Chapter 15 Database Design Using The REA Data Model

C HAPTER 15
Database Design Using

the REA Data Model
© 2008 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Accounting Information Systems, 11/e Romney/Steinbart 1 of 138
INTRODUCTION
• Questions to be addressed in this chapter

include:
– What steps are followed to design and
implement a database system?
– How is the REA data model used to design an AIS
database?
– How is an entity-relationship REA diagram of an
AIS database drawn?
– How are REA diagrams read, and what do they
reveal about the business activities and policies
of the organization being modeled?
INTRODUCTION
• Steps in database design include the

following:
– Planning
• Initial planning to determine the need for
and feasibility of developing a new system.
• Includes preliminary judgments about
technological and economic
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Requirements analysis
• Identifying user information needs.
• Defining scope of proposed system.
• Using information about the expected number of
users and transaction volume to make
preliminary decisions on hardware and software
requirements.
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Design
• Developing different schemas for the new
system at the conceptual, external, and
internal levels.
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Design
– Coding
• Translating the internal-level schema into
the actual database structures that will be
implemented in the new system.
• Developing new applications.
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Design
– Coding
– Implementation
• Transferring data from existing systems to
the new database.
• Testing the new system.
• Training employees.
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Design
– Coding
– Implementation
– Operation and maintenance
• Using and maintaining the new system.
• Monitoring system performance and user
satisfaction to determine need for
enhancements and modifications.
INTRODUCTION

following:
– Planning
– Design
– Coding
– Implementation
– Operation and maintenance
• Eventually, changes in business strategy
and practices or new IT developments
lead to the need for a new system and the
process starts over.
INTRODUCTION
• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

of the database design process, although participation
varies between stages.
– Planning stage
• Accountants provide information to help
evaluate feasibility.
• Participate in the feasibility decision.
INTRODUCTION

– Planning stage
– Requirements analysis and design stages
• Accountants participate in:
– Identifying user needs
– Developing logical schemas
– Designing data dictionary
– Specifying controls
INTRODUCTION

– Planning stage
– Coding stage
• Accountants with good AIS skills
may participate in coding.
INTRODUCTION

– Planning stage
– Coding stage
– Implementation stage
 Accountants help test accuracy of database and
application programs.
INTRODUCTION

– Planning stage
– Coding stage
– Implementation stage
– Operation and maintenance stage
• Accountants use the database system
to process transactions.
• Sometimes help manage it.
INTRODUCTION
• Accountants may provide the greatest value by

taking responsibility for data modeling—the
process of defining a database to faithfully
represent all aspects of the organization, including
interactions with the external environment.
– Occurs during both requirements analysis and design
stage.
– Two important tools to facilitate data modeling:
• Entity-relationship diagramming
• REA data model
INTRODUCTION

stage.
• REA data model
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS
• An entity-relationship (E-R)
diagram is a graphical technique for
portraying a database schema.
– Shows the various entities being modeled
and the important relationships among
them.
• An entity is anything about which the

organization wants to collect and store
information.
– Example: Your university collects and stores
information about students, courses, enrollment
activity, etc.
• In a relational database, separate tables would be
created to store information about each distinct
entity.
• In an object-oriented database, separate classes would
be created for each distinct entity.
In an E-R diagram, entities are depicted as rectangles.

But there are no industry standards for other aspects of these diagrams.
Enrollment Students
Some data modelers, tools, and authors use diamonds
Line
Enrollment Items
Students
• Others do not use diamonds.
Enrollment Students
Sometimes the attributes associated with each entity are depicted as nam
Student
Enrollment Number Student Name
Enrollment ID No.
Date
Student
Address
Enrollment Time
Enrollment
Students
Sometimes these attributes are listed in a separate table.
Enrollment
Entity Name Attributes Students
Enrollment Enrollment No., Enrollment Date, Enrollment Time
Student Student ID No., Student Name, Student Address
In this book, we will create E-R diagrams with a large number of entitie
To reduce clutter and improve readability, we omit diamonds and list at
Enrollment
Entity Name Attributes Students
Enrollment Enrollment No., Enrollment Date, Enrollment Time
Student Student ID No., Student Name, Student Address
• E-R diagrams can be used to represent the

contents of any kind of databases.
• Our focus is on databases designed to
support an organization’s business
activities.
• The diagrams we develop depict the
contents of a database and graphically
model those business processes.
• In addition to their use in designing

databases, E-R diagrams can be used to:
– Document and understand existing
databases.
– Reengineer business processes.
• In this chapter, we’ll use E-R diagrams for
designing new databases and understanding
existing ones.
• E-R diagrams can include many different

kinds of entities and relationships.
• An important step in designing a database is
deciding which entities need to be modeled.
• The REA data model is useful for this
decision.
INTRODUCTION

stage.
• REA data model
THE REA DATA MODEL
• The REA data model was developed specifically for

use in designing accounting information systems.
– Focuses on business semantics underlying an
organization’s value chain activities.
– Provides guidance for:
• Identifying the entities to be included in a database.
• Structuring the relationships among the entities.
• REA data models are usually depicted in the
form of E-R diagrams.
• Therefore, we refer to E-R diagrams developed
with the REA model as REA diagrams.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Three basic types of entities

– The REA data model is so named because it
classifies entities into three distinct categories:
• Resources that the organization acquires and
uses.
• Resources are things that have
economic value to the organization.
THE REA DATA MODEL

uses.
• Events in which the organization engages.
• These are the various business activities

about which management wants to
collect information for planning or
control purposes.
THE REA DATA MODEL

uses.
• Events in which the organization engages
• Agents participating in these events.
• Includes people and organizations who
participate in events and about whom
information is desired for planning,
control, and evaluation purposes.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the resources in this diagram?
Inventory Sales Employee
Customer
Cash Receive
Accounts Cash Employee
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the resources in this diagram?
Customer
Cash Receive
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the events in this diagram?
Customer
Cash Receive
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the events in this diagram?
Customer
Cash Receive
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the agents in this diagram?
Customer
Cash Receive
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Can you identify the agents in this diagram?
Customer
Cash Receive
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Structuring relationships: The

basic REA template
– The REA data model prescribes a basic pattern
for how the three types of entities (resources,
events, and agents) should relate to one another.
• Rule 1: Each event is linked to at least
one resource that it affects.
THE REA DATA MODEL
Resource A Event A
Resource Event B
B
THE REA DATA MODEL

basic REA template
• Rule 1: Each event is linked to at least one
resource that it affects.
• Rule 2: Each event is linked to at least
one other event.
THE REA DATA MODEL
Resource Event A
A
Resource Event B
B
THE REA DATA MODEL

basic REA template
• Rule 1: Each event is linked to at least one resource that
it affects.
• Rule 2: Each event is linked to at least one other event.
• Rule 3: Each event is linked to at least two agents.
THE REA DATA MODEL
Resource A Event A Agent A
Agent B
Resource B Event B Agent C
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Let’s take a closer look at each of

these three rules.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Rule 1: Every event entity must be linked to

at least one resource entity.
– Events must be linked to at least one resource that they
affect.
• Some events affect the quantity of a resource:
– If they increase the quantity of a resource, they are called a
“get” event.
– If they decrease the quantity of a resource they are called a
“give” event.
– Example: If you purchase inventory for cash:
» The get event is that you receive inventory.
» The give event is that you pay cash.
– Relationships that affect the quantity of a resource are
sometimes referred to as stockflow relationships.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Not every event directly alters the quantity of a

resource.
• If a customer orders goods but has not paid and has
not received goods, this activity is called a
commitment event.
– Organizations track the effects of commitments to
provide better service and for planning purposes.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Rule 2: Every event entity must be linked to

at least one other event entity.
– Give and get events are linked together in what is
labeled an economic duality relationship.
– These relationships reflect the basic business principle
that organizations engage in activities that use up
resources in hopes of acquiring other resources in
exchange.
– Each accounting cycle can be described in terms of
give-to-get economic duality relationships.
THE REA DATA MODEL
The revenue cycle involves interactions with your cus

You sell goods or services and get cash.
Give Get
Inventor Cas
y h
THE REA DATA MODEL
The expenditure cycle involves interactions with your

You buy goods or services and pay cash.
Give Cash Get Inventory
THE REA DATA MODEL
In the production cycle, raw materials, labor, and machinery a
Give
(Use)
Raw
Give (Use) Get Finished

Employee Goods
Time Inventory
Give (Use)
Machinery
&
THE REA DATA MODEL
The human resources cycle involves interactions with

Employees are hired, trained, paid, evaluated, promot
Giv Get
e Employe
Cas e Time
THE REA DATA MODEL
The financing cycle involves interactions with investors and c

You raise capital (through stock or debt), repay the capital, an
Give Cash
Get Cash
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Not every relationship between two events

represents a give-to-get economic duality.
– Commitment events are linked to other events to
reflect sequential cause-effect relationships.
– Example:
• Take customer order (commitment), which leads to:
• Deliver inventory (give event) and receive cash (get
event).
THE REA DATA MODEL
• Rule 3: Every event entity must be

linked to at least two participating
agents.
– For accountability, organizations need to be
able to track actions of employees.
– Also need to monitor the status of
commitments and exchanges with outside
parties.
– Each event links to at least two participating
agents.
THE REA DATA MODEL
• For events that involve transactions with external

parties:
– The internal agent is the employee responsible for the
affected resource.
– The external agent is the outside party to the
transaction.
• For internal events, such as transferring raw
materials to the production floor:
– The internal agent is the employee who gives up
responsibility or custody for the resource.
– The external agent is the one who receives it.
DEVELOPING AN REA DIAGRAM
• To design an REA diagram for an entire AIS,

one would develop a model for each
transaction cycle and then integrate the
separate diagrams into an enterprise-wide
model.
• In this chapter, we focus on the individual
transaction cycles.
• Developing an REA diagram for a specific

transaction cycle consists of three steps:
– STEP ONE: Identify the events about which
management wants to collect information.
– STEP TWO: Identify the resources affected by the
events and the agents who participated.
– STEP THREE: Determine the cardinalities
between the relationships.
• Let’s walk through an example.

–– STEP
STEP TWO:
ONE:Identify
Identifythe resources
the eventsaffected by the
about which
events and the agents
management wants who
to participated.
collect information.
STEP ONE: IDENTIFY RELEVANT EVENTS
• At a minimum, every REA model must include

the two events that represent the basic “give-to- get”
economic exchange performed in that transaction
cycle.
• The give event reduces one of the organization’s
resources.
• The get event increases a resource.
• There are usually other events that management is
interested in planning, controlling, and monitoring.
These should be included in the model.
• Example: Typical activities in the revenue

cycle include:
– Take customer order
– Fill customer order
– Bill customer
– Collect payment

cycle include: • Taking the customer
– Take customer order order does not
involve giving or
– Fill customer order taking a resource. It
is a commitment
– Bill customer event.
– Collect payment

cycle include:
– Take customer order • Filling the order
involves a reduction in
– Fill customer order the company’s
inventory. It is a give
– Bill customer event.
– Collect payment

cycle include:
• Billing customers
– Bill customer involves the exchange
– Collect payment of information with an
external party but does
not affect resources.

cycle include:
– Bill customer
• Collecting payment
– Collect payment results in an increase
in cash. It is a get
event.

cycle include:
• The give-to-get, then, is:
– Fill customer order – Fill customer order
– Bill customer (often referred to
as “sale”);
– Collect payment – Collect cash (often
referred to as
“cash receipt”).

cycle include:
– Bill customer • Should “take customer
order” and “bill
– Collect payment customer” be included
in the model?

cycle include: • Taking an order
– Take customer order requires that we set
resources aside.
– Fill customer order • That information
should be included in
– Bill customer our model.
– Collect payment

• Printing and mailing
cycle include: invoices does not directly
affect an economic
– Take customer order resource.
– Fill customer order • It does not represent a
commitment on the part of
– Bill customer the company to a future
exchange.
– Collect payment • It is an information
retrieval event and should
not alter the contents of
the database.
• Does not need to be
included in the model.
• Although accounts receivable is an asset in

financial reporting, it is not represented as a
resource in an REA model.
– It represents the difference between total sales to
a customer and total cash collections from the
customer.
– The information to calculate an accounts
receivable balance is already there because the
sales and cash receipt information is captured.
• Events that pertain to “entering” data or

“re-packaging” data in some way do not
appear on the REA model.
– They are not primarily value-chain activities.
– What is modeled is the business event and the
facts management wants to collect about the
event, not the data entry process.
• In completing the first step of an REA

diagram, the event entities are typically
drawn from top to bottom in the sequence in
which they normally occur.
Take Order
Sale
Receive
Cash

– STEP TWO: Identify the resources
affected by the events and the agents who
participated.
STEP TWO: IDENTIFY RESOURCES AND AG
• When the relevant events have been

diagrammed in the center of the REA
diagram, the resources that are affected by
those events need to be identified.
• Involves determining:
– The resource(s) reduced by the give event.
– The resource(s) increased by the get event.
– The resources that are affected by a
commitment event.
Take Order
• What is the
give event?
Sale
Receive
Cash
Take Order
• What is the
give event?
Sale
Receive
Cash
Take Order
• What resource
Inventory
is reduced by
the give
event?
Sale
Receive
Cash
Take Order
• What is the
Inventory
get event?
Sale
Receive
Cash
Take Order
• What is the
Inventory
get event?
Sale
Receive
Cash
Take Order
Inventory
Sale
• What resource
is increased
by the get
event?
Receive
Cash
Cash
Take Order
Inventory
Sale
• Is there a
commitmen
t event?
Receive
Cash
Cash
Take Order
Inventory
Sale
• Is there a
commitmen
t event?
Receive
Cash
Cash
Take Order
Inventory
Sale
• What resource
is affected by
the
commitment
Receive event?
Cash
Cash
• The agents who participate in each event

should also be identified.
– There will always be at least one internal
agent (employee).
– In most cases, there will also be an external
agent (e.g., customer or supplier) who
participates.
STEP TWO: IDENTIFY RESOURCES AND AGE
• What agents are
involved in the
sale?
Cash Take Order
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash
STEP TWO: IDENTIFY RESOURCES
AND AGENTS • What agents are
involved in the
receipt of cash?
Take Order
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Cash Customer
STEP TWO: IDENTIFY RESOURCES AND
• What agents are AGENTS
involved in taking the order?
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Cash Customer

– STEP TWO: Identify the resources affected by the
events and the agents who participated.
– STEP THREE: Determine the
cardinalities between the relationships.
STEP THREE: DETERMINE CARDINALITIES O
• The final step in an REA diagram for a transaction

cycle is to add information about the relationship
cardinalities.
• A cardinality describes the nature of the
relationship between two entities.
– It indicates how many instances of one entity can be
linked to a specific instance of another entity.
– For example, the cardinality between the event Sales
and the agent Customer answers the question:
• For each sale a company makes, how many customers are
associated with that sale?
• Unfortunately, there is no universal

standard for diagramming cardinalities.
• In this text, we adopt the graphical “crow’s
feet” notation style because:
– It is becoming increasingly popular.
– It is used by many software design tools.
• Using the crow’s feet notation:

– The symbol for zero is a circle: O

– The symbol for one is a single stroke: |

– The symbol for one is a single stroke: |
– The symbol for many is the crow’s foot:
Sale
Customer
• There is typically a minimum and
maximum cardinality for each
entity participating in a
relationship.
Sale
• The minimum cardinality can beCustomer
either zero or one.
• The symbols for the minimum
cardinalities are shown above
in red.
Sale
• The minimum cardinality symbolCustomer
next to customer is the symbol
for one.
• This symbol means that for every
occurrence of a sale, there must
be a minimum of one customer
involved.
Sale
Customer
The minimum cardinality symbol next to sale is the

symbol for zero.
This symbol means that for every customer in the database, there m
Sale Customer
• The maximum cardinality can be

either one or N (many).
• The symbols for the maximum
cardinalities are shown above
in red.
Sale
Customer
The maximum cardinality symbol next to customer is the

This symbol means that for every occurrence of a sale, th
Sale Customer
The maximum cardinality symbol next to sale is the

symbol for many.
This symbol means that for every customer in the database, there c
• Three types of relationships

– Three types of relationships are possible between
entities.
– Relationships depend on the maximum cardinality on
each side of a relationship.
• A one-to-one relationship (1:1) exists when the
maximum cardinality for each entity in the relationship is
one.
Take Order
• Both maximums
are one, so this is a on
Sale

entities.
• A one-to-one relationship (1:1) exists when the maximum
cardinality for each entity in the relationship is one.
• A one-to-many (1:N) relationship exists when
the maximum cardinality on one side is one and
the maximum on the other side is many.
Sale Customer
The maximum number of customers that can be

involved in each sale is one.
The maximum number of sales that can be associated with any ind
This is a one-to-many (1:N) relationship.

entities.
• A one-to-one relationship (1:1) exists when the maximum
cardinality for each entity in the relationship is one.
• A one-to-many (1:N) relationship exists when the maximum
cardinality on one side is one and the maximum on the other side
is many.
• A many-to-many (M:N) relationship exists when
the maximum on both sides is many.
Inventory Sale
The maximum number of inventory items that can be

sold in one sale is many.
The maximum number of sales that can occur for a particular inven
This is a many-to-many (M:N) relationship.
• It is not a “one size fits all” world for

relationships and cardinalities. The
cardinalities between two entities can vary
based on how the particular company does
business.
• Let’s look at some examples.
• Customers pay
Sale for each sale with a m
Each cash receipt from
The relationship betw
•
•
Cash Receipt
• Customers pay
Sale for each sale with a m
Each cash receipt from
• The relationship betw
Cash Receipt
• Customers make
Sale only one payment for
• Each cash receipt from
The relationship betw
•
Cash Receipt
• Customers may
Sale make multiple paymen
A cash receipt from a
• The relationship betw
Cash Receipt
• In other words, the choice of cardinalities is

not arbitrary.
• It reflects facts about the organization that are
obtained during the requirements definition
stage of the database design process.
• Now let’s go back to the REA diagram for

the revenue cycle and see if we can complete
the cardinalities.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Cash Receive Customer

Cash
• In relationships between events and

agents:
– For each event that occurs, the cardinality
between event and agent is typically (1:1).
– Example: When a sale occurs:
• There is usually one and only one customer.
• There is usually one and only one salesperson. This
practice makes it more feasible for the organization to
establish employee accountability for the event.
STEP THREE: DETERMINE
• Can you think of
CARDINALIT
scenario in which the
ES OF RELATIONSHIPS
cardinality between
event and agent might
not be (1:1)? Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
STEP THREE: DETERMINE
• How many
CARDINALIT
would be involved in
ES OF RELATIONSHIPS
a “take order” event if
the customer placed
the order online? Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
• For each agent the cardinality between agent and

event is typically (0:N).
– Example: For a particular salesperson:
• There is typically a minimum of zero sales (allows for
inclusion of a new salesperson who has not yet made any
sales).
• A salesperson can have a maximum of many sales.
– Or: For a particular customer:
• There is typically a minimum of zero sales (to allow for the
inclusion of prospective customers who haven’t bought
anything yet) and a maximum of many sales.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee

Cash
• Let’s now look at the relationship between

events and resources.
– In the cardinality between event and resource, the
minimum cardinality is typically one,
because an event can’t occur without affecting at
least one resource.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee

Cash
• The maximum could be one or zero.

– In this particular story, each sale can involve
many items of inventory, so the maximum is
many.
– However, every receipt of cash is deposited to one
and only one cash account, so the maximum there
is one.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Cash Customer
• In the cardinality between event and

resource, the minimum is typically zero.
– A company can have an inventory item for
which there has never been a sale.
– When the company’s cash account is new,
there has never been a cash receipt deposited
in it.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Cash Customer
• In the cardinality between event and

resource, the maximum is typically many.
– Most inventory items can be sold many times. (An
exception might occur if each inventory item is
one unique item, such as a piece of real estate.)
– The company’s cash account can have many cash
receipts.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
• Finally, let’s look at the relationships between events.

• When events occur in a sequence, the minimum cardinality
between the first event and the second event is always zero,
because there is a span of time (although possibly quite short)
when the first event has occurred but there are zero
occurrences of the second event.
• Examples:
– When an order is first taken, there have been no deliveries of
goods (sale event) to the customer.
– When goods are delivered to the customer, there is a span of time,
however brief, in which there is no cash receipt from the customer.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
• The minimum cardinality between the

second event and the first event is typically
one, because the second event can’t occur
without the first event having occurred.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
• An exception could occur if the first event is

not required for the second event to occur.
• Example: If a sale can be made without first
taking an order, then the minimum
cardinality between sale and take order
could be zero.
• The maximums in the cardinalities between

events can be either one or many, and these
maximums vary based on business practices.
• We saw this when we looked at the four different
possibilities for the relationships between sales and
cash receipts previously.
• On the following slides, see if you can explain the
maximums between the three events.
Take Order Employee
Inventory
Customer
Sale
Employee
Receive
Cash Customer
Cash
• Uniqueness of REA diagrams

– Each organization will have its own unique
REA diagram.
• Business practices differ across companies, so
cardinalities and relationships will differ.
• A given organization can change business practices,
leading to a change in its REA diagram:
– A change in practice could cause a change in
cardinalities.
– Could even lead to the inclusion of different entities on the
diagram.
• Data modeling can be complex and

repetitive.
– Data modelers must discuss their drafts of
models with intended users to ensure that:
• Key dimensions are not omitted or misunderstood.
• Terminology is consistent.
SUMMARY
• In this chapter, you’ve learned about the steps to

follow in designing and implementing a database
system.
• You’ve learned how the REA data model is used to
design an AIS database and how an entity-
relationship diagram of an AIS database is drawn.
• You’ve also learned how to read REA diagrams and
what they reveal about the activities and policies of
the organization being modeled.

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C HAPTER 15

Database Design Using

• Questions to be addressed in this chapter

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Steps in database design include the

• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

• Accountants can and should participate in all stages

• Accountants may provide the greatest value by

• Accountants may provide the greatest value by

• An entity is anything about which the

In an E-R diagram, entities are depicted as rectangles.

Some data modelers, tools, and authors use diamonds

• Others do not use diamonds.

Sometimes these attributes are listed in a separate table.

• E-R diagrams can be used to represent the

• In addition to their use in designing

• E-R diagrams can include many different

• Accountants may provide the greatest value by

• The REA data model was developed specifically for

• Three basic types of entities

• Three basic types of entities

• These are the various business activities

• Three basic types of entities

• Can you identify the resources in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Can you identify the resources in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Can you identify the events in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Can you identify the events in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Can you identify the agents in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Can you identify the agents in this diagram?

Inventory Sales Employee

• Structuring relationships: The

• Structuring relationships: The

• Structuring relationships: The

Resource A Event A Agent A

Resource B Event B Agent C

• Let’s take a closer look at each of

• Rule 1: Every event entity must be linked to

• Not every event directly alters the quantity of a

• Rule 2: Every event entity must be linked to

The revenue cycle involves interactions with your cus

The expenditure cycle involves interactions with your

Give Cash Get Inventory

In the production cycle, raw materials, labor, and machinery a

Give (Use) Get Finished

The human resources cycle involves interactions with

The financing cycle involves interactions with investors and c