JA2 Post412 Influencing
JA2 Post412 Influencing
JA2 Post412 Influencing
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of exercise type, field dimensions, and coach encouragement on the intensity
and reproducibility of small-sided games. Data were collected on 20 amateur soccer players (body mass 73.1+8.6 kg,
stature 1.79+0.05 m, age 24.5+4.1 years, V_ O2max 56.3+4.8 ml kg71 min71). Aerobic interval training was performed
during three-, four-, five- and six-a-side games on three differently sized pitches, with and without coach encouragement.
Heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) on the CR10-scale, and blood lactate concentration were measured. Main
effects were found for exercise type, field dimensions, and coach encouragement (P 5 0.05), but there were no interactions
between any of the variables (P 4 0.15). During a six-a-side game on a small pitch without coach encouragement, exercise
intensity was 84+5% of maximal heart rate, blood lactate concentration was 3.4+1.0 mmol l71, and the RPE was 4.8.
During a three-a-side game on a larger pitch with coach encouragement, exercise intensity was 91+2% of maximal heart
rate, blood lactate concentration was 6.5+1.5 mmol l71, and the RPE was 7.2. Typical error expressed as a coefficient of
variation ranged from 2.0 to 5.4% for percent maximal heart rate, from 10.4 to 43.7% for blood lactate concentration, and
from 5.5 to 31.9% for RPE. The results demonstrate that exercise intensity during small-sided soccer games can be
manipulated by varying the exercise type, the field dimensions, and whether there is any coach encouragement. By using
different combinations of these factors, coaches can modulate exercise intensity within the high-intensity zone and control
the aerobic training stimulus.
Keywords: Soccer, aerobic training, exercise intensity, heart rate, perceived exertion, lactate, reliability
Correspondence: E. Rampinini, Via Don Minzoni 34, 21053 Castellanza (Varese), Italy. E-mail: physiolab@mapeisport.it
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/02640410600811858
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drills. Such information could be useful for coaches Table I. Field dimensions of small-sided games included in this
and sport scientists in the design of effective physical study.
training programmes. Dimensions
The main aim of the present study was to examine
the effects of exercise type (three-, four-, five-, and Games Small Medium Large
six-a-side), field dimensions, and coach encourage- Three-a-side 12620 m 15625 m 18630 m
ment on exercise intensity. A secondary aim was to Four-a-side 16624 m 20630 m 24636 m
assess the reproducibility and inter-participant varia- Five-a-side 20628 m 25635 m 30642 m
bility of exercise intensity reached during these Six-a-side 24632 m 30640 m 36648 m
small-sided games.
Expired gases were analysed using a breath-by- variance (ANOVA) was used on each dependent
breath automated gas-analysis system (VMAX29, variable (heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and
Sensormedics, Yorba Linda, CA). The flow, volume, RPE). The independent variables included three
and gas analysers were calibrated before each test within-participant factors: (1) exercise type with four
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. levels (three-, four-, five-, six-a-side), (2) encourage-
ment with two levels (with and without), and (3) field
dimensions with three levels (small, medium, large).
Physiological measures
Effect sizes (Z2) were also calculated and values of
Heart rate was recorded every 5 s during each 0.01, 0.06, and 40.15 were considered small,
training session using short-range telemetry heart medium, and large respectively (Cohen, 1988).
rate monitor systems (VantageNV, S710, and When a significant F-value was found, multiple
Xtrainer models, Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland) pair-wise contrasts were applied.
with individually coded heart rate transmitters to Reproducibility was determined using Bland and
avoid interference. To reduce heart rate recording Altman’s (1995) limits of agreement. Reference lines
error during training, all players were regularly asked were determined as the mean difference+1.96
to check that their heart rate monitors were standard deviations (Bland & Altman, 1995). Typi-
functioning correctly. Operators were at hand to cal error expressed as a coefficient of variation (CV)
solve problems such as erroneous heart rate values or was also calculated (Hopkins, 2000). The standard
technical/transmission problems. After each training deviation expressed as a coefficient of variation of the
session, the heart rate data were downloaded to a different small-sided games completed by the players
portable PC using dedicated software and subse- was used as a measure of inter-participant exercise
quently exported and analysed by one of the authors intensity variability.
using the Excel XP software program (Microsoft Statistical significance was set at P50.05. The
Corporation, USA). The mean heart rates of the Bonferroni procedure for controlling the Type I error
three 4-min exercise bouts were used for the analysis. rate was used. The resulting criterion alpha levels
Capillary blood samples (5 ml) were taken from an were P50.017 for the main factors of the repeated
earlobe within a minute of the end of the last bout of measures analyses of variance, and P50.008,
the small-sided game and immediately analysed for P50.017, and P50.05 for post-hoc multiple compar-
lactate using several portable amperometric micro- isons applied to the factors exercise type, field
volume lactate analysers (LactatePro, Arkray, Japan). dimensions, and encouragement respectively. Final-
Before each test, the analysers were calibrated ly, the criterion alpha level used to individuate
following the manufacturer’s instructions. The por- significant bias from the Bland and Altman limits
table blood lactate analyser used in this study has of agreement was P50.001. The statistical analyses
been reported to be reliable and valid (Pyne, Boston, were performed using the software package STA-
Martin, & Logan, 2000). TISTICA (6.0 version, StatSoft, Tulsa, OK).
Immediately after each game, all players were
asked to state their mean perceived exertion relative
to all three bouts of the game just completed, using a Results
printout of Borg’s CR10 scale (Borg, 1998). All
Participants
athletes had been habituated to this scale before the
start of the study and followed standardized instruc- To examine the effects of exercise type, field
tions for rating perceived exertion (Borg, 1998). dimensions, and coach encouragement on exercise
To limit the influence of diet on the variables intensity (heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and
analysed, especially blood lactate concentration, the RPE), players with at least one trial for each
players were asked to follow nutritional guidelines combination of factor level were included (n ¼ 20).
supplied by the researchers. A generic weekly For the determination of exercise intensity repro-
nutritional plan was developed to ensure an adequate ducibility, players with two trials of the same
carbohydrate intake (50 – 60% of total energy intake) combination of factor level completed within one
(Kirkendall, 1993). However, no diet log was week were selected (n ¼ 17).
recorded by the athletes. During the small-sided
games and the training sessions, the players were
Laboratory and field tests
allowed to drink ad libitum.
The total distance covered by the players (n ¼ 20)
during the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test in-
Statistical analyses
creased between the three test sessions from
The data are reported as means+standard deviations 1986+334 m in September to 2117+380 m in
(s). A three-way fully repeated measures analysis of February and to 2132+3z80 m in May (P50.01).
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The February and May distances did not differ from the small pitch. The results of the ANOVA also
each other (P40.05). Similarly, the total distance demonstrated that intensity was higher for heart
covered during the Yo-Yo endurance test increased rate (Z2 ¼ 0.668), blood lactate concentration
from 1113+251 m in September to 1576+300 m in (Z2 ¼ 0.764), and RPE (Z2 ¼ 0.976) when the coa-
February and to 1606+281 m in June (P50.001). ches provided encouragement.
The February and June distances did not differ from
each other (P40.05). The maximal oxygen uptake of
Inter-participant variability and reproducibility of
soccer players (n ¼ 20) measured during the incre-
physiological responses to small-sided games
mental treadmill test in the laboratory was
56.3+4.8 ml kg71 min71. Maximal heart rate did Reproducibility (intra-participant variability) of soc-
not change during the season [191+9, 190+8, and cer-specific drills is summarized in Tables IV and V.
190+10 beats min71 in September, February, and The reproducibility for heart rate, RPE, and blood
May/June respectively (P ¼ 0.95)]. Mean maximal lactate concentration expressed both as limits of
heart rate during the laboratory and field tests did agreement and coefficients of variation was higher for
not differ (P ¼ 0.75). small-sided games with encouragement than without
encouragement. Similarly, more intense types of
exercise (e.g. three-a-side) appear to be more
Physiological responses to small-sided games
reproducible than small-sided games played at a
Data relating to the physiological responses to each lower intensity (e.g. six-a-side). Field dimensions do
small-sided game are shown in Table II, while the not appear to affect reproducibility.
results of post-hoc analyses are shown in Table III. Inter-participant variability expressed as coeffi-
No interactions between factors were observed cients of variation is reported in Table II. The
(P40.15). There was a main effect of exercise type greatest inter-participant variability in the selected
(P50.017) for heart rate (Z2 ¼ 0.456), blood lactate markers of exercise intensity was for six-a-side games.
concentration (Z2 ¼ 0.323), and RPE (Z2 ¼ 0.772). In contrast, the smallest coefficients of variation were
Post-hoc analyses revealed that three-a-side was more observed for three-a-side games. Across all small-
intense than both four- and five-a-side, with no sided games examined, the smallest inter-participant
difference between the latter two. Conversely, both variability was observed for heart rate, followed by
four- and five-a-side led to more marked responses RPE, and then blood lactate concentration.
than six-a-side for all three physiological measures of
intensity. There was also a main effect of field
dimensions (P50.017) on heart rate (Z2 ¼ 0.321), Discussion
blood lactate concentration (Z2 ¼ 0.331), and RPE
Physiological responses to small sided-games
(Z2 ¼ 0.640). Post-hoc analyses showed that heart
rate and blood lactate concentration were higher We have described for the first time the effects of
during small-sided games played on a large pitch exercise type, field dimensions, and coach encour-
than on medium-sized and small ones. There was no agement on the intensity of small-sided games as
difference in RPE between medium and large measured by heart rate, blood lactate concentration,
pitches, both of which resulted in higher ratings than and RPE. Our results are in line with anecdotal
Table II. Physiological responses to small-sided games with and without coach encouragement m ¼ 20 (mean+s).
Three-a-side Small 89.5+2.9 3.1 87.6+1.7 1.9 6.0+1.8 29.8 4.4+1.1 23.8 8.1+0.6 7.5 6.6+0.4 6.6
Medium 90.5+2.3 2.5 88.6+2.9 3.2 6.3+1.5 23.6 4.6+1.0 21.8 8.4+0.4 4.1 7.0+0.6 8.7
Large 90.9+2.0 2.2 89.1+1.8 1.9 6.5+1.5 22.1 5.0+1.5 27.9 8.5+0.4 4.4 7.2+0.7 9.7
Four-a-side Small 88.7+2.0 2.2 86.5+3.4 3.8 5.3+1.9 35.6 4.2+1.6 37.0 7.6+0.5 6.0 6.3+0.5 8.4
Medium 89.4+1.8 2.0 86.7+3.0 3.4 5.5+1.8 31.5 4.3+1.4 30.5 7.9+0.5 6.3 6.6+0.6 8.8
Large 89.7+1.8 2.0 87.2+2.8 3.1 6.0+1.6 26.6 4.7+1.2 24.8 8.1+0.5 6.0 6.8+0.5 7.2
Five-a-side Small 87.8+3.6 4.0 86.0+4.0 4.6 5.2+1.4 25.7 3.9+0.9 22.9 7.2+0.9 12.4 5.9+0.7 11.6
Medium 88.8+3.1 3.5 86.1+3.7 4.2 5.0+1.7 32.6 4.1+1.4 33.8 7.6+0.6 7.3 6.2+0.8 12.6
Large 88.8+2.3 2.5 86.9+3.2 3.6 5.8+1.6 26.7 4.6+1.7 36.5 7.5+0.6 7.9 6.2+0.6 9.6
Six-a-side Small 86.4+2.0 2.2 83.8+5.0 5.8 4.5+1.5 32.0 3.4+1.0 28.8 6.8+0.6 9.0 4.8+0.9 17.2
Medium 87.0+2.4 2.6 85.1+3.3 3.7 5.0+1.6 31.7 3.9+1.4 34.8 7.3+0.7 8.7 6.0+1.4 23.4
Large 86.9+2.4 2.7 85.0+3.6 4.2 4.8+1.5 30.8 3.6+1.5 39.2 7.2+0.8 11.3 5.9+0.5 8.3
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Table III. Physiological responses to small-sided games according to exercise type, field dimensions, and coach encouragement m ¼ 20.
Blood lactate
Heart rate concentration RPE
Main factors Levels (% of maximum) (mmol l71) (CR10)
2, effect size: values of 0.01, 0.06, and40.15 were considered small, medium, and large respectively (Cohen, 1988).
*P50.05; **P50.017; ***P50.008.
Table IV. Reproducibility of small-sided games with coach encouragement and indications.
Three-a-side
Small 0.6+5.4 2.2 70.1+1.6 10.4 0.2+1.8 8.9
Medium 70.3+4.9 2.0 0.0+1.6 11.3 70.3+1.3 5.9
Large 0.6+5.8 2.4 70.1+2.0 13.0 0.3+1.5 7.1
Four-a-side
Small 0.3+6.6 2.7 0.4+2.6 16.5 70.3+1.8 9.4
Medium 1.3+7.5 3.1 70.3+2.0 17.6 70.8+1.9 8.9
Large 1.7+6.1 2.5 0.1+1.8 12.5 70.1+1.2 5.5
Five-a-side
Small 72.2+6.7 2.8 0.1+2.7 21.0 70.1+3.4 21.4
Medium 71.5+7.2 3.0 70.5+2.5 18.9 0.2+2.4 13.1
Large 71.5+10.4 4.3 70.1+2.5 15.9 0.3+2.5 13.2
Six-a-side
Small 1.2+11 4.7 0.4+2.7 21.8 70.1+2.8 16.9
Medium 0.7+8.5 3.6 0.8+2.7 22.3 70.2+2.3 12.6
Large 2.2+11.2 4.8 70.3+2.6 17.5 0.1+2.9 16.6
Note: Bias and random error are calculated using Bland and Altman’s limits of agreement (CI 95%), while typical error is expressed as
coefficients of variation (CV).
reports from players and coaches that field with the ball requires greater energy expenditure than
dimensions, exercise type, and coach encouragement running without the ball, this could explain the higher
affect the physiological responses to small-sided exercise intensity (Reilly & Ball, 1984). However, to
games. In addition to providing quantitative data isolate the effect of number of players per se on exercise
and experimental confirmation of these reports, we intensity, the playing area should be kept constant. In
show that the effect of each factor is cumulative with the present study, playing area was altered with a
no interaction between any of the factors examined. change in the number of players. We decided to do so
The higher exercise intensity we observed for three- to increase the external validity of our investigation. In
a-side compared with six-a-side might be due to the fact, the playing areas associated with each exercise
players’ having more possession of the ball. Balsom type are similar to those most frequently prescribed by
(1999) reported a three-fold increase in the number of coaches. Because of this, the reader should not
ball possessions per player during 20 min of three-a- interpret our results as the effect of varying the
side compared with seven-a-side play. As running number of players per se.
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Three-a-side
Small 70.1+7.1 3.0 70.4+2.7 23.2 70.4+1.7 10.2
Medium 0.3+8.4 3.5 0.1+2.8 22.0 70.4+1.2 6.2
Large 70.1+7.3 3.0 70.2+2.8 20.5 70.6+2.1 12.9
Four-a-side
Small 70.1+8.8 3.7 0.5+2.8 30.2 70.3+1.9 11.8
Medium 0.9+6.6 2.8 0.3+3.0 29.2 0.0+1.9 11.3
Large 70.4+7.6 3.3 0.7+2.9 27.4 0.0+1.4 8.3
Five-a-side
Small 0.2+6.8 2.9 0.5+3.3 38.4 70.4+2.9 22.1
Medium 71.7+9.2 4.0 70.2+2.5 29.7 1.1+2.9 21.7
Large 70.8+10.4 4.4 70.8+2.8 22.1 70.4+2.7 18.2
Six-a-side
Small 0.2+11.7 5.2 70.4+2.3 28.5 70.2+2.8 25.8
Medium 70.4+12.3 5.4 70.1+2.2 23.7 1.9+3.5 31.9
Large 70.7+11.9 5.2 70.1+2.9 43.7 70.7+2.2 15.0
Note: Bias and random error are calculated using Bland and Altman’s limits of agreement (CI 95%), while typical error is expressed as
coefficients of variation (CV).
Varying field dimensions also induced different factors it is possible to obtain vastly different exercise
physiological responses. Specifically, small-sided intensities. For instance, during three-a-side matches
games played on a larger pitch were more intense played on a large pitch with coach encouragement,
than the same drills played on smaller pitches. The players achieved 91% of their maximal heart rate,
influence of changing playing area on intensity of had a blood lactate concentration of 6.5 mmol l71,
small-sided games has previously been reported and reported an RPE of 8.5 on the CR10-scale. In
(Aroso, Rebelo, & Gomes-Pereira, 2004; Balsom, contrast, during six-a-side matches on a small pitch
1999). For example, Balsom (1999) suggested that with no coach encouragement, mean heart rate fell to
during four-a-side games, an intensity similar to that 83.8% of maximum, blood lactate concentration was
in three-a-side games could be reached by increasing 3.6 mmol l71, and the RPE was 4.8. This is only an
the playing area. The results of the present study example of how a coach can modulate exercise
confirm this suggestion, as the exercise intensity of intensity of small-sided games by different combina-
three-a-side games on a small pitch was similar to tions of these three factors.
that of four-a-side games on a larger playing area. While generic and specific aerobic training at
Our findings are in line with those of Hoff et al. intensities close to or above 90% of maximal heart
(2002), who suggested using encouragement to rate are known to enhance aerobic fitness and soccer
increase exercise intensity during small-sided games. performance (Helgerud et al., 2001; Impellizzeri
This effect could be very important from a practical et al., 2006), the effects of aerobic training at a lower
point of view because the external motivation intensity are not known and should be investigated in
provided by coach supervision has been shown to future studies.
achieve greater gains and training adherence during
resistance training (Coutts, Murphy, & Dascombe,
Reproducibility (intra-participant variability)
2004; Mazzetti et al., 2000).
and inter-participant variability of the intensity
Importantly, the mean intensity of all small-sided
of small sided-games
games included in this study is within the range
classified as high by Bangsbo (2003). Based on effect Although knowledge of the mean exercise intensity
size comparisons, the factor that had the greatest of various small-sided games is useful for coaches
influence on the physiological responses to small- and sport scientists, the reproducibility and inter-
sided games was encouragement, followed by ex- participant variability of these drills are important to
ercise type and field dimensions. Although verify whether or not the physiological strain is
statistically significant and large, the effect of each consistent within and between soccer players.
factor in isolation was of relatively minor physiolo- Although the reproducibility of the intensity of
gical importance. However, by combining these small-sided games in this study could be interpreted
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as poor to moderate, our findings for heart rate and intensity within the high-intensity zone and, by doing
RPE were similar to those reported by Wergel- so, control the training stimulus. Despite obvious
Kolmert, Wisén and Wohlfart (2002) during incre- difficulties in standardization (variable external load
mental tests performed in controlled laboratory and environmental influences), the reproducibility of
conditions on a cycle ergometer. In fact, expressing intensity of small-sided games compares well with
the random error as a percentage of the mean, they cycle ergometry and treadmill running in the
reported values of 14 and 43% for heart rate and laboratory. Therefore, small-sided games can be
RPE respectively during submaximal cycling. Ex- used reliably to stimulate physiological adaptation
pressing reproducibility in the same way, our mean and performance improvement as suggested by our
values were 10% (range 5 – 14%) for heart rate and recent training study (Impellizzeri et al., 2006).
33% (range 15 – 58%) for RPE. Similarly, a recent
study showed a 27% mean typical error for blood
Acknowledgements
lactate concentration during incremental testing on a
treadmill (Saunders, Pyne, Telford, & Hawley, We would like to thank D. Carlomagno, A. Coutts,
2004). This is similar to the mean coefficient of A. Morelli, M. Iaia, D. Ferrari Bravo, R. Sassi, A.
variation found in the present study. In agreement Tibaudi, and V. Bertarini for their technical support,
with our findings, both of these studies showed better the management of the team, and all the participants.
reproducibility for heart rate and RPE when the We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers
exercise intensity was high. for their valuable comments and suggestions.
The intra-participant variability in blood lactate
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