BIOLS102-UOB-Chapter 9

The book and slides are the main reference to study from
Chapter 9:
Cell Cycle: An orderly set of stages from the first division to the time
the daughter cells divide
“Just prior to the next division the cell grows larger, number of
organelles doubles, and DNA is replicated”
“The two major stages of the cell cycle are Interphase and Mitotic”
Interphase
• Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase
• Cells perform normal functions, depending on body location
• Interphase time varies by cell type
o Nerve and muscle cells do not complete the cell cycle (remain
in the G0 stage)
o Embryonic cells complete the cycle every few hours
o In adult mammalian cells, interphase lasts for 20 hours
• Consists of three stages: G1, S and G2
o G1:
▪ Cell is in recovery from previous division
▪ Cell grows and doubles its organelles
▪ Cell accumulates raw materials for DNA synthesis
o S:
▪ DNA synthesis or replication occurs
▪ Proteins associated with DNA are synthesized
▪ Chromosomes enter S phase with 1 chromatid each and
leave S phase with 2 identical chromatids each
▪ Sister chromatids remain attached until mitosis
o G2:
▪ G2 phase is located between DNA replication and
onset of mitosis
▪ Cell synthesizes proteins, including microtubules,
necessary for division
Mitotic
Consists of two stages:
• Mitosis
o Nuclear division
o Daughter chromosomes distributed by the mitotic spindle
to two daughter nuclei
• Cytokinesis
o Division of the cytoplasm
o Results in two genetically identical daughter cells
The Cell Cycle
Controlling the cell cycle by signals

Signal: a molecule that influences the activities of a cell
• External signals:
o proteins received at the plasma membrane, ensure that the
stages follow the sequence and proper completion of the
cell cycle
• Internal signals:
Cyclins: Family of proteins that increase and decrease as the cell
cycle continues ( family of proteins that controls the cell cycle by
activating enzymes require for each step)
o G1 checkpoint:
▪ Primary checkpoint of the cell cycle
▪ The cycle will be stopped by signal protein if any
DNA damage is detected, if the DNA successfully
repaired cycle continues to mitosis but if not the
apoptosis starts (apoptosis will be explained later on)
▪ p53/ RB protein: examples of signals proteins they
prevent excessive cell growth by inhibiting cell cycle
progression until a cell is ready to divide
o G2 checkpoint:
▪ The cycle will be stopped by signal protein if DNA
has not finished replicating
▪ DNA could be fixed by exposure to solar radiation or
X-rays
o M checkpoint:
▪ The cycle will be stopped by signal protein if
chromosomes are not properly attached to the mitotic
spindle (The mitotic spindle is a cytoskeletal structure
that forms during cell division to separate chromatids)
Apoptosis: programmed cell death and involves a sequence of
cellular events
o Apoptosis steps :
▪ Rounding up and detachment of cell from neighbors
▪ Fragmenting of the nucleus
▪ Blistering of the plasma membrane
▪ Engulfing of cell fragments by macrophages and
neighboring cells
o Caspases: a family of cysteine proteases whose functions
are inextricably linked with the process of programmed cell
death “Apoptosis” then released by proteins signals
(Mitosis increases cell number, Apoptosis decreases cell number)
The Eukaryotic Chromosome and cell division:

o Associated with histone proteins ( They act as spools
around which DNA winds to create structural units called
nucleosomes) and called Chromatin when they form a
complex with DNA
o Before mitosis chromatin condenses into chromosomes
each species has a characteristic chromosome number
which could be diploid (2n) or haploid (n)
o At the end of s phase, the chromosomes duplicated
(Consists of two Sister chromatids attached at centromere)
and kinetochores form on both sides of the centromere
during cell division
o Centrosome divides before mitosis begins (contains two
barrel-shaped centrioles made of microtubules
Phases of Mitosis:
o Prophase
▪ Chromatin condensed
▪ chromosomes are visible
▪ Nucleolus disappears
▪ Nuclear envelope fragments
▪ Spindle begins to assemble
▪ The pairs of centrosomes migrate in opposite poles
▪ Chromosomes have no orientation
o Prometaphase
▪ Called late prophase
▪ Kinetochores appear on each side of the centromere
▪ Chromatids attached to Kinetochore spindle fibers
▪ Polar spindle fibers stretch to form spindle poles
o Metaphase
▪ Chromosomes aligned
▪ At the M checkpoint the, anaphase is delayed until
kinetochores are properly attached to the spindle fibers and
chromosomes are properly aligned
o Anaphase
▪ It is the shortest phase
▪ chromatids separate at centromere to the opposite poles
▪ spindle fibers pull sister chromatids
▪ Poles move further apart
o Telophase
▪ Spindle disappears
▪ New nuclear envelopes form
▪ Nucleolus reappears
▪ Chromosomes become indistinct chromatin fibers
Cytokinesis: part of the cell division after mitosis process during
which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell divides into two
daughter cells, the spindle apparatus partitions and transports
duplicated chromatids into the cytoplasm of the separating daughter
cells.
o Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
▪ Cleavage furrow appears between daughter nuclei
▪ formed by a contractile ring of actin filaments
▪ Narrow bridge exists between daughter cells at telophase
o Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
▪ begins by forming a cell plate
▪ Golgi make a small membrane-bounded vesicles which
fuse into one thin vesicles
▪ The membranes of the cell plate become the plasma
membrane between the daughter cells
▪ The space between the daughter cells becomes filled with
the middle lamella
▪ New membrane releases molecules then strengthen by
addition of cellulose fibrils
Functions of Mitosis in Animal and Plant Cells:
o permits growth and repair
o increase the width of trees
o reproduction of mammals
Stem Cells : are the raw materials of the body, they are the cells from
which all other cells that perform specialized functions are born.
Binary Fission: a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell

divides, resulting in two identical cells, each having the potential to
grow to the size of the original cell.
o No spindle is involved
o The generation time of bacteria depends on the species and
environmental conditions
Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:
o Both binary fission (Prokaryotes) and mitosis (Eukaryotes)
result in daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent
o Cellular division in unicellular organisms produce identical
offspring via asexual reproduction
o Cell division in multicellular organisms is part of the growth and
repair processes

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The book and slides are the main reference to study from

The Cell Cycle

Controlling the cell cycle by signals

The Eukaryotic Chromosome and cell division:

Binary Fission: a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell

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