and Saljor (1976) who, after having examined how students went
about their learning by using a qualitative method, concluded that students use two
approaches; “deep” and “surface” approaches.
However, there is a lack of cross-cultural validation of Perry’s theory. There are a number
of other limitations on Perry’ original work, most notably, a gender bias and difficulties in
measuring cognitive change. Hofer (1997) said Perry’s original research involved
conducting interviews on mostly males. Belenk, et al. (1986) found the process of cognitive
development different for females than the process reported by Perry (1970) for males.
Zhang (1999) also tried to examine the validity of Perry‘s theory among university students
in China using a self-report inventory, i.e. the “Zhang Cognitive Development Inventory”.
Repeated studies indicated that Chinese students ‘cognitive development progressed in a
direction opposite to that indicated by Perry.
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Piaget (1936) did a research on cognitive development focusing mainly on early childhood
cognitive development. Piaget‘s theory is concerned with children, rather than all learners
and it focuses on development, rather than learning, so it does not address learning of
information or specific behaviors at levels beyond early childhood learning.
Despite its noted weaknesses when subjected to gender and cultural validity tests, Perry’s
Cognitive Development theory is found applicable in explaining cognitive development at
tertiary level.
Task 1: Read widely on above-mentioned theories of cognitive development and explore

how they relate to your personal growth in areas of critical thinking and problem-
solving.
5. Application of Themes to Student Development and Life Skills

At this stage, the student is required to go through the stages of the construction of thought
processes of university students according to Perry’s theory of Cognitive Development. To
get the most out of this Unit, the student has to go through the tasks and assignments given
in the order set below.
Task 2: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is

meant to guide you on how you progress as you proceed with the course. Use a 5 point
scale: 1 stands for the lowest and 5 being the highest.
ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5
I make deliberate effort to learn new things.
I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,

nationally, and internationally
I take part in stimulating mental activities
I consciously try to improve or learn new skills
I try to present balanced opinions in controversial

discussions
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I look up things that I don’t know
I am ready to learn from my peers
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities,

achievements and successes with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not
clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic
achievement at school.
I am satisfied with my level of social achievement at
home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL
IN THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students UZ 2011
PERRY’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Adopted from William Perry (1970)
7. Dualism/Received Knowledge:
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The stage is characterised as follows:

 Basic Duality
o Knowledge is seen as simple facts and authorities have all the knowledge
o All problems are solvable
o Therefore, the student's task is to learn the “right solutions”
 Full Dualism:
o Recognition of other perspectives
o Students’ task is to learn the right solutions and ignore other perspectives
o Knowledge is quantitative.
Task: 2 Complete the following questionnaire individually and indicate your total scores. It is
comprised of 10 items. You are expected to distribute the 10 points among the statements (a, b
and c)
For Example
I am a person who: a) My rights have been violated (4)
b) Protects my own rights (4)
c) Violets the rights of others (2)
Total (10)
How to score the questionnaire?

Add the score from each line, i.e. all the (a’s), (b’s), and (c’s)
Now complete the questionnaire.
I am a person:
1. A) Whose rights have been violated ( )
B) Who protects own rights ( )
C) Who violates other people’s rights ( )
2. A) Who does not achieve own goals ( )

B) Who achieves goals without hurting other people ( )
C) Who achieves own goals at the expense of others ( )
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3. A) Who feels frustrated and unhappy ( )

B) Who feels good about myself ( )
C) Who is defensive ( )
4. A) Who is inhibited and withdrawn ( )

B) Who is socially and emotionally expressive ( )
C) Who is explosive, hostile, and angry ( )
5. A) Who feels hurt and anxious ( )

B) Who is quietly self-confident ( )
C) Who is brashly confident ( )
6. A) Who fails to achieve my goals. ( )

B) Who tries to find ways so that I and others can achieve our goals ( )
C) Is not concerned about others and their goals ( )
7. A) Who is gullible, easily taken in ( )

B) Who is open minded and questioning ( )
C) Who is suspicious and cynical ( )
8. A) Who feels bad about own weaknesses ( )

B) Who is aware of own weaknesses ( )
9. A) Who allows others to choose for me ( )

B) Chooses for oneself ( )
C) Intrudes on other people’s choices ( )
10. A) Who is always taken advantage of ( )

B) Who protects own rights ( )
C) Who takes advantage of others ( )
Adopted from ‘Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students,’ UZ (2011)
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INTERPRETATION:
 Your score for all the (‘A’s) out of a 100 represents how passive you are that is your inability
to act to influence or change a situation.
 Your score for all the (‘B’s) out of 100 gives a rough estimate of your degree of
assertiveness, which refers to your tendency to claim your rights.
 Finally, your score for all the (‘C’s) out of 100 gives an indication of your degree of
aggressiveness, which refers to your tendency to want to win or succeed in social situations.
8. Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge
 Early Multiplicity
o Students see peers as sources of knowledge and can now think analytically
o Student's task is to learn how to find the right solutions
 Late Multiplicity
o Students are now perceiving, analysing and evaluating their identity and their
decision,
o All opinions can be valid,
o Realization that they may not be able to rely on authorities for
solutions/answers,
o Acknowledgment of the need to support positions with data.
TASK 3: Problem Solving

Critical thinking in problem-solving means knowing exactly what it is you are trying to solve
and that means clearly defining the problem. Begin this exercise with pinpointing a problem
and then asking and answering crucial questions in pairs.
 What are the details of the challenges we face?

 What do we want to overcome specifically?
 What do we know about this problem?
 Why is it important to address the problem?
 Is this a time-sensitive problem?
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 How does it affect me, the community, or the world?

 If the worst happens, will we still be all right?
 After we face the situation and move past it, what are our next steps?
 How will we apply what we’ve learned?
Adapted from Wabisabi Learning Community
9. Relativism/Procedural Knowledge:
 Contextual Relativism:
o Commitments and choices are foreseen as necessary to a responsible life and
suggest an individual needs to make their own decisions
o Multiple solutions,
o Authorities are seen as experienced and knowledgeable,
o All proposed solutions are supported by reasons, and
o Student's task is to learn to evaluate solutions.
 Pre-Commitment:
o First experience of commitment or affirmation which evolves to a more
intimate realization,
o Integration of knowledge/learning with own experiences,
o Students make commitments, and
o Begin to establish one's identity.
Task 4: Community Engagement

In groups of 20, plan and make a visit to a place of need of your choice. It could be an
orphanage, old people’s home, rehabilitation centre, prison or home of a family in the
community which needs assistance.
Complete the preparatory check-list by ticking the appropriate box.

Task Performed Response
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Yes No
1. Established purpose of the trip
2. Outlined the objectives of the visit
3. Sent a pre-visit team
4. Set a date of visit
5. Verified Date and Time with destination authority.
6. Prepared a budget
7. Made transport arrangements
8. Sought authority to visit and got clearance

9. Acquired a First Aid Kit
10. Completed requisite indemnity forms
NB Proposal and Planning Guide for the trip should be submitted by your leader at least three
weeks before the proposed date of the planned. After the trip a report should submitted at least 2
weeks before end of semester.
Post Evaluation of the Community Engagement

Compile a comprehensive report of what took place during the visit.
 Activities carried out during the visit,
 Details of the intervention,
 Lessons learnt from the visit,
 Areas for improvement in preparations
 Future plans for the next visit.
11. Commitment/Constructed Knowledge
The stage is characterized as follows:
 Commitments to life direction and values begin to be made
 Commitments and affirmations which evolve to more intimate realization of the nature of
life
 Integration of knowledge learned from personal experience and reflection.
 Realisation and exploration of the implications of commitments made
 Commitments consists of developing maturity, accepting change and involves choices,
decisions and affirmations
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 Student explores issues of responsibility

 Lifestyle consists of one’s beliefs, values and identity
 Students realizes commitment is an ongoing unfolding evolving activity
Task 5: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is meant
to guide you on how you have progressed after going through the course.
Use a 5 point scale: 1 stands for the lowest and 5 the highest.
I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,

nationally, and internationally

discussions
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities,

achievements and successes with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not
clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic
achievement at school.
home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN
THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students, UZ (2011)
After completing the self- assessment questionnaire once again, please identify the following
 Your strengths,
 Your weaknesses, and
 State your strategies for improvements
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11. Individual Self-assessment Assignment

In not more than 500 words, discuss the stages of William Perry‘s theory of cognitive development
giving examples of life skills developed at each stage. Explain how the tasks you performed in this
Unit impacted on your personal growth. (This assignment is not for submission to the SDO.
Share your response to this questions with your Accountability Partner and members of your
Student Development Cohort).
References
Belenk, M. R., Clinch, B. M., Goldberger, N. R. & Tarule, J. M., 1986. Women's Ways of Knowing: The
Development of Self - Voice and Mind. New York: Basic Books.
Hofer, B. K., 2000. Dimentionality and Disciplinary Differences in Personal Epistemology.

Contemporary Educational Psychology, Volume 25, pp. 278-405.
Pask, G., 1975. Conversation, Cognition and Learning. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Perry, W. G., 1970. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Piaget, J., 1932. The Moral Judgement of the Child. London: Routledge and Kegan.
Richardson, J., 2017. Student Learning in Higher Education. London: Emerald Publishing.
Zhang, L. F., 2000. Relationship Between Thinking Styles Inventory and Study Process. Hong Kong:
University of Hong Kong.
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UNIT 2
HUMAN METAPHYSICS AND LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
1. Area of Growth
Carson (1989) describes human metaphysics as constitutive of physical, mental and
spiritual dimensions; and posits that a complete education will include a balance among
each of these three characteristics. This Unit attempts to integrate the spiritual dimension
of man by including faith development as an integral aspect of student development
targeting growth in the following life skills:
 Empathy and Compassion,
 Humility,
 Tolerance of diversity and
 Service to humanity and stewardship of the natural habitat.
2. Objectives
By the end of this Unit students should be able to:
 Demonstrate the virtues of empathy and compassion, especially to the
disadvantaged/vulnerable and the natural environment,
 Show elements of humility in the way they exercise authority and power,
 Engage voluntarily in activities which are of service to humanity and
 Behave in a manner which shows tolerance to cultural, racial, tribal, gender and
religious diversity in their communities.
 Social harmony and integration across cultural and ethnic bounds,
 Tolerance of social and spiritual diversity,
 Peaceful co-existence among students irrespective of social and political
backgrounds, and
 Discipline and self-restraint and less use of coercive enforcement of rules and
regulations.
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Task 1: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is

meant to guide you on how you progress further with the course.
Evaluate yourself in the attributes using the 5 point scale: 1 stands for lowest score and 5 highest.
I have my own personal values and beliefs about life
I take part in stimulating spiritual activities

(fellowship)
I make conscious choices about my actions based on
my personal values
Life is meaningful for me, and I feel a purpose in life.
I respect others' beliefs and values, especially those

that differ from mine.
I appreciate that super natural forces exist and have
control on my life.
I feel gratitude for the good things in my life.
I find the new learning environment compatible

with my belief system.
The University set-up accommodates my belief
system.
I am still in touch with members of my
fellowship/religious circles.
There are areas of conflict between my studies and
my belief systems.
The University system is flexible enough for me
to exercise my faith.
Task 2: Discuss your responses with colleagues in your group and write a short essay
describing new perspectives you learnt from the discussion, highlighting life-changing
lessons.
4.
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Faith and moral development theories have been studied at depth by a number of authorities.
According to Fowler (1981:24), “Faith allows human beings to conceptualize what they call the
‘ultimate environment’, the version of the world that individuals create in their minds that shape
the ways in which they understand and live in the real world.” In this unit, faith is interrogated in
the context of Parks’ Faith Development Theory. The theory focuses on transition of adolescents
to mature adults during the process of making-meaning of their lives. Parks (2000) states that the
faith experience in young adults (17-30 years) involves making new discoveries that differ from
previously held assumptions about the world and subsequently altering their structures of faith and
meaning. The theory is recommended by other authorities for providing useful contribution to the
literature on student development in tertiary institutions.
Young adulthood is a critical point of life where faith develops. Adolescents probe commitment,
develop self-knowledge, self-discovery and choose their own path in the world. Students may
commit tentatively to multiple ways of knowing or making sense of their experiences through the
lenses of different belief systems. They cultivate ability to question and develop their own truths.
Individuals mingle with the world, participate in dialogues and develop a new order in life. Parks
(2000) argues that a flexible mentoring community, non-judgmental in its shared value, is very
crucial when students make new choices. It needs to foster students’ faith development. Students’
belief systems are fragile and vulnerable during their stage of probing commitment but are healthy
and full of promise when supported by forms of community.
Faith development emerges in sequential stages, moving from a dualistic perspective where
students accept the belief system of their communities without question to an integrated belief
system that acknowledges multiple explanations. Young adults cope with diversity during the self-
discovery process such as economic changes, social vulnerability, among others. They experience
shipwrecks in their lives which also has influence on their belief systems. Individuals begin taking
responsibilities for themselves including their faith and choices made as the young adults mature.
It is the spiritual capacity of human life by which individuals recognize the essence of life itself.
Students develop self-discipline or self-management skills when focusing on the connection
between the structure, content of faith, the role of distress and imagination. Watts (2003) comments
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that in as much as Parks’ theory is widely used, it puts too much emphasis on cognition hence it
could not be effective when working with other races as it ignores the role of ethnicity.
The theory identifies three forms of development in young adults as:
Cognitive (Knowing), Dependence and Community. As students develop, they have new ways
of understanding these forms of knowing which occur within four periods associated with
development of young adults as shown below:
Periods Associated with the Development of Young Adults
Adopted from Parks (2000)
Fowler (1990), in consensus with Parks, claims that these stages form an invariant of
hierarchical sequence, always experienced in the same order collated with advanced life
stages.
5. Application of Themes to Student Development and Life Skills

Students are supposed to understand and appreciate the four stages that adolescents
undergo during development thus:
a) Adolescent/Conventional
b) Young Adult
c) Tested Adult and
d) Mature Adult.
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5.1 Adolescent/ Conventional

Cognition: (Form of knowledge): Adolescents are said to be authority bound. The
adolescents place much trust in authorities. In most cases they place trust in authorities they
know, for example, parents, church authorities and teachers, to mention a few. They also
place trust on impersonal authorities; for example, the social media, since they will be in
transition to self-discovery and self-assertiveness. Students see lives in rigid terms and have
little tolerance on ambiguity (Parks 2000). As individuals progress through this stage they
distinguish between right and wrong. Note that reality has no form, thus suffers from
unqualified relativism. All these happen due to experiences in life. Some of these
experiences can be challenging.
Dependency: Adolescents rely on authorities to determine how they should feel about
events in their worlds. This reliance is changed when the truth they have been taught is
discovered to be fallible or young adults examine changes in dependency on others, thus
when they provide a way to evaluate value of disturbance in faith development (Parks,
2000). Being dependent or non-dependent, the adolescents remain authority-based until the
system is found faulty to encourage exploration.
Community: Adolescents seek for familiarization and dependable networks of people,

places, and communities to explore themselves and their values. Communities are best
needed to challenge, support and influence the spiritual development of college students.
The mentoring community involves a peer group in which members challenge and support
each other in the process of making-meaning in the adolescents. Parks (2000) indicates that
each community environment brings different mentorship which enriches a young adult’s
life.
Task 2: Identify spiritual practices/activities in your religion in which you take part
and/or to which you subscribe as a matter of faith but you are yet to fully comprehend.
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Task 3: Has your coming to University affected your belief system (either negatively or
positively) and how do you wish to deal with or capitalize on the situation?
5.2 Young Adult.

Parks (2000) indicates that individuals start taking responsibility at this stage. This rarely
occurs until at least the age of 17 and many people never reach it.
Pause and Think:

Do you agree with the author’s observation? What could be the reasons for the
disruptions?
Parks (2000), notes that adolescents develop self-trust, self-drive attitudes and begin to ask
questions regarding purpose, vocation and belonging as they mature. They question their
ability to make the world a better place. A sense of feeling “unsure” is said to infuse this
period in life.
Young Adults engage in short-term commitments to faith communities or beliefs whilst

balancing their own views with others. Mentors become very crucial as individuals develop
the “fragile inner dependence” to guide and reinforce their identities. They “diffuse into
the community," and build new relationships to form new ideas. Individuals develop a
highest power of naming one’s experiences in transit into a new self (Parks 2000).
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Task 4: Identify or establish a faith group on campus with which you can work in either
strengthening or finding spiritual support in line with your belief system and try to adjust
and fit its activities in your social/spiritual life.
AND/OR
Identify a club whose activities involve service to communities around and actively
participate in the planning, execution and evaluation of a project to carry out for the
semester. Include your club activities in your diary. Feel free to also start a new club with
your colleagues and give periodic reports on how your interactions are promoting your
personal growth.
Task 5: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. Use a 5
point scale: 1 stands for lowest score and 5 the highest.
NB: You are advised to complete this at the end of the semester in order to assess your progress.
I have my own personal values and beliefs about life.
I take part in stimulating spiritual activities

(fellowship)
I make conscious choices about my actions based on
my personal values
I respect others' beliefs and values, especially those

that differ from mine.
I appreciate that super natural forces exist and have
control on my life.
I find the new learning environment compatible

with my belief system
The university set-up accommodates my belief
system
There are areas of conflict between my studies
and my belief systems.
The University system is flexible enough to
exercise my faith.
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Task 6: Working with members of your group, comment on the progress you think you have
made comparing with the ratings you gave yourself at the beginning of the unit. Identify areas
you need to work on to improve your ratings and suggest how you intend to progress in the next
semester.
Individual Self-assessment Assignment:

In not more than 1000 words discuss Parks Faith Development theory describing periods that
young adults undergo by giving examples of life skills lessons acquired on each stage and how it
impacts on your personal life. (The assignment is not for submission to the SDO).
References
Carson, V. B., & Koenig, H. G. 1989, Spiritual Dimensions of Nursing Practice. Philadelphia, PA:
Saunders.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. & Patton, L. D. R. K. A., 2010. Student Development in College:
Theory Research and Practice. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fowler, W. J., 1981. Stages of Faith, the Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning.
New York: Harper Collins.
Mozhgan, A., Parvash, J., Nadegholi, G. & Bahram, J., 2010. College Students Competencies
Development: A Model. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE) ,
1(3).
Parks, S. T., 2000. Big Questions Worthy Dreams: Monitoring Young Adults in their Search for Meaning,
Purpose and Faith. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
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UNIT 3
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS
1. Area of Growth
This Unit discusses the concept of moral development as an important aspect of holistic
student development. Development of the character of integrity, honesty, transparency,
truth and altruism is at the core of the Unit. Students are first taken through dynamics of
moral development, before they embark on activities that foster inculcation of moral
principles and values in students. Exercises in this Unit will be done cognizant of the fact
that there is a clear-cut distinction between piety and erudition, i.e., having knowledge of
what is good does not necessarily lead to doing the good. We shall therefore need to put
emphasis on how to do well, even under difficult circumstances.
This unit aims to develop the following values and skills in students:
 Integrity,
 Honesty,
 Courage,
 Respect for others,
 Friendship,
 Transparency, dependability and accountability,
 Politeness,
 Spirit of Ubuntu,
2. Objectives
By the end of this Unit, students should be able to:
 Use Kohlberg’s theory as a tool of improving their moral reasoning and conduct,
 Use Kohlberg’s model to introspect on their self-awareness skills,
 Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory in comparison with Ubuntu and make sense of
contemporary discourse on Afrocentrism and Eurocentrism, and
 Identify what they regard as major moral problems in their lives and apply moral
theories in resolving them.
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3. Learning Outcomes:
“Education without application is just entertainment.”

(Tim Sanders: 2019)
 Students with the ability to critically identify, analyse and resolve moral
dilemmas,
 Increase in cases that demonstrate virtues of integrity, honesty and rectitude,
 Marked decrease in cases of theft, fraud, violence, misrepresentation, etc., and
 Positive feedback from industry regarding the character and behaviour of our
students.
4. Theoretical Frameworks
Moral development theories can be classified as follows:
 Psychoanalytic theories, e.g. Sigmund Freud,
 Neuro-cognitive development theories, e.g. Jean Piaget,
 Gender-based theories, e.g. Gilligan,
 Cognitive Learning theory-behavioral and Social, e.g. Albert Bandura, and
 Social and Interactive theories.
4.1 Psychoanalytic Theories

Propounded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic moral development theory posits that
man has an internal moral compass which rises with age, arising after age five. This
moral campus suppresses urges and drives him to ideal moral behaviour. The campus,
also known as the superego, consists of two main parts: the ego ideal and the
conscience. The ego ideal includes rules for good behaviour that are learned from
authority figures. The conscience includes rules of what not to do that are learned from
authority figures. Classic psychoanalytic theory suggests that guilt and self-
punishment, stirred by the superego, occur when a child behaves in a way that is
contradictory to internalized parental values. More modern psychoanalytic theory
stresses conscience development as the growth of a superego, arising out of a positive
identification with parental values rather than because of guilt.
4.2 Neuro-Cognitive Development

Piaget (1962)’s game theory was born out his study of children playing games and their
development of justice and fairness in the context of games. His theory, though much
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of an accepted part of research in psychology and economics, has problems of validity

across chronological age boundaries.
4.3 Gender based Theory
Gilligan (1993) believes there is a difference in the ways that men and women develop
that is not fully explored in the traditional theories of development such as Chickering's.
Gilligan argues that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men
look for one answer, one truth that will end future debate about the subject. Women,
on the other hand, have a caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem
in a particular context and try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm
to the most number of people. Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the
other; they are just different ways of looking at the world.
4.4 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
This theory was propounded by a Psychologist called Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
who studied moral reasoning and development, with much of his work based on the
works of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He argued that morality is close knitted into the
concept of self-awareness. He taught morals through exposing students to moral
dilemmas. Kohlberg believed that good morals are fundamental elements of being a
good citizen and argued that morality develops in a progressive way from infancy to
adulthood. He posited that there are three levels (in a total of six stages) through which
morality develops in human beings. These are, Pre-conventional, Conventional and
Post-Conventional. Below is a detailed description of the stages in Kohlberg’s Theory
of Moral Development.
I. Pre-conventional Level
At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right
or wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or consequences of
action (punishment, reward, and exchange of favors) or the physical power of those
who enunciate the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation. The physical consequences of

action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of
these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power
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are values in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order
supported by punishment and authority.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation. Right action consists of what

instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human
relations are viewed in terms such as those of the market place. Elements of fairness,
reciprocity, and equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical,
pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours",
not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.
II. Conventional Level

At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious
consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and
social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the
order and identifying with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the
following two stages:
Stage 1: The Interpersonal Concordance or "Good Boy-Nice Girl" Orientation.
Good behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much
conformity to stereotypical images of what is majority or natural behavior. Behavior is
frequently judged by intention. One earns approval by being nice.
Stage 2: The "Law and Order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward
authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists
in doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social
order for its own sake.
III. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level.

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have
validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them
and apart from the individual's own identification with the group. The level has the two
following stages:
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Stage 1: The social-contract legalistic orientation: Right action tends to be defined

in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined
and agreed upon by the whole society. There is a clear awareness of the relativism of
personal values and opinions and a corresponding emphasis upon procedural rules for
reaching consensus. Aside from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed
upon, right action is a matter of personal values and opinions. The result is an emphasis
upon the "legal point of view", but with an additional emphasis upon the possibility of
changing the law in terms of rational considerations of social utility.
Stage 2: The Universal Ethical-Principle Orientation: Right is defined by the

decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles that appeal to
logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These principles are abstract
and ethical. They are not concrete moral rules. At heart, these are universal principles
of justice, of the reciprocity, and equality of the human rights, and of respect for the
dignity of human beings as individual person.
5. Application of Moral Development Theory Themes to Student Development

and Life Skills
5.1 Definition of Morality
“My rights do not include the right to do wrong.”

(Craig D. Lounsbrough: 2010)
Morality can be defined as a body of standards or principles derived from a code of

conduct from a particular philosophy, religion or culture (Kohlberg: 1981). Morality
speaks of a system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior. The
word morality entails: (a) moral standards, with regard to human behavior, (b) moral
responsibility, referring to our conscience, and (c) moral identity, or one who is capable
of right or wrong action. Morality describes the principles that govern our behavior
(Kohlberg: 1971). Closely related to morality is moral character which is the sum
totality of a person’s dispositions or characteristics that play a role in how the person
behaves.
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5.2 Why your moral character matters?
“By shaping our morals we can shape our lives.”

(Manan Verma: 2020)
The following are some of the major positive aspects of morality:
 It helps you to achieve peace of mind,
• It strengthens the trust that you get from other people,
• Good morals help you to build a solid reputation,
• People with good morals are stress free,
• Good morals is a good recipe for good leadership,
• People with good morals are very confident about themselves,
• People of high moral standards become positive role models,
• Good morals help a person to live a purpose-driven life, and
• Doing the right thing is good business.
Task 1: Using your understanding of moral theory, discuss with your accountability
partner the following questions:
 What does it mean to be a person of good moral character?
 List down five attributes of a person of good moral character?
 What is a good citizen?
5.3 Self-Evaluation Activity

On a scale of 1-10, rate your moral character, with 1 being lost score and 10
representing excellent moral character.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Why did you give yourself this rating?
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• What specific action can you take immediately to improve your moral character?
• What benefits would you receive by improving your moral character?
5.4 Understanding Moral Values

Discuss the following questions with members of your group.
i. What is your understanding of the term moral value?
ii. List five qualities of a person of good moral values?
iii. Suppose you were the new Student Representative Council (SRC President)
(a) What personal qualities would students look-up to in you?
(b) Which qualities would you need to improve?
(c) Which qualities do you think may help you to improve your leadership skills?
5.5 Defining Moral Values
“Character is the foundation stone upon which one must build to win Respect and
attain Dignity”
(R. C. Samuel: 2008)
• Moral values are internalized cognitive structures that guide choices by evoking a sense
of basic principles of right and wrong, a sense of priorities, and a willingness to make
meaning and see patterns (Grusec:2011).
• Moral values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or
actions. They help us to determine what is important to us.
• Moral values describe the personal qualities we choose to embody to guide our actions;
the sort of person we want to be; the manner in which we treat ourselves and others,
and our interaction with the world around us. They provide the general guidelines for
conduct.
5.6 Why are moral values important?
A person with good moral values shows the following traits or characteristic:
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• Has an objective attitude toward others’ ideas and practices that differ from his/her own
(acceptance),
• Understands suffering of others and is eager to assist (compassionate),
• Believes that everyone deserves equal rights and to be treated with respect (equality),
• Acts in a just way, sharing appropriately (fairness),
• Willing to give resources, help or time to others (generosity),
• Values such as enthusiasm, humility, personal fulfillment help a person to grow and
develop
Other values include:
• Honesty
• Integrity
• Courage
• Dependability
• Determination
• Friendship
• Altruism
• Respect
• Kindness
5.7 Self-Evaluation Activity on Moral Values
“Peace of mind produces right values, right values produce right thoughts. Right
thoughts produce right actions.”
(Mark Richardson: 2008)
1. List down what you consider to be your top ten moral values?
2. List five ways in which your moral values affect people around you?
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3. Which of your moral values have a negative impact on your personal growth?
4. Discuss ways of improving your value system with members of your group?
5.9 What are Moral Dilemmas?
“Ethics are not the things that kill my fun Rather, they are the things that keep me from getting
killed by the things that I thought were fun.”
(Craig D. Lounsbrough: 2010)
• Any situation in which a person making a decision experiences a conflict between the
moral rightness of a decision and the quality of the results it produces is a moral dilemma.
Dilemmas can involve a morally wrong decision that produces a desirable result, or vice
versa. Moral dilemmas involve a decision in which the person is forced to choose only one
of two good things as illustrated below
(Adopted from Lawrence Kohlberg 1971
Task 2: You discover that Susan, who happens your friend’s wife, is having an adulterous
affair with her boss at work. Discuss in groups the following:
 The action that you will take?
 Give reasons why you chose this action?
 What other options do you have to solve this problem?
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Task 3: Discuss with your accountability partner some moral dilemmas you have experienced
before. Share how you dealt with the dilemmas?
5.10 Understanding Self-Awareness and Moral Growth
“I have to know me to grow me”

(John Maxwell: 2014)
Self-Awareness is critical for moral consciousness. It is an awareness of the self, with the self-
being what makes one’s identity unique (Duval and Wicklund: 1972). These unique components
include thoughts, experiences, and abilities. It is the ability to see things from the perspective of
others (Silvia and O’Brien:1994). It is an intentional practice of examining inner thoughts,
feelings, emotions and behaviors.
“Man is not what he thinks he is; he is what he hides.”

(André Malraux: 2014)
Self-awareness helps one to discover one’s own strengths and weaknesses and work on the
weaknesses to improve efficiency and effectiveness. It allows one to see things from the
perspective of others with the ultimate goal to improve relationships. That act of considering
choices, interests, needs and desires of others is what ethics and morality are all about. One is able
to harness emotions and discharge them towards positive ends. It boosts self-motivation and gives
one the impetus to deliver. The more you know about yourself, the better you are at adapting life
changes that suit your needs and the needs of others.
Self-evaluation and Action

Rate how well you understand yourself on a scale of 1-10.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 Why did you give yourself this rating?
 What benefits would you receive by improving your rating?
 What specific action can you take immediately that will improve your rating?
5.11 Ubuntu
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The concept of Ubuntu is a very important aspect of holistic student development. Samkange and
Samkange (1980) relate ubuntu to bonding with others which is a desirable aspect in moral
development. Onyebuchi (2017) defines “Ubuntu” as a form of human engagement that allows for
critical thinking, non-domination and the optimal development of human relationships. Ubuntu
means that each individual`s humanity is ideally expressed in relationship with others. It is about
humanity. The three moral values crucial to the establishment of Ubuntu in social order are the
respect for human dignity, compassion and justice.
Various words have been used to describe the presence of Ubuntu. Some of these are:
 Sympathy,
 Compassion,
 Benevolence,
 Solidarity,
 Hospitality,
 Generosity,
 Sharing,
 Openness,
 Affirming,
 Available,
 Kindness,
 Caring,
 Harmony,
 Interdependence,
 Obedience,
 Consensus.
Ubuntu is opposite to vengeance, opposite to confrontation, opposite to retribution and that Ubuntu
values life, dignity, compassion, humaneness harmony and reconciliation (Hailey, 2008;
Wichtner-Zoia, 2012; Tutu, 2008).
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Self-evaluation and action
On a scale of 1-10, rate how well you understand and practise the concept of Ubuntu?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Explain the reasons why you gave yourself that rating.
2. Identify elements of Ubuntu as demonstrated in the operations of your University.
Task 4: In your groups, discuss how the concept of Ubuntu can be used to promote unity and
peace in communities
Written Assignment (To be submitted)

In not more than 500 words, give a brief but succinct outline of life skills that you think are
necessary in the 21st Century society. Use any two student development theories (cognitive and
moral development theories) to explain how life skills can be inculcated in students.
Due Date for the submission of the Assignment: 30 November 2021
Examiner (where the assignment should be submitted): Refer to pages 6-8 above, for your
Faculty-specific Student Develoment Officer). Don’t send your assignment to the Module
Moderator or to any email without the consent of the Faculty-specific Student Development
Officers.
References
Duval, S., and Wicklund, R. 1972. A Theory of Objective Self-Awareness. Johnson Research
Foundation. Academic Press
Gilligan, C.: 1993, In a different voice: psychological theory and women's development:
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
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Grusec, J.E., 2011, Socialization Processes in the family: Social and Emotional Development.
Annual Review of Psychology 62, 243–269.
Kohlberg, L.: 1981. Essays in moral development: The philosophy of moral development. New
York: Harper Row.
Kohlberg. L.: 1971. Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In C. M. Beck,
B. S. Crittenden, and E. V. Sullivan (Eds), Moral Education: Interdisciplinary approaches.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Kohlberg, L.: 1969 Stage and sequence. The Cognitive-development approach to socialization. In
D. A Goslin (Ed). Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp-347-480). Chicago: Randy
McNally.
Onyebuchi, E, M,: 2017. "I am Because You Are: Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Xenophobia",
Philosophical Papers, 46:1, 85-109. University of Cambridge
Silvia, P. J., & O'Brien, M. E. (2004). Self-awareness and constructive functioning: Revisiting
"the human dilemma." Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 475-489.
Samkange, S. J. W. T. and Samkange, S.; 1980. Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe

Indegenous Political Philosophy. Harare: Graham Publishing.
Wichtner-Zoia, Y.; 2012. Could the philosophy of ubuntu support community connections,
development and economic prosperity in your community? Available from:
http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news ubuntu_is_powerful thinking (Accessed 5 June 2013).
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UNIT 4
IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
1. Areas of Student Growth

This unit aims to give students the understanding of themselves primarily as human
beings in a structured learning environment in relation to fellow students, staff and
other stakeholders within the wider environment. Focus will be especially on identity
development grappling with metaphysical existential questions such as, “Who am I?
Why am I here?” The development of “soft skills” or person–to– person relational
competences takes center stage in this unit being guided by a heightened self –
awareness programme. The tasks and assignments of this unit serve to stimulate
students’ thinking capacities as they:
 Join and actively participate in various student groupings and clubs in order to
boost their competences in team work, cooperation, honesty, patriotism and
tolerance.
 Consult peers and staff on matters of emotional intelligence in order to develop
self-esteem, contentment, self-regulation, collaboration and listening skills,
and
 Craft resolutions to guide autonomous behaviour cognisance of the existence
of other players in order to develop empathy, appreciation of individual
differences and voluntarism.
2. Objectives of this course Unit:

This unit is designed to ensure that students are able to:
 Discover who they are, and to have deeper self-knowledge which leads to self-
profiling, which in-turn is expected to bolster self-esteem, self-confidence, self-
efficacy and personal effectiveness,
 Grow beyond information capitulation and over-dependence on other people’s
views, thoughts, opinions, cultures and tradition (i.e., engender critical thinking
skills, objectivity, independent thinking, autonomy and
integrity),
 Understand themselves in the context of the interests, choices and needs of
others; and be able to master interpersonal skills, problem-solving and conflict
management skills which promote personal growth, peace and progress in
society, and
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 Understand the role of individuality in group settings and the importance of

team work in society.
Having travelled the path of the vectors students should develop:
 a consciousness of their role as agents of social transformation and drivers of
social justice and positive social traditions,
 integrity, objectivity, independent thought, critical thinking skills and
leadership competences,
 a deep appreciation and tolerance of cultural diversity, inclusivity and
pluralism, and
 the ability to work in teams.
Task 1: Complete this self-assessment chart as honestly as you can so that it guides you in checking
your progress as you proceed with the Unit.
NB: In the rating scale, 1 stands for your weakest developed attribute while 5 is the strongest.
I have a network of friends and/or family.
I contribute time and/or money to social and community
projects or causes.
I balance my own needs with the needs of others.
I try to help others when I can
I have a sense of belonging within my community.
I feel comfortable meeting new people.
I communicate and get along with a wide variety of people
I get along well with people from various backgrounds.
I accept responsibility for my actions.
I see challenges and change as opportunities for growth.
I believe that I have considerable control over my life.
I am able to laugh at life and myself.
I can set personal goals and follow them up with action.
I am able to appropriately cope with stress and tension.
I make time for leisure pursuits.
I am able to recognize my personal shortcomings and learn
from my mistakes
I am able to recognize and express my feelings.
I am proud of my cultural identity
I get along well with people of different culture
My social statues gives me a sense of pride
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I believe in the difference and equality of gender

I feel other people accept me the way I am
I am prepared to learn about other cultures
I am prepared to teach other people about my culture
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN THE
ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT
Adapted from Hettler (1976) and Winston (1990)
In 1969, Arthur W. Chickering published ‘Education and Identity’, which detailed his
psychosocial theory of student identity development and explained his views on how
the college experience influenced this development. The development of the theory
was influenced by his experience as a psychology professor, administrator, and
researcher in higher education.
The theory explains seven vectors that influence identity development. Much of his
research focused on the impact of higher education on students. In 1993, Chickering
and a colleague, Linda Reisser, revised the sequencing of the vectors and updated them
based on significant contributions of research since the original publication.
The revised theory of student identity development, which was applicable to college
students, identified the seven vectors, some renamed and sequenced in the following
order: developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward
interdependence, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity,
developing purpose, and developing integrity (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). The
vectors are a path to individuation, the unique self, to relationships with groups and
individuals. The college experience is more likely to influence the first four vectors
which ultimately contribute to identity. Schwitzer (2001), Schreiber (2014) and Astin
(1993) also concur with Chickering and Reiser that educational environments influence
student identity development significantly. Chickering & Reisser (1993) highlight
factors with such impact as, institutional objectives, institutional size, student-faculty
relationships, curriculum, teaching, friendships and student communities, and student
development programs and services. At least four of these factors are related to online
learning and can help promote a sense of community: faculty-learner relationships,
curriculum, teaching, and friendships and student communities.
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Chickering posits that students progress through the first four vectors simultaneously
during their first and second years and (generally) through the fourth vector during
second and third years (given a standard four-year program). During the third and
fourth years, they progress simultaneously through the last two vectors. Students move
through these vectors at different rates and may even move back and forth through
them, depending on levels of challenge, support and maturity. The model focuses on
developmental tasks or issues that confront students during the transition from
adolescence to adulthood. These developmental tasks tend to be sources of
preoccupation and worry for students. Development is not simply an internal
maturation process but one that requires appropriate challenges and support from the
environment. It takes place through an interaction between an individual’s internal state
and the societal and institutional demands of parents, faculty, university, peers and
culture.
5. Application of Themes to Students Development and Life Skills
5.1 Vector 1: Achieving Competence
This Vector entails one’s confidence in their ability to cope with what comes and
to achieve successfully what one sets out to do. This vector includes three
spheres: intellectual, physical and social (interpersonal) competence. Increased
skills or competences lead to a sense of confidence in one’s ability to handle such
tasks as acquiring knowledge, critical thinking, physical and manual skills, and
developing communication skills for a variety of social situations. Developing
intellectual competence is directly tied to academic programmes. Physical and
manual competence is developed through athletic and recreational activities and
through hands–on contact with art materials or construction materials. Interpersonal
competence is developed through communication with individuals or groups as
found in class teamwork or co – curricular organisations.
Checkering identifies the following as some of the tasks students need to undertake
while developing competence:
 Sport and recreational activities,
 Wellness activities,
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 Social gatherings,
 Trips and excursions,
 Sororities and fraternities, and
 Cross cultural activities.
Task 2
 Identify what you regard as your major weakness in the context of Vector 1.
 Identify activities you need to embark on in addressing your deficiencies in this
area.
 Agree with your accountability partner on steps you need to take to improve this
area of student development (agree on timelines for each milestone).
5.2 Vector 2: Managing Emotions.

This Vector entails students’ ability to manage intense emotions such as fear, anger,
happiness, sadness, aggression, sex, depression and anxiety as an important aspect of their
total development. Common concerns are peer conflicts, sexual impulses, academic
anxiety and aggression. Resolution involves integration of being able to recognize and label
feelings, trust one’s feelings, and the ability to define what will be expressed to whom.
Controls inculcated by parents and society are examined, understood and eventually
replaced by internally adopted behavioural standards and controls.
Task 3
 Have you so far encountered emotionally taxing situations in your studies or social
life? Share with your accountability partner how you resolved the emotional burden?
 What are the potential sources of stress/depression in your social and academic life
and how do you think you can guard against them? Discuss your responses with
accountability partner. Seek the assistance of your lecturer, mentor or Clinical
Psychologist in the Student Affairs Division if you need more professional guidance
and coaching.
5.3 Vector 3: Developing Autonomy.

Checkering describes autonomy as the independence of maturity which requires both
emotional and instrumental independence. As competence develops, the individual
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disengages from parents and simultaneously the student recognizes the importance of
others. Recognition of interdependence follows from independence as the student finds a
middle ground between being one’s own person and slavish conformity.
Chickering identifies the following among some of the activities students can engage in to
develop autonomy:
 Financial management planning,
 Self-confidence boosting activities,
 Assuming responsibilities,
 Independent decision making,
 Networking, and
 Career planning.
Task 4: Discuss with your group members areas of your life where you have tended to conform
to Chickering’s notion of autonomy.
 Go through your diary of academic and social activities and classify the activities you
are involved in under physical, emotional, social and intellectual development.
 Agree with your accountability partner on steps you need to take in order to improve
your autonomy.
5.4 Vector 5, Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships.

This vector involves increased tolerance and acceptance of differences between individuals
and an increase in the capacity for mature and intimate relationships. Tolerance aids
students in gaining a clearer understanding of customs, values, stereotyping, and
discrimination. Skills and attitudes to be developed include the ability to listen, understand
and empathize with others without the need to dominate or pass judgment.
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Task 5
 Working with your group, draw a comprehensive list of what you regard as essential
interpersonal skills for a healthy community.
 Of the listed interpersonal skills, assess yourself by ranking your skills from the
strongest to the weakest.
 Agree with your accountability partner on how you intend to leverage on your strongest
interpersonal skills in achieving your vision and goals in life.
 Agree with your accountability partner on steps you need to take in order to improve
your areas of weakness.
Individual Self-assessment Assignment

In 500 words, summarise key lessons and resolutions made following your reading and discussion
on Arthur W. Chickering’s theory of student development. (Assignment not for submission).
REFERENCES
Anderson, D. S., 2016. Wellness Issues for Higher Education: A Guide for Student Affairs and
Higher Education Professionals, Routledge, New York.
Astin, A. W., 1993. An empirical typology of college students. Journal of College Student
Development, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 36–46.
Chickering. A.W., 1969. Education and Identity, Jossey Bass, SanFrancisco
Chickering, A. W. and Reisser, L. 1993. Education and identity, (2nd edn.), Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco.
Hettler, B., 1976. The Six Dimensions of Wellness, viewed 28 September 2020.
http://www.hettler.com/sixdimen.htm
Schreiber, B., 2014. Key challenges facing student affairs: An international perspective. M.
Speckman and M. Mandew (eds.), Perspectives on student affairs in South Africa. Somerset
West, South Africa, African Minds, pp. 9–26.
Schwitzer, R., 2001. Who Succeeds at University? Factors predicting academic performance in
first year Australian university students, viewed 28 September
2020,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249015062_Who_Succeeds_at_University_Facto
rs_predicting_academic_performance_in_first_year_Australian_university_students.
Winston, R. B., 1990. The Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory: An approach to
measuring students' psychosocial development. Journal of College Student Development, 31(2),
108–120.
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UNIT 5
THEORIES OF RACIAL AND ETHNIC IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
1. Areas of Growth
In this Unit you will learn about Phinney’s (1996) theory of racial and ethnic identity
development. The knowledge and skills acquired in the process is meant to develop you
in four main areas:
 Acceptance of your own identity which fosters self-esteem, contentment and love
of self,
 Important aspects that define you as an individual and part of a community which
foster tolerance, patience, cooperation, patriotism, voluntarism, and
 Acceptance of diversity of cultures and social situations, which fosters, empathy,
appreciation of individual differences and
 Assertiveness and confidence with your uniqueness which foster foster friendly
relationships
2. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Identify different aspects of personal identity,
• Apply the stages of Phinney’s theory in the process of identity search and
acceptance, and
• Evaluate the applicability of Phinney’s stages of identity development in your
context.
• Appreciation of different cultures,
• Tolerance of cultural diversity,
• Development of a positive self-identity, and
• Peaceful co-existence.
Racial and ethnic identities are important since they instill feelings of belonging and lead
to high self-esteem in individuals. Cheon, Ip, Haskin and Yip (2002) confirm that the
formation of identity is associated with positive self-image. However, according to Chávez
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and Guido-Di Brito (2002), the concept of racial identity, in particular, has been
misunderstood and contested. Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, (2010) are of the
same view and maintain that there is no universal definition of the concept of ethnic identity
in literature.
Wakefield and Hudley (2009) define racial and ethnic identity as the sense of belonging
that an adolescent feels toward a racial or ethnic group as well as the significance and
qualitative meaning that the adolescent assigns to that group membership. Verkuyten
(2005) defines ethnicity as human groups (other than kinship groups) which cherish a belief
in their common origins of such a kind that it provides a basis for the creation of a
community. Ethnic identity is the culture, religion, geography, language and practices
shared by individuals connected by loyalty and kinship (Evans et al. 2010).
Phinney (1989) refers to ethnic identity as a sense of self, which involves a shared sense of
identity with others who belong to the same group. He proffers that it is an important
contributor to an individual’s well-being. Individuals derive positive self attributes from
belonging to groups that are meaningful to them. Phinney further views ethnic identity as
a multi-dimensional and fluid construct that develops from an individual’s sense of
belonging to a cultural group. Ethnic identity derives from a sense of peoplehood within a
group, a culture and a particular setting. According to Helms (1994) it is social identity
based on the culture of one’s ancestors’ national or tribal groups as modified by the
demands of the culture in which one’s group currently resides. This is the ethnic group an
individual most closely associates with.
A number of theorists have come up with theories on racial and ethnic development.
Amongst these are Erikson (1969), Marcia (1980) and Phinney (1996).
Erikson outlined eight stages of human development and they are based on resolving life
crises. The development of self-identity occurs in his fifth stage. In this stage, he maintains
that the individual must determine who they want to be and how they want to be perceived
by others.
According to Morelli (2020), Marcia expanded on Erikson’s theory and came up with a 4
stage theory of identity development. The stages include identity diffusion, identity
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foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement. Phinney came up with three stages
almost similar to Marcia’s. Marcia’s and Phinney’s theories emphasise exploration and
commitment as key to development. Cheon et.al. (2020) notes that exploration refers to
efforts of thinking and searching the meanings of one’s ethnic/racial group. Individuals
may talk to others from their ethnic group or participate in cultural events to seek
information and knowledge about their group. They refer to commitment as life choices
and level of attachment an individual has to their ethnic/racial group. For Phinney,
exploration represents the extent to which adolescents seek out the content (language,
cultural practices, and beliefs) of their ethnic heritage as well as the significance of that
ethnic information for their personal identity whilst commitment embodies how strongly
an adolescent embraces and values ethnicity as a part of personal identity.
Dimensions of racial and ethnic identity

Racial and ethnic identity has been viewed in two dimensions. This has resulted in the
concept being misunderstood. Some meanings are derived from its biological dimension
(Spickard, 1992) and others from its social dimension (Helms, 1995; Spickard, 1992). As
a biological category, race is derived from an individual's physical features, gene pools and
character qualities. The characteristics are inherited.
The social dimension focuses on the larger society’s influences. According Yinger (1976)
the individual’s identification is in relation with a segment of a larger society. Members
are thought by themselves or others to have a common origin and share segments of a
common culture and who in addition participate in shared activities in which the common
origin and culture are significant ingredients.
5. Application of Themes Student Development and Life Skills
Task 1: Before you proceed, revisit ratings you awarded yourself in your self-assessment task
(Unit 4) and calculate your average rating on aspects of your personal identity.
 In which areas did you rate yourself low?

 What could be the reasons for the low rating?
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5.1 Process of Racial and Ethnic formation

The process of racial and ethnic formation involves:
 Understanding how the individual recognizes the implication of his or her ethnicity,
 How the individual makes decisions about the role ethnicity will play in their lives, and
 Individual’s perceptions and feelings about members of own ethnic group as well as
members of the dominant group.
Now let us look at Phinney’s (1992) theory of racial and ethnic development. Phinney outlines 3
stages in the development of racial and ethnic identity. These are:
 Unexamined ethnic identity,
 Ethnic Identity search /Moratorium, and
 Ethnic identity achievement.
Stage 1: Unexamined Ethnic Identity

 Individuals have not explored their own ethnicity and may be disinterested in doing so.
Simply; they have not identified their ethnicity and are not actively seeking to. (They
are in a state of identity diffusion),
 They may lack interest and commitment in what their membership in a minority racial
ethnic group means to them,
 Individuals experience a fundamental conflict with their identity. Reason being that
they experience stereotyping and prejudicial treatment, and
 Some minority students may initially accept attitudes and values of the dominant
culture. If views are negative, this may lead to internalized racism and self-loathing.
Task 2: With your accountability partner reflect on each other’s values and Identify areas of
divergence in the context of cultural relativism.
Stage 2: Ethnic Identity Search/Moratorium

The stage occurs after adolescence stage of diffusion and is considered as the longest period
of active searching and exploring alternatives to current situations. Individuals can remain
in this stage for a very long period of time. They seek to understand what being a member
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of the minority race or ethnic group personally means to them. The stage is reached when
individuals encounter a situation that causes them to explore their identity. The situation
may be harsh (overt racism) or gradual (less traumatic). The situation may temporarily
dislodge the individual from his old world view, making the person receptive to a new
interpretation of his identity. At this stage:
 Individuals question their earlier choices- whether or not to change e.g. college
programmes, whether to marry or remain single,
 They undergo an active identity crisis searching for occupational, religious, and
ethnic or another form of identity to determine who they really are,
 It is a time of experimentation where individuals talk with friends and families, read
literature, take courses, learn cultural customs, and attend cultural events. This is
due to the fact that they have an interest in knowing about their own ancestry and
heritage,
 May become emotionally intense (anger, guilt, or embarrassment). Anger outrages
are likely to be experienced especially when racial discrimination is noted for
example in cases when they notice that not all racial ethnic backgrounds are being
treated equitable, and
 They may be involved in political activism.
Task 3: With your group members

 Discuss experiences, either yours or of other people, where one’s tribe, social status,
gender or religion gave one an unfair disadvantage or an advantage over others.
 How would you react if you are discriminated against on the basis of your tribe, race,
religion, economic status or gender?
 Carry out a short research on common religious groupings of campus and find areas of
similarities and differences among them.
Stage 3: Ethnic identity Achievement/ Internalisation

Identity achievement is the state of having developed well-defined personal values and
self-concepts. It is the optimum end stage of development. Individuals with an achieved
ethnic identity have a working knowledge of their ethnic heritage, a clear idea of the
meaning of their ethnic group membership, and a commitment to their ethnicity and the
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role it plays in their lives. Not all adolescents make the developmental passage across these
stages but may remain stable at any one. Phinney highlights that this stage is not reached
until adulthood. Reaching the stage requires self-exploration and an exploration of the
options that are available. At this stage, individuals:
 Have a store of experiences. Major changes may be made by adults,
 Resolve their ethnic identity conflicts, accept membership in minority culture,
and are open to other cultures. They have finally achieved a true sense of self,
 Are confident and calm. Tension, emotionality and defensiveness are replaced
by a secure demeanor, and
 Resolve their ethnic identity conflicts, accept membership in minority culture,
and are open to other cultures. Openness about one’s ethnicity raises self-
confidence,
 The best outcome would be for an individual to have a secure ethnic identity
and a positive orientation toward the mainstream culture.
Task 4: (Self-evaluation)
Complete this self-assessment chart and compare your ratings with the ratings you awarded
yourself at the beginning of Unit 4 in similar attributes
I have questions about who I am
I view human difference as positive and a cause for celebration.
I have a clear sense of my own ethnic, cultural, and racial identity.
I am at peace about my racial identity.
I feel a sense of pride about my ethnicity.
I feel embarrassed of my culture.
I am confused about my race.
I feel prejudiced because of my race.
I respect other cultures.
I am content with my religion.
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Other student’s views about my culture cause me to worry.

I think my race does not play a significant role in my everyday
life.
I am comfortable speaking in my language
Adapted from Hettler (1976) and Winston (1990)
• Are there variations in the ratings?
• What explanation can you give for improved ratings if any?
• What explanations can you give for reduced rating if any?
• How do you explain constant ratings if any?
• From your experiences throughout the semester; is identity a real issue in the
institution?
In 500 words, discuss the key insights you learnt in this Unit as you highlight the importance of
identity in one’s life. Which life skills did you learn from Phinney’s theory? (Not for submission).
REFERENCES
Chavez, A. F. and Guido-DiBrito., 2002. Racial and Ethnic Identity and Development, viewed 9
August 2020, https://do/10.1002/ace.8405
Cheon, Y.M, Ip, P.S. Haskin, M.K. and Yip, T., 2020. Profiles of Adolescent Identity at the
Intersection of Ethnic/ Racial Identity, American Identity and Subjective Social Status, viewed 8
August 2020, www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00959/full.
Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A., 2010. Student development
in college: Theory, research, and practice, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Helms, J. E., 1994. The Conceptualisation of Racial Identity and other “Racial” Constructs,
Jossey-Bassey, San Francisco.
Hettler, B.,1976. The Six Dimensions of Wellness, viewed 28 September 2020,

http://www.hettler.com/sixdimen.htm
Marcia, J. E., 1980. Identity in Adolescence, viewed 8 August 2020,
www.researchgate.net/publication/233896997_identity_in_adolescence,
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Morelli, A. O. Child Development Theory: Adolescence (12-24), viewed 10 August 2020,

https://www.jncc.org/poc/view_docphp?type=doc&id=60933
Phinney, J. S., 1993. A three-stage model of ethnic identity development in adolescence, in M. E.

Bernal & G. P. Knight (Eds.), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and
other minorities, State University of New York Press, New York, pp. 61-79.
Phinney, J. S. Ong, A. D., 2007. Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current
status and future directions, Journal of Counseling Psychology, Volume54 (3), 271-281.
Spickard, P. R., 1992. “The Illogic of American Racial Categories.” In M. P. P. Root (ed.), Racially
Mixed People in America, Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp12-23
Verkuyten, M. 2005,The Social Psychology of ethnic Identity, Psychology Press, New York.
Winston, R. B.1990. The Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory: An approach to
measuring students' psychosocial development, Journal of College Student Development, 31(2),
108–120.
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UNIT 6
STUDENT INVOLVEMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
1. Areas of Growth
Alexander Astin’s theory of student involvement explains how desirable outcomes for
institutions of higher education are viewed in relation to how students change and develop
behaviorally as a result of being involved in co-curricular activities. The theoretic base for
knowledge, expertise and practice is explored to proactively identify and address student
needs, design programs and create a healthy college environment that encourages positive
physical, social, spiritual, occupational and moral growth of students. The ultimate goal
of this Unit is to encourage student engagement in college and community extramural
activities with the view to fostering their social, moral, intellectual and spiritual growth.
In this Unit, students will be required to design and implement a student involvement
program as a way of applying the theory to co-curricular programming.
2. Objectives
By the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Describe the significance of Astin’s Theory in Student Development.

 Use the theory as a tool to improve their personal growth and development.
 Evaluate their level of involvement in campus programs.
 Determine the quality and pace of their growth by participating in university and
community programs and activities.
3. LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Increased participation in co-curricular activities that promote student
development.
 Effective integration and growth of students from different backgrounds.
 A robust university ecosystem that taps into broad base of talent and breeds
champions.
 Strong and enduring alumni.
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 Manifestation of altruistic values.
Theory of Student involvement is one of the most prominent theories in higher education
research which implies a behavioral component that is defined as the quantity and quality
of the physical and psychological energy that student invests in the college experience.
Such involvement takes many forms, such as absorption in academic work, participation
in co-curricular activities, and interaction with faculty and other institutional personnel.
According to the theory, the greater the student’s involvement in collegiate experiences,
the greater will be the amount of student learning and personal development. Astin sees in
his theory the element of investment of both physical and psychological energy as well as
the element of time-on-task (Pascarella & Tenenzini, 1991).
4.1 Theories that inform the construct of Student Involvement

According to Astin (1984), the quality and quantity of the student's involvement influences
several educational outcomes including psychosocial growth, satisfaction with the entire
college experience, and increased rates of student retention (Astin, 1984; Astin, 1999).
There are several implicit theories that ground the construct of Student Involvement such as the
Content/Subject Matter theory; the Resource theory and the Eclectic theory (Astin, 1993). Though
useful in pedagogical circles, the three theories leave glaring gaps in the processes of student
development that Astin attempts to fill.
4.2 The Pedagogical Theories Reviewed

The Content/Subject Matter Theory posits that student learning and development depends
on exposure to the right content. Given the strong emphasis on course content, the theory
tends to believe that students learn by mere attendance to lectures. The belief has a
limitation of assigning students a passive role in the learning process. The Resource Theory
maintains that the provision of adequate resources leads to student learning and
development. The theory has a limitation of focusing on the mere accumulation of
resources with little attention given to the use and deployment of those resources. The
Individualized/Elective Theory by Chickering (1981) attempts to identify curricular and
content best suited to individual student needs. The approach emphasizes on students
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taking a number of elective courses. Expenses, variations in content and approach make
the theory appeal in the abstract (Astin, 1984).
4.3 Positioning Student Involvement Theory

Astin’s theory provides a link between variables emphasized in the Content, Resource and Eclectic
theories. It postulates that, for a program to achieve the intended effects, it must elicit sufficient
student effort and energy to bring about desired learning and development. There is more focus on
student centered learning, motivation, time and energy the student devotes to the learning process.
Unlike Kohlberg and Chickering’s theories which are mainly hierarchical and multidimensional,
focusing mainly on the “what of student development”, this theory is concerned with the behavioral
processes that facilitate student development, i.e., the ‘how of student development’.
Participatory learning is defined as the physical and psychological energy that the student
devotes to the college experience. A highly involved student is one who devotes
considerable energy to studying, spends much time on campus, participates actively in
student organizations, community service, awareness programs, sororities and fraternities,
sports and recreation, and interacts frequently with faculty members and other students.
Involvement occurs along a continuum that is distinct for each student at a given time.
The theory assumes that student learning and growth will not be impressive if educators
focus most of their attention on course content, teaching techniques, laboratories, libraries
and other resources. Student involvement instead focuses on active participation of the
student in the learning process. Harper & Quaye (2009) argue that students are intrinsically
motivated through getting them involved. Involvement in co-curricular activities can help
influence development in students by providing an environment where personal values can be
tested and by allowing students to examine the value systems of others in order that they may
develop a personal belief system. The use of student involvement theory to analyze student
participation is a step towards incorporating theory into practice. Programs can make use of
the theory by ensuring that processes are in place to enhance the developmental potential of
co-curricular participation.
5. Application of Theme to Student Development and Life Skills

Student involvement in campus activities will be assessed and measured as follows;
 Amount of time devoted to different activities (at least 2 hours per week)
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 The level at which the student will be involved

 The amount of energy levels expended on the activities
5.1. Time as a Factor of Student Involvement
The theory of student involvement suggests that the most important institutional resource for
student development is time. The extent to which students can achieve developmental goals is a
direct function of time and effort they devote to activities meant designed for them (Astin, 1984).
The more time you spend on co-curricular activities, the more you learn. Your involvement can be
quantitatively measured, such as the number of hours you spent doing community outreach. As an
involved student, you should be able to measure the amount of time you spent participating in
Student governance issues, Community service, environmental awareness programs,
sororities and fraternities and/or sport and recreation, etc.
Task 1: Rate the amount of time spent on the following activities on a scale of 1 – 5, 1 being
the minimal time
Activity TIME SPENT

1 2 3 4 5
Lectures
Socializing
Student Governance
Community Service
Awareness Programs
Sororities and Fraternities
Sports and Recreation
Voluntary/Community
Services
Resting
Other(s)
Why did you give yourself the above ratings?

Where the rating is low, how can you improve on it?
What benefits would accrue by improving your rating?
In which areas did you score high? And what benefits have you accrued from
participating in these areas. Share experiences with your group.
5.3 Energy Devoted as a Factor of Student Involvement Theory

Student involvement can also be measured on the basis of the amount of physical and
psychological energy that you devote to the college experiences. The theory of student
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involvement encourages educators to focus less on what they do and more on what you do
as the student. Your motivation and how much energy you devote to the activity are of paramount
importance in your path of personal growth.
Task 2: Rate the amount of energy you devote on the following activities on a scale of 1 – 5, 1
being the minimum:
ACTIVITY AMOUNT OF ENERGY DEVOTED

1 2 3 4 5
Lectures
Socializing
Student Governance
Community Service
Awareness Programs
Other(s)

Where your rating is low, how can you improve on it?
Discuss your response with your group and agree on action plan which can see you
improving your ratings.
5.4 Quality of Involvement as a Factor of Student Involvement

The involvement theory states that the amount of learning and personal growth associated
with any educational program is directly proportionate to the quality and quantity of student
involvement in that program. Qualitative involvement may entail whether you comprehend
the essence of the assignment at hand e.g. organizational role in planning a sporting event
versus attending as a spectator. Highly involved students participate actively and
qualitatively in student programs.
Task 3: Rate the quality of your involvement on the following activities on a scale of 1 – 5, 1
being the lowest quality and 5 being the highest.
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ACTIVITY QUALITY OF INVOLVEMENT

1 2 3 4 5
Lectures
Socializing
Student Governance
Community Service
Awareness Programs

Where your rating is low, how can you improve on it?
Discuss with colleagues in your group how best you can improve your ratings.
Task 4: Complete the Student Involvement Journal below showing dates and total number of
hours devoted to the diverse activities you involved yourself in. Give a description of the
activities, energy devoted and the quality of your involvement in the mentioned activities and
have it signed by the mentor or advisor.
1 SECTION A
Student Biographical Data
1 Name of Student: ………………………………………………………
2 Gender…………………………………………………………………………
3 Student Registration Number: ……………………….
4 Programme of Study: ………………………………..
5 Level of Study: ………………………..
6 Student Contact Details: Cell Phone:……………………………………
Email Address: …………………………………
Advisor Personal Information
1. Name of Advisor……………………………………………………………….
2. Designation…………………………………………………………………….
3. Area(s) of Specialisation: ……………………………………………………….
4. Faculty/Department: …………………………………………………………….
5. Tenure: ………………………………..
6. Contact Details: Cell Phone: …………………………………….
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Email Address: ………………………………..
2 STUDENT’S AREAS OF INVOLVEMENT
Activity Session 1 Session 2 Session 3

Date Hours Date Hours Date Hours
Student Governance
Community Engagement
Awareness Programs
Other(s)
2.1. Self-Assessment by Student:

Complete the table above by indicating the quality and energy levels you devoted to the
activities listed.
Comments on each session should include both the quality of involvement and energy
levels expended, for example, the level at which you participated in the event and the
amount of work you had to put in performing the task.
Session 1:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Session 2:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Session 3:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. SECTION D
To be completed by the Advisor at the end of each involvement session.
Semester 1
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1.1 Involvement Session 1
 Date:……………………………………..
Area(s) of Discussion:
 Student’s Achievements
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Missed Targets
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Advisor Comments and Recommendations:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Signatures: Student:…………………………..
Advisor:………………………….
1.1. Involvement Session 2
 Date:……………………………………..
 Student’s Achievements
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Missed Targets
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Signatures: Student: …………………………..
Advisor: …………………………..
1.1. Involvement Session 3
 Date: ……………………………………..
 Student’s Achievements in Semester 1
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
 Missed Targets
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………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
Signatures: Student: …………………………..
Advisor: …………………………..
6. Individual Self-assessment Assignment
“The theory of student involvement holds that students learn more the more they are involved in
both the academic and social aspects of the collegiate experience” (Astin, 1984).
In 500 words, discuss the benefits accrued to you as a result of your involvement in different
collegiate activities such as physical, social, intellectual, spiritual and/or career development.
References
Astin, A. W., 1984. Student Involvement: A Developmental Theory of Higher Education. Journal of
Student College Personnel, Volume 25, pp. 297-308.
Astin, A. W., 1999. Student Involvement: A Developmental Theory of Higher Education. Journal of
College Student Development, 40(5), pp. 518-529.
Chickering, A. W., 1981. The Modern American College: Responding to the New Realities of Diverse
Students and a Changing Society. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Harper, S. R. & Quaye, S. J., 2009. Student Engagement in Higher Education: Theoretical Perspectives
and Practical Approaches for Diverse Populations. New York: Routledge.
Pascarella, E. T. & Tenenzini, P. T., 1991. How College Affects Students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
W, A. A., 1993. What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
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UNIT 7
SPORTS AND LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
1. Areas of Growth
This Unit will focus on how the University leverages on sport to engender life skills among
students. Targeted life skills and values include leadership, integrity, discipline, teamwork,
magnanimity, humility, self-determination, confidence, role play, fair play, voluntarism
and community consciousness, emotional intelligence and conflict management.
2. Objectives
By the end of the Unit, students should be able to;
 Value sport as a vehicle for balanced growth,
 Take up sport and wellness activities voluntarily,
 Network with peers through intramural activities, and
 Design and follow own wellness programme and activities.
 An active and health student population,
 Improved student involvement in sport and wellness activities at different levels,
leading to more opportunities for talent identification and development,
 Reduction in cases of physical and psychological health issues,
 Embracing of sport as enduring life-styles by the university community, and
 Productive use of time by student, leading to reduction in violence and juvenile
delinquency.
Provision of comprehensive sport, health and wellness programs (educational
sports/intramurals) presents opportunities for qualitative and enjoyable campus
experiences that influence student development socially, morally, intellectually and
physically (Todaro, 1993b). Sheehan and Alsop (1972) recommend that educational sport
be structured so that identifiable behavioral learning becomes an outgrowth of the
experience. Rodgers (1991) also concurs with Sheehan and Aslop, arguing that the
outcomes or experiences ought by no means be a chance; but rather intentional.
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According to Ghidiyal, (2015), participation in sports or engaging in co-curricular activities

plays an important part in one's character/personality development. Studies over years
have shown consistent positive results associated with participating in sport. In a study on
intramural participant development, Sperling (1942) found that there were differences
between intramural athletes and non-athletes. Groves (1966) found that there was a positive
correlation between intramural participation and certain intellectual and psychological
traits. Fletcher (1971) (Fletcher, 1971) found a significant correlation between participation
and certain traits, although there was a negative correlation for some traits.
Studies have shown many educational outcomes associated with intramural sport
participation. Sport is known to improve intellectual capacity as well as health and
wellness; hence the old adage ‘A Health Mind in a Health Body’. Sport also reduces risks
to many physical diseases like cancer, high blood pressure, obesity, stress, anxiety and
depression. Bayless, Mull, and Geller (1977) state that some of the growth experiences of
taking part in sport include developing cooperative efforts, managing emotions, controlling
aggression, and adjusting to winning and losing. Leadership skills development and
achieving soft and technical competences are additional outcomes of intramural sport
participation (Thomson, et al., 1977). Another set of skills attributed to intramural
participation include character development, loyalty, discipline, adjustment to success and
failure, and concern for others. One develops management skills, negotiation skills,
communication skills, conflict management and confidence.
Many of these skills can be seen as similar to the developmental tasks associated with
various different developmental theories such as Chickering's vectors of development,
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Deci and Rayn's self-determination theory, Austin's Social
theory and Gilligan's theory of women's development.
Chickering's “vectors of development theory” is the most widely adopted/adapted theory

for use in intramural programs. In developmental order, the vectors are: developing
competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence,
developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose,
and developing integrity (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Chickering proposes that students
move along the psychosocial vectors from the first to the last. Students are seen in distinct
stages and must complete one stage before moving on to the next.
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A second theory informing participation in intramural activities is Maslow's. Maslow's

theory states that a student's higher-level needs cannot be met until lower-level needs are
satisfied. The lowest level needs are physiological, food and sleep, for example. From
there, students move to safety and security and end with social needs. Social needs are the
most easily identifiable as outcomes of intramural participation but physiological needs
can also be met. Intramural sports participation allows the student to exercise and satisfy
the movement needs of the body (Smith & Carron, 1992). Social needs can be influenced
easily through interaction in intramural programs. Programs offer students a sense of
belonging that may not be met elsewhere.
A third theory that has been examined with respect to intramurals is Gilligan's (1993)
theory of moral development. Gilligan believes there is a difference in the ways that men
and women develop that is not fully explored in the traditional theories. Gilligan argues
that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men look for one answer,
one truth that will end future debate about a subject. Women, on the other hand, have a
caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem in a particular context and
try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm to the most number of people.
Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the other; they are just different ways
of looking at the world. Intramural programs which offer sport activities that encourage
participation and recreation rather than winning would be preferable (Milton, 1992). Focus
is on less competition but promoting friendship and socialization.
Deci and Rayn (2002) posit that people are motivated either internally (intrinsic
motivation) or externally (extrinsic motivation). Deci and Rayn believe that intrinsic
motivation is more sustainable hence their theory of self-determination. They argue that
the desire to improve one's self by engaging in behaviours which an individual deems
important and meaningful is influenced by a social environment that supports three
psychological needs that is, connection (relatedness), competence and autonomy. Mastery
of tasks and skills (competence) helps one to achieve goals and this is done in the social
context referred to as connection. According to Deci and Rayn people desire to control
their own behaviours and goals by becoming autonomous.
Last is Astin Student Involvement Theory. Astin notes that involvement includes both
physical and psychological energy. The theory has four other basic ideas: (a) involvement
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occurs along a continuum; different students exhibit different levels of involvement in

different activities at different times; (b) involvement has both quantitative aspects, how
much time a student spends doing something, and qualitative aspects, how focused the
student’s time is; (c) the amount of personal development and learning that can occur is
directly proportional to the quality and quantity of student involvement; and (d) the
effectiveness of educational polices, practices, or programs is directly related to the policy,
practice, or program’s commitment to increasing student involvement.
5. Application of the Theories in Student Life Skills Development

Operationalisation of the student development in the identified areas of growth through
sport will be pursued in the context of the four theories covering competitive, recreational
and health awareness aspects of sport.
Task 1: Within the first month of your first year of university studies, complete this self-
assessment questionnaire by rating yourself in the levels of your involvement and perception of
sport in the table below on a scale of 1-5, with 1 as the lowest rating and 5 the highest.
I enjoy participating in sport at a competitive level
I enjoy participating in sport at recreational level
I actively participate in University teams
I am involved in organized professional sport leagues
I take part in social sport leagues
I enjoy participating in sport for fitness/health consciousness reasons
I follow a strict schedule of physical fitness through sport
Some of my social network contacts are through sport
I enjoy participating in sport activities in public facilities
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I am emotionally affected by losing in sport competition.
I regard failure to achieve a goal as a temporary set-back
I prefer team sport to individual sport
I have interest in formally upgrading my knowledge/skills in sport

I set personal targets to achieve through sport, health and wellness
activities
I am not comfortable playing/participating with people from outside my

social circles
Task 2: Identify sport codes offered by the University and choose any codes you would want
to participate in this semester.
i. Which of the codes you have chosen have active and organized university team and
administrative structures?
ii. Which of them have well maintained facilities?
iii. Design a participation program that fits conveniently into your general schedule to cover
 Team sports
 Individual sport and exercise
NB: You are free to make adjustments to your program until you come up with a
convenient schedule by mid-semester.
Task 3: On at least a weekly basis, keep a record of your adherence to the program you have
designed for yourself in Task 2 above and comment on the following aspect:
 Total time utilized in the team events: …………………………………………………………...

 Total time utilized in individual events …………………………………………………………..
 Unscheduled sport involvement (if any)…………………………………………………………..
 Disruption of schedule activities (if any) …………………………………………………………
 Adjustments to the schedule (if any) ………………………………………………………………
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 Any other comment: …………………………………………………………………………………
Task 4: Monitor your individual progress and discuss with your accountability partner on the
impact of sport on your personality, character, attitude towards people, interpersonal skills,
physical and mental health, etc. Keep notes on your discussions in your journal.
Task 5: At the end of the semester, complete this self-assessment questionnaire by rating
yourself in the attributes listed in the table below on a scale of 1-5 with 1 as the lowest rating
and 5 the highest.
I enjoy participating in sport at a competitive level
I enjoy participating in sport at recreational level
I still enjoy participating in University teams
I still enjoy participating in sport for fitness/health consciousness

reasons
I followed a strict schedule of physical fitness
I developed new social network contacts through sport
I enjoyed participating in sport activities in public facilities
I prefer team sport to individual sport
I have interest in formally upgrading my knowledge /skills in sport

I achieved personal targets health and wellness activities
I am not comfortable playing/participating with people from outside my

social circles

Respond to the following questions in less than1000 words
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(a) Discuss how participation in sport, health and wellness has impacted you socially, morally,
intellectually and physically.
(b) Identify areas of weakness which you feel could and should have been improved by your
involvement in sport. What steps do you intend to take in order to improve your rating?
References
Chickering, A. & Reisser, L., 1993. Education and Identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fletcher, R., 1971. Correlations of EPPS Personal Traits and Intra-mural Participation..
Perpetual and Motor Skills, 32(1), p. 242.
Ghidiyal, R., 2015. Role of Sports in the Development of an Individual and Role of Psychology
in Sports. Mens Sana Monogr, Volume 13, pp. 165-170.
Gilligan, C., 1993. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Groves, B. R., 1966. An Investigation of Personality Changes Resulting from Participating in a

College Intra-mural Program for Men. OK, Norman, pp. 129-130.
Rodgers, R. F., 1991. Using Theory in Practising Student Affairs. Winston: Muncie.
Sheehan, T. J. & Alsop, W. L., 1972. Educational Sport. Journal of Health, Physical Education,
and Recreation, Volume 43, pp. 40-45.
Smith, S. & Carron, M., 1992. Applying Mortivational Theories to Instrument Participation.
NIRSA, 17(2), pp. 50-53.
Sperling, A. P., 1942. The Relationship Between Personality, Adjustment and Archievement in
Physical Education Activities. The Research Quarterly, 13(3), pp. 351-363.
Thomson, W. A. et al., 1977. Sports Club Student Development. s.l., NIRSA, pp. 255-256.
Todaro, E., 1993b. The Impact of Recreational Sports on Student Development: A Theoretical
Model. NIRSA Journal, 17(3), pp. 23-26.
UNIT 8
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CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS
1. Areas of Growth
This Unit encapsulates the following aspects of student growth and development:
 Stages of Career development
 Career Awareness
 Career Development Pathways
 Goal setting
 Vision, mission and career mapping
 Continuous learning
2. Objectives
By the end of the Unit, students should be able to;
 Participate actively in the planning, development and management of their chosen
careers,
 Interact with academic, professional and social advisors to acquire knowledge and
skills relevant to the development of their careers,
 Network with people in their lines of career to acquire a wider and deeper
understanding of their chosen careers, and
 Utilize acquired skills in planning the progression of their careers, both during and after
their studies.
 Appreciation of the importance of a systematic and programmatic approach to
developing and managing careers from the onset,
 Awareness of the depth and breadth of prospects and opportunities that studies provide
for career growth and personal development,
 Passion for careers through informed knowledge of various career prospects availed by
skills and knowledge acquired through studies,
 Appreciation of the wealth of knowledge and skills acquired as students interact with
the real world of work during and after academic education.
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We are going to focus mainly on Donald Super’s theory of “Career Development” as
we lay a theoretical foundation for this Unit. Super posits that careers unfold over one’s
life span. Super, Savickas, and Super, (1996) define a career as the entire lifetime of a
person. According to Super, one’s career choice is determined by complex and
multifaceted biological, psychological, sociological, and cultural factors. Super (1996)
suggests that time and experience shape the way a person views their career in light of
the career goals they set for themselves. Super further posits that every assertive person
is capable of attaining positive self-concept which influences their career choices.
Students with a positive self-concept tend to exhibit the ability to handle
responsibilities, control emotions, positively influence their environment, are willing
to take risks, understand their strengths and weaknesses. In addition, a person’s self-
concept is constantly changing based on their environmental interactions. Such
interactional experiences either reinforce or destroy one’s self concept (Super,
Savickas, and Super, 1996).
According to Super, people have various abilities, personalities, and self-concepts, and
are qualified for a variety of occupations based on these and other characteristics which
change with time and experience. Each occupation requires a characteristics pattern of
abilities and personality traits. Trying multiple careers results in new growth, re-
exploration and re-establishment. Career maturity is the agreement between vocation
(career) and current life stage. Negative self-concept is related to less satisfying work
choices. Work is seen as dissatisfying if it’s not an expression of an individual’s
vocational abilities, interests, and values (Bragg & Ruud, 2007). The nature of the
career pattern is determined by the individual’s parental socio-economic level, mental
ability, education, skills, personality characteristics (needs, values, interests, traits and
self-concept) and career maturity and by the opportunities to which an individual is
exposed (Super, Savickas, and Super, 1996.)
5. Application of Career Development Theories to Student Development and Life
Skills
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Super categorised career development into five stages:
5.1 Growth Stage: This stage starts at birth and continues through age 14.
A person develops their sense of self and attitude toward work.Super (1957)
Suggests the following elements to consider when making career choices:
 Attaining prerequisite educational qualifications,

 Pursue something you are passionate about,
 Choose a marketable and viable career (Does the career have a future?),
 Consider your personal traits-are you an extrovert (Do you like working with
people?) or an introvert (Are you a desk person?),
 Your work style (Do you enjoy working with deadlines? Or do you thrive with
little guidance?),
 Trends of the job market,
 Analysing the way we view our potential (i.e abilities, physical and mental
wellbeing, personal acumen, attitudes, personal attributes),
 Check how many people enroll in institutions for the same programme you have
chosen?
 Look for a job whose skills are transferable to another industry in case you have
to change your career,
 Evaluate the potential extrinsic and intrinsic rewards associated with
performance, for example, how rewarding the career is,
 Undergoing psychometric evaluation of target measures,
 Career awareness of available job opportunities and the expectations,
 Seeking systematic guidance from a career counselor who will encourage
students to explore the wide range of available career opportunities, and
 Career counseling involves career awareness, knowledge of career patterns,
preparation to take up a given career, maturity and proper planning,
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Task 1: Within the first two months of your first year of university studies, complete this
questionnaire by rating yourself in the aspects of your career choice in the table below on a
scale of 1-5, with 1 as the lowest rating and 5 the highest.
I have a strong passion for the career prospects provided by my
studies
My career choice was a result of external influence by other
people/circumstances.
My career-choice was informed by thorough research
I have a positive attitude and aptitude about my career.
I am the first in my family to take my line of career.
I have interacted with people in my line of career to get information.
There is a strong likelihood that I will change my career.
Task 2: Working with your accountability partner, identify areas you need to acquire
more knowledge about your current studies and career opportunities. Seek the
assistance of your mentor if you need further guidance.
5.2 Exploration Stage: This stage starts at age 15 and continues through age 25. A person tries
out different career paths through classes, hobbies and actual work.
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Task 3: Working with your accountability partner, identify different career routes open to you
as a result of your academic qualification and design your own “Career-Guide” on
employment and/or business prospects within your area of study. Below, is a rough guide of
some of the career paths at your disposal (N.B this is not a comprehensive list):
 Environmental specialists
 Law professionals
 Public utility workers
 Marketing professionals
 Medical practitioners
 Police and law enforcement agencies
 Caregivers and social workers
 Mental health workers
 IT professionals
 Data analysts
 Architecture and Engineering Occupations
 Arts, Design
 Entertainment, Sports, and Media
 Financial Operations
 Computer and Mathematical Professionals
 Construction and Extraction
 Library and Information Professional
 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry
 Food Preparation and Serving
 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair
 Office and Administrative Support
 Production of protective wear
 Landscaping, etc.
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5.3 Establishment Stage: This stage starts at age 25 and continues through age 44. A person
develops entry-level job skills and develops work experience.
Task 4: Research and find information on some supporting skills that may be relevant to your
studies but are not necessarily part of your academic course.
 How do those skills complement your chosen career?

 Where and when do you think you can acquire those skills?
 How do you wish to acquire each of the skills identified
5.4 Maintenance Stage: This stage starts at 45 and continues through age 64. A person changes
elements of their career to improve their position.
Task 5
 Group Research: Identify opportunities for diversification within your line of career
other than formal employment.
 Excursion: Visit an organisation within your career line and gather information on
possible career paths within the industry. Compile a report on the visit and discuss your
finding with members of you group. Discuss prospects in your field and come up with
steps you need to take to tap into the existential opportunities.
Decline Stage: This stage begins at age 65. A person reduces the amount of work they do and
prepares for retirement (Super, Savickas, and Super, 1996)
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Having gone through this Unit of the Course, rate yourself on the career choice aspects below
and compare your rating with your entry level rating.
I have a strong passion for the career prospects provided by my studies
My career choice was a result of external influence by other
people/circumstances.
I have a positive attitude and aptitude about my career.
Given the chance l would like to change the program?
My career- choice was informed by thorough research
I am yet to really make a definitive career choice.
There is a strong likelihood that I will change my career.
 Are there any major variations in your rating?

 If any, explain the reasons for the variation.
 If none, how do you explain the consistency in your rating?
 How has the course assisted you in the area of career choice and development?
 How do you wish to keep track of your career development throughout your second
academic year?
Individual Self-assessment Assignment: In not more 1000 words, use Super’s theory of
career development to evaluate and critique your career choice. Outline insights you gained
from this theory and discuss how you will use it to map your career development going forward.
This assignment is not for submission.
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References
Brown, D, and Brooks, L (Ed), ‘Career Choice and Development: Applying Contemporary
Theories to Practice’, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Department of Employment Services, ‘Developmental Theories’, accessed December

2008, (http://does.dc.gov).Updated 6 Dec 2019
Super, D. E. 1957. The Psychology of Careers; New York: Harper& Row.
Super, D. E., Savickas, M. L. and Super, C. M. 1996. “The Life-span, Life-space

Approach to Careers” Pp. 121-178 in Career Choice and Development. 3rd ed.
Super, D. E. 1963. “Self-concepts in Vocational Development” Pp. 1-16 in Career
Development: Self-concept Theory, edited by D. E. Super, R. Starishevski, N. Matlin, and
J. P. Jordan. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
Super, D. E. 1964. “A Developmental Approach to Vocational Guidance: Recent Theory
and Results.” Vocational Guidance Quarterly 13:1-10
Super, D. E. 1980. “A Life-span, Life-space Approach to Career Development.” Journal
of Vocational Behavior 16:282-298.
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UNIT 9
STUDENT WELLNESS THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS DEVELOPMENT
1. Areas of Growth
Hettler’s Model of Wellness is classified under humanistic and existential theories which share the notion
that people have the capacity for self-awareness and choice. The humanistic perspective views human
nature as basically good, with an inherent potential to maintain healthy, meaningful relationships and to
make choices that are in the interest of oneself and others. This theory was propounded Bill Hettler, co-
founder of the National Wellness Institute (NWI) in 1976. This is an interdependent model, commonly
referred to as the Six Dimensions of Wellness.
The ultimate goal of this Unit is to empower students to take ownership of their growth process towards
self-awareness, confidence, wholeness and wellness. The theory was carefully selected for purposes of
teaching students how to build the following quotients, which are critical for the 21 st business world and
society: IQ (Intelligent Quotient), SQ (Social Quotient), EQ (Emotional Quotient), AQ (Adversity
Quotient), MQ (Money Quotient), etc.
2. Model Objectives
At the end of this Unit, students should be able to:
• Use Hettler’s model in designing comprehensive self-development programs,
• Identify areas of weakness and strength in the 6 dimensions of human development,
• Evaluate the impact of their life skills development programs in addressing their weaknesses,
• Assess the progress they make in self-improvement, and
• Adjust their programs to ensure they achieve greater wellness and fulfillment.
• Appreciation of what constitutes wellness,
• A wide range of programmes that facilitate wellness,
• Student participation in wellness programmes and activities, and
• A healthy and fulfilled community of knowledge workers.
Wellness is an active process through which people become aware of, and make choices towards, a more
successful existence (Hettler, 1983). Myers & Sweeney (2006) describe wellness as requiring conscious
choices to engage in healthful behaviors and results in helping you live your life more fully in all areas.
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Stoewen (2015) further underscores the importance of conscious effort in achieving desirable levels of
wellness by describing it as a conscious, self-directed and evolving process of achieving full potential.
Wellness involves being aware of ourselves as whole people, including a sense of balance and contentment.
According to Swarbrick & Yudof, (2017) wellness gives us the feeling that things are going well for us
today, and can continue to go well for us tomorrow. It is the belief that we have meaningful relationships
and a sense of meaning and purpose. Although we may have setbacks, or experience stress, we remain
resilient and we have strength, material resources and the support of others to survive and thrive.
This holistic model explains:
• How a person contributes to their environment and community and how to build better living
environments and social networks,
• The enrichment of life through work, and its interconnectedness to living and playing,
• The development of belief systems, values, and creating a world-view,
• The benefits of regular physical activity, healthy eating habits, strength and vitality as well as
personal responsibility, self-care and seeking medical attention,
• Self-esteem, self-control, and determination as a sense of direction,
• Creative and stimulating mental activities and sharing your gifts with others.
Applying a wellness approach can be useful in assessing whatever endeavor one chooses to embark
on by addressing the following questions:
• Does this help me achieve my full potential?
• Does this recognize and address the whole person (multi-dimensional approach)?
• Does this affirm and mobilize my positive qualities and strengths?
5. Applying Hettler’s Theory to Student Development and Life Skills
5.1 Occupational Development
• The occupational dimension recognizes personal satisfaction and enrichment in one’s life through
work.
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• At the centre of occupational wellness is the premise that occupational development is related to
one’s attitude about one’s work. Traveling a path toward your occupational wellness, you’ll
contribute your unique gifts, skills, and talents to work that is both meaningful and rewarding.
• You’ll convey your values through your involvement in activities that are gratifying for you.
• The choice of profession, job satisfaction, career ambitions, and personal performance are all
important components of your path’s terrain.
Occupational wellness follows these tenets:

• It is better to choose a career which is consistent with your personal values, interests, and beliefs
than to select one that is unrewarding to you.
• It is better to develop functional, transferable skills through structured involvement opportunities
than to remain inactive and uninvolved.
NB: Working with your group, identify aspects of occupational development which require personal
effort to achieve.
Task 1: Occupational
Reflect on the following
Wellness Self-Assessment
questions with your accountability partner.
• Have you adequately researched and/or
(Complete this check-list three times during soughtofinformation
the course onthe
this Unit: at your current program
beginning, mid-way of
through
study?
the course and at the end. Use the 5 point scale, with 1 representing the lowest score and 5
• What personal attributes can you hinge on for success in your studies?
representing the highest. This exercise is designed to test both your pre-knowledge of, and level of
• How can you make up for your personal the deficiencies which can affect success in your
execution in, this dimension).
studies?
• What other skills/knowledge do you need to develop to buttress my studies?
1 2 3 4 5
I am happy with my academic program choice
I make productive use of my time
I look forward to working in my field of study
I am happy with my balance of work and leisure time
My studies give me personal satisfaction
I have adequate control of my studies
My program of study allows me to make good use of my
talents
ON AVERAGE MY OCCUPATIONAL WELLNESS
LEVEL
Adapted from Six Dimensions of Wellness Model ©1976 by Bill Hettler, MD © National Wellness
Institute, Inc.
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5.2 Physical Wellness
• The physical dimension recognizes the need for regular physical activity. Physical
development encourages learning about diet and nutrition while discouraging the use of
tobacco, drugs and excessive alcohol consumption.
• Optimal wellness is met through the combination of good exercise and eating habits. As you
travel the wellness path, you’ll strive to spend time building physical strength, flexibility and
endurance while also taking safety precautions so you may travel your path successfully.
• The physical dimension of wellness entails personal responsibility and care for minor
illnesses and also knowing when professional medical attention is needed. By traveling the
wellness path, you’ll be able to monitor your own vital signs and understand your body’s
warning signs.
• You’ll understand and appreciate the relationship between sound nutrition and how your
body performs. The physical benefits of looking good and feeling terrific most often leads to
the psychological benefits of enhanced self-esteem, self-control, determination and a sense of
direction.
Physical wellness follows these tenets:
 It is better to consume foods and beverages that enhance good health rather than those which
impair it.
 It is better to be physically fit than to be out of shape.
NB: Working with your group, identify aspects of physical wellness which require personal effort
to achieve.
Task 2: Reflect on the following questions with your accountability partner.
 Do you have to reconsider some of your eating habits? If so, what deliberate steps should you
take to stop your bad eating habits
 Do you have time in your schedule for your physical well being?
 What activities do you take part in to keep yourself healthy and fit? If none, what steps can
you take to develop a healthy life-style?
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Task 3: Physical Wellness Self-Assessment Check

(Complete this check-list three times during the course of this Unit: at the beginning, mid-way through
execution in this dimension.
1 2 3 4 5
I engage in physical exercise regularly
I consciously eat healthy
I avoid tobacco products.
I get an adequate amount of sleep daily
I consciously maintain a reasonable weight for my age and
height.
I maintain good oral and dental hygiene
I consciously maintain healthy stress levels
Adapted from Six Dimensions of Wellness Model ©1976 by Bill Hettler, MD © National
Wellness Institute, Inc.
5.3 Social Wellness
• The social dimension encourages contributing to one’s environment and community.
• It emphasizes the interdependence between others and nature. As you travel a wellness path,
you’ll become more aware of your importance in society as well as the impact you have on
multiple environments.
• You’ll take an active part in improving the world by encouraging healthier living and
initiating better communication with those around you.
• You’ll actively seek ways to preserve the beauty and balance of nature as you discover the
power to make willful choices to enhance personal relationships and important friendships,
and build a better living space and community.
Social wellness follows these tenets:
 It is better to contribute to the common welfare of our community than to think only of
ourselves.
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 It is better to live in harmony with others and our environment than to live in conflict with
them.
NB: Working with your group, identify aspects of Social Wellness which require personal effort to
achieve.
Task 4: Reflect on the following questions with your accountability partner.
 Do you deliberately go out of your way to think of ways in which you can contribute to your
community for no personal benefit?
 Have you ever personally initiated programs or activities which contribute to common good?
 Who (individuals/organisations/ groups) can vouch the positive impact of your contributions
on their livelihoods?
Task 5: Social Wellness Self-Assessment

Complete this check-list three times during the course of this Unit: at the beginning, mid-way through
representing the highest. This exercise is designed to test your pre-knowledge of, and level of
execution in, this dimension).
1 2 3 4 5
I have a network of friends and/or family.
I contribute time and/or money to social and community
projects or causes.
I balance my own needs with the needs of others.
I try to help others when I can
I have a sense of belonging within my community.
I feel comfortable meeting new people.
I communicate and get along with a wide variety of people
I get along well with people from various backgrounds.
Institute, Inc.
5.4 Intellectual Wellness

The intellectual dimension recognizes one’s creative, stimulating mental activities. A well person
expands his or her knowledge and skills while discovering the potential for sharing his or her gifts with
others. Using intellectual and cultural activities in the classroom and beyond the classroom combined
with the human resources and learning resources available within the university community and the
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larger community, a well person cherishes intellectual growth and stimulation. Traveling a wellness
path, you’ll explore issues related to problem solving, creativity, and learning. You’ll spend more time
pursuing personal interests and reading books, magazines, and newspapers, while keeping abreast of
current issues and ideas. As you develop your intellectual curiosity, you’ll actively strive to expand and
challenge your mind with creative endeavors.
Intellectual wellness follows these tenets:
• It is better to stretch and challenge our minds with intellectual and creative pursuits than to
become self-satisfied and unproductive.
• It is better to identify potential problems and choose appropriate courses of action based on
available information than to wait, worry, and contend with major concerns later.
NB: Working with you accountability partner, identify areas of intellectual wellness which are beyond
the call of your academic studies.
Task 6: Reflect on the following questions with you accountability partner.
• Are you satisfied with your performance in your academic work?
• Do you ever stretch yourself beyond the minimum demands of your academic studies?
• Have you ever challenged yourself by trying something new; whether successfully or not?
• Do you have something tangible to show off your intellectual innovation?
Task 7: Intellectual Wellness Self-Assessment Check

execution in, this dimension.
Attributes 1 2 3 4 5
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I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally, nationally,

and internationally

discussions
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities, achievements

and success with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not clouded
by irrational beliefs of fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic achievement at
school.
home
I am satisfied with the level of social standing in the

community
I am able to balance my time among school, family life,
social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN THE
ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT
Adapted from Six Dimensions of Wellness Model ©1976 by Bill Hettler, MD © National
Compare the mid-semester ratings with the ratings you awarded yourself at the beginning of the semester
in a similar table in Unit 1 of the course.
1. Explain any variations in your ratings; why and how they you think they are dropped or
improved.
2. Where the ratings remained constantly low or constantly high, give possible reasons.
5.5 Spiritual Wellness
• The spiritual dimension recognizes our search for meaning and purpose in human existence. It
includes the development of a deep appreciation for the depth and expanse of life and natural
forces that exist in the universe.
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• Your search will be characterized by a peaceful harmony between internal personal feelings and
emotions and the challenging circumstances in your life.
• In life, you may experience many feelings of doubt, despair, fear, disappointment and dislocation,
as well as feelings of pleasure, joy, happiness and discovery.
• These are all important experiences and components to your search and will be displayed in the
value system you will adapt to bring meaning to your existence. You’ll know you’re becoming
spiritually well when your actions become more consistent with your beliefs and values, resulting
in a “world view.”
Spiritual wellness follows these tenets:
• It is better to ponder the meaning of life for ourselves and to be tolerant of the beliefs of others
than to close our minds and become intolerant.
• It is better to live each day in a way that is consistent with our values and beliefs than to do
otherwise and feel untrue to ourselves.
Task 8: Working with your group, identify areas of Spiritual Wellness which require personal effort
to achieve.
• Do you ever make time to think of yourself beyond your physical and material well-being?
Explain
• Does your network circle include people who encourage your spiritual growth? Explain
• Do you ever think of how your actions impact on your inner self? Explain
Task 9: Spiritual Wellness Self-Assessment Check

representing the highest. This exercise is designed to test your pre-knowledge of, and level of
I have my own personal values and beliefs about life.
I take part in stimulating spiritual activities (fellowship)
I make conscious choices about my actions based on my

personal values
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I respect others' beliefs and values, especially those that differ

from mine.
I appreciate that super natural forces exist and have control on
my life.
I find the new learning environment compatible with my

belief system
The university set-up accommodates my belief system

There are areas of conflict between my studies and my
belief systems.
The University system is flexible enough to exercise my
faith.
Compare the ratings above with the ones you awarded your yourself at the beginning of the
semester in Unit 2.
1. Explain any variations in your ratings; why and how they you think they are dropped or
improved.
2. Where the ratings remained constantly low or constantly high, give possible reasons.
5.6 Emotional Wellness
• The emotional dimension recognizes awareness and acceptance of one’s feelings. Emotional
wellness includes the degree to which one feels positive and enthusiastic about one’s self and life.
• It includes the capacity to manage one’s feelings and related behaviors including the realistic
assessment of one’s limitations, development of autonomy, and ability to cope effectively with
stress.
• The well person maintains satisfying relationships with others. Awareness of, and accepting a
wide range of feelings in yourself and others is essential to wellness. On the wellness path, you’ll
be able to express feelings freely and manage feelings effectively. You’ll be able to arrive at
personal choices and decisions based upon the synthesis of feelings, thoughts, philosophies, and
behavior. You’ll live and work independently while realizing the importance of seeking and
appreciating the support and assistance of others.
• You’ll be able to form interdependent relationships with others based upon a foundation of
mutual commitment, trust, and respect. You’ll take on challenges, take risks, and recognize
conflict as being potentially healthy. Managing your life in personally rewarding ways, and
taking responsibility for your actions, will help you see life as an exciting, hopeful adventure.
Emotional wellness follows these tenets:
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 It is better to be aware of and accept our feelings than to deny them.

 It is better to be optimistic in our approach to life than pessimistic.
NB: Working with your accountability partner, identify areas of Emotional Wellness which require
personal effort to achieve.
Task 10: Emotional Wellness Self-Assessment

1 2 3 4 5
I accept responsibility for my actions.
I see challenges and change as opportunities for growth.
I believe that I have considerable control over my life.
I am able to laugh at life and myself.
I feel good about myself.
I am able to appropriately cope with stress and tension.
I make time for leisure pursuits.
I am able to recognize my personal shortcomings and learn
from my mistakes
I am able to recognize and express my feelings.
ON AVERAGE MY EMOTIONAL WELLNESS LEVEL
Institute, Inc.
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Adopted Hettler, B., 1976. The Six Dimensions of Wellness
This holistic model explained:
• how a person contributes to his or her environment and community, and how to build better
living spaces and social networks;
• the enrichment of life through work, and its interconnectedness to living and playing;
• the development of belief systems, values, and creating a world-view;
• the benefits of regular physical activity, healthy eating habits, strength and vitality, as well as
personal responsibility, self-care and when to seek medical attention;
• self-esteem, self-control, and determination as a sense of direction; • creative and stimulating
mental activities, and sharing your gifts with others
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FINAL SELF ASSESSMENT

On a scale of 1 to 5, rate yourself in each of the 6 areas of the Wellness below.
PRE-INTERVENTION POST-INTERVENTION
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
PHYSICAL
INTELLECTUAL
SOCIAL
EMOTIONAL
SPIRITUAL
CAREER
Use your self-assessment report to follow up aspects of your development addressed in the module
and revisit the units which cover you’re aeas of your personal development you still find requiring
attention.
Remember: There is no “silver bullet” to holistic student development. You have just taken your
first step on a long journey to self-actualization and the working formula is to keep moving.
Written Assignment:
In not more than 500 words-
• Use "Hettler’s Model of Wellness” to highlight your major strengths and describe briefly
how you intend to use them to enhance your career.
• Identify one major weakness you have around each of Hettler’s Six Dimensions, and
outline steps you will take to improve your performance in these areas.
Submission Deadline: 30 March 2022. Contact your Faculty-specific Student Development Officer
regarding place of submission.
References
Association, A. C., 2016. 2014 ACA Codes of Ethics. s.l.:s.n.
Balk, D. E., 2014. Taking Stoch: Pas Contributions and Current Thinking on Death, Dying and Grief.
Journal of Death Studies, Volume 38, pp. 349-352.
Hettler, B., 1976. The Six Dimensions of Wellness, s.l.: s.n.
Marini, I. & Stebnicki, M. A., 2017. The Psychological and Social Impact of Illness and Disability. 7th
ed. New York: Springer Publishing.
Smart, J., 2016. The Professional Couselor's Desk Reference. 2nd ed. New York: Springer Publishing.
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Stamford, C. T. & Cangage, C. L., 2010. Prolonged Grief Disorder. Oncology Nursing Forum, 37(4), pp.
401-406.
Swarbrick, L. & Yudof, W., 2017. Wellness in 8 Dimensions: A Wellness Approach. Psychiatrick
Rehabilitation Journal, 29(4), pp. 311-314.
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Student Development and Life Skills Module

(Course Overview, Synopsis and Assignments)

2. Cognitive Development Theories and Life Skills 8

3. Human Metaphysics and Life Skills Development 19

4. Moral Development Theories and Life Skills Development 27

5. Theories of Identity Development and Life Skills 40

6. Theories of Racial and Ethnic Identity Development and Life Skills 47

7. Student Involvement Theories and Life Skills Development 55

8. Sports and Life Skills Development 64

9. Career Development Theories and Life Skills Development 71

10. Student Wellness Theories and Life Skills 79

Student Development and Life Skills Module

(Course Overview, Course Content Synopsis and Assignments)

1. Module Student Development and Life Skills

2. Course Moderator Dr Munyaradzi Madambi

3. Contact Details Office 7, Student Services Centre;

realization of cognitive, psychomotor and affective aims of education. The Module

6. Teaching and Learning Methods:

 Introductory lectures (upon request and where necessary),

6.1 Student Development Cohorts:

6.2 Accountability Partnerships:

6.4 Cheating and Misrepresentation:

7.1 Community Service Reports and Assessment

8. Course Facilitators for the First Year

COURSE THEMES FACILITATOR

Moral Development: Mr. D. Sithole: [email protected]

Identity Development: Mr. B. Machanja:

8.1 Faculty-specific Student Development Officers (SDOs)

FACULTY RESIDENT S.D.O. SDO CONTACT DETAILS

Agriculture Environment Mr. G. Chiganga

Business Management Ms. Munesi V.

Arts and Humanities Mr. Machanja B.

Computer Science and Mr. Chemhere L.

Engineering and Built Mrs Paradza F.A

Law Mr. Gorejena S

Medicine and Health Ms Kunakahakudyiwe

Social and Behavioral Mr. Sithole D.M.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND LIFE SKILLS

Task 1: Read widely on above-mentioned theories of cognitive development and explore

5. Application of Themes to Student Development and Life Skills

Task 2: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is

I make deliberate effort to learn new things.

I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,

I consciously try to improve or learn new skills

I try to present balanced opinions in controversial

I look up things that I don’t know

I am ready to learn from my peers

I am able to discuss my skills, abilities,

PERRY’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Adopted from William Perry (1970)

The stage is characterised as follows:

How to score the questionnaire?

Now complete the questionnaire.

2. A) Who does not achieve own goals ( )

3. A) Who feels frustrated and unhappy ( )

4. A) Who is inhibited and withdrawn ( )

5. A) Who feels hurt and anxious ( )