Manager of Environmental Health and Safety

The
Safety
Officer’s
CONCISE
DESK
REFERENCE
Daniel Patrick O’Brien
Manager of Environmental Health and Safety for
Carbon Black Operations
Sid Richardson Carbon Company
Borger, Texas
LEWIS PUBLISHERS
A CRC Press Company
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
L1407FMframe Page 2 Monday, June 18, 2001 5:31 PM
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
O’Brien, Daniel Patrick, 1955–

The safety officer’s concise desk reference / by Daniel Patrick O’Brien
p. cm.
ISBN 1-56670-407-3 (alk. paper)
1. Industrial safety — Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
T55 .O24 2001

658.3'82—dc21 2001029454
CIP
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Dedication
This book is dedicated to all the practitioners who take on the noble responsibility
of protecting lives. Some have “safety” in their title, some have “industrial hygiene”
in theirs, and some don’t even have a title, just the responsibility to protect their
fellow workers. Regardless of what your title may say, if your livelihood revolves
around protecting others from needless injury, I hope this book helps you do your
job a lot better. There are other worthy professions; many are very important, but
none so noble as that of protecting lives.
Preface
This book is not intended to serve as the only Safety, Health, and Industrial Hygiene
reference a safety office requires. The intention of this book is to serve as a quick
reference for valuable data. As each chapter was written, it became obvious that an
entire book could have been written on any one of the chapters and still only
scratched the surface of any given topic. Readers will likely note obvious omissions.
That's good. The hope is that this book will have multiple editions in the future,
each time becoming more and more of an essential desk reference.
Many fundamental pieces of information that the average safety professional
should have on hand are included. Most every piece of data included in this book
is probably already in the reader’s library, note pads, or seminar manuals. The
intention is to pull those most important points together in one easy reference source.
Please let the publisher know what specific information would make future editions
of this book even more valuable.
In many cases, only an example or a limited section of a topic is provided
because inclusion of a thorough discussion on any one of the many subjects
addressed here would immediately take over the entire book. The intention is to
provide a template, example, or most important sections of a wider array of topics.
Thus, customization is left to the reader, with the hope that he or she has been given
tools to build systems and programs that include the critical elements and examples
to transform easily into exactly what individual readers need.
This is not a continual-read book either. While it was not intended for that, it
should be a text that a safety professional keeps close at hand to supply enough
information to point him or her in the right direction.
The Author
Daniel Patrick O’Brien, CSP, is a Certified Safety Professional, and is currently
Manager of Environmental, Health and Safety for Carbon Black Operations with
Sid Richardson Carbon Company in Borger, Texas. He is a professional member of
the ASSE and is past president of the Panhandle chapter. He holds a bachelor of
science in industrial education and a master of science in industrial technology, both
from West Texas State University.
Mr. O’Brien has served more than 8 years as Secretary of the North American
Product Safety and Regulatory Committee for the International Carbon Black
Association. He serves on the Industrial Hygiene, TLV, Environmental, and
Hazcom subcommittees.
He is an adjunct professor at West Texas A&M University. Mr. O’Brien has
authored numerous safety- and nonsafety-oriented articles in industry journals and
trade publications and has presented training seminars internationally. His previous
book was titled Business Measurements for Safety Performance, published by CRC
Press in 1999.
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.1 The Safety Continuum .....................................................................................1
1.2 Historical Events Relevant to Safety
and Industrial Hygiene.....................................................................................2
1.3 Benchmarking ..................................................................................................4
Chapter 2 Employment Situations ........................................................................9

2.1 The Role of the Safety Professional................................................................9
2.2 The Role of Industrial Hygiene .....................................................................11
2.3 Supervisor Safety Training ............................................................................12
Chapter 3 Regulations.........................................................................................17
3.1 Personal Protective Equipment ......................................................................17
3.2 Eye and Face Protection ................................................................................19
3.3 Respiratory Protection....................................................................................21
3.4 Head Protection..............................................................................................69
3.5 Foot Protection ...............................................................................................69
3.6 Fire Protection................................................................................................70
3.7 Fire Extinguishers ..........................................................................................75
3.8 Confined Space Entry ....................................................................................81
3.9 Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout).........................................101
3.10 Hazardous Communications ........................................................................113
Chapter 4 Chemical Profiles .............................................................................137

4.1 Aerosols........................................................................................................139
4.2 Compressed Gases .......................................................................................143
4.3 Corrosives.....................................................................................................147
4.4 Flammable Liquids ......................................................................................151
4.5 Fuels .............................................................................................................154
4.6 Insulation ......................................................................................................157
4.7 Paint..............................................................................................................160
4.8 Pesticides ......................................................................................................164
4.9 Reactives.......................................................................................................168
4.10 Refractories ..................................................................................................171
4.11 Solvents ........................................................................................................174
4.12 Toluene or Xylene........................................................................................178
4.13 Waste ............................................................................................................181
Chapter 5 Helpful Audit Checklists..................................................................187

5.1 Audit Checklist for Bad Habits and Shortcuts............................................189
5.2 Audit Checklist for Computer Workstations ...............................................190
5.3 Audit Checklist for Confined Space Entry..................................................191
5.4 Audit Checklist for Emergency Preparedness.............................................192
5.5 Audit Checklist for Fire Protection .............................................................193
5.6 Audit Checklist for Hazardous Atmospheres ..............................................194
5.7 Audit Checklist for Hazardous Communications........................................195
5.8 Audit Checklist for Ladders ........................................................................196
5.9 Audit Checklist for Machine Guarding .......................................................197
5.10 Audit Checklist for New Hire Employees ..................................................198
5.11 Audit Checklist for Noise and Hearing Protection .....................................199
5.12 Audit Checklist for Personal Protective Equipment ...................................200
5.13 Audit Checklist for Powered Platforms.......................................................201
5.14 Audit Checklist for Scaffolds ......................................................................202
5.15 Audit Checklist for Walking Surfaces .........................................................203
Chapter 6 Safety Manuals.................................................................................205
Chapter 7 Accident Investigations ....................................................................223
Chapter 8 Reference Materials .........................................................................229

8.1 Essential Reference Material for Environmental, Health,
and Safety Practitioners ...............................................................................229
8.2 Essential Reference Material for the Certified Industrial
Hygienist ......................................................................................................229
8.3 Essential Reference Material for the Certified Safety
Professional ..................................................................................................231
8.4 Metric System ..............................................................................................233
8.5 Weights and Measures .................................................................................235
8.6 Approximate Specific Gravities and Densities............................................238
8.7 C.E. Lapple’s Particle Size Distribution Chart............................................240
8.8 Periodic Table of Elements..........................................................................241
8.9 Alphabetical Listing of Elements and Atomic Numbers ............................242
8.10 Wire Rope Deformation/Inspection .............................................................245
8.11 Internet Sites ................................................................................................249
Chapter 9 Glossary: Terms of Interest to Environmental, Safety,

Health, and Industrial Hygiene Practitioners ..................................251
Index ......................................................................................................................357
L1407CH01frame Page 1 Thursday, June 14, 2001 8:12 AM
1 Introduction
1.1 THE SAFETY CONTINUUM
A brief look at the big picture may be of some value. It is important to understand
where an organization is in regard to safety. Likewise, it is important to understand
why it reacts and handles safety-oriented issues as it does. The following paragraphs
provide a better feel for where an organization is and why the people in it respond
as they do to safety and health needs and concerns.
There are safety systems in every stage of development and implementation —
some in the elementary stages of the safety culture and some on the cutting edge
of safety thinking. Where an individual or an organization is on this continuum
between elementary thinking and advanced thinking determines why and to what
extent it participates in the safety system.
The most rudimentary position on the safety system continuum is that the
individual or organization is totally unaware that a safety culture even exists. In this
state, evaluation of the safety aspects of an operation is nonexistent. Tasks are
performed with no thought or consideration given to how safety fits into the oper-
ation. In this stage, employee injuries are considered as part of the operation. No
consideration is given to proactive approaches in preventing accidents. What little
consideration has been given to safety quickly returns the verdict of too costly, too
much trouble, or simply not worth it.
Advancing on the safety continuum, but still in the elementary stages, is an
individual or organization that functions out of responsibility. That is, the individual
or organization responds to safety needs and problems out of a responsibility that
has been given or dictated to it. This group would just as soon not have the
responsibility of safety. It is burdensome, probably one of the most hated respon-
sibilities it must deal with in the work environment. Such individuals and organi-
zations see little or no value for safety activities. Their participation is forced from
a higher level of authority. Upper management is aware there is a need for safety
but does not really know how to deal with safety issues other than to present a
facade of importance for safety. Upper management may also feel somewhat bur-
dened by safety issues and responsibilities. At this stage the safety manager would
be responsible for all training, inspections, and permit writing as well as all other
safety activities. Basically, if the task involves safety, the safety manager would be
solely responsible for the planning, implementation, and success or failure of the
safety system.
Proceeding on this continuum of safety development, the next stage is the
empowerment stage. At this level the group or individual has the responsibility for
safety and is empowered to make decisions that affect safety without a tremendous
1
2 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference
amount of input or impedance from superiors. The safety manager begins to have
involvement from others in the organization to accomplish safety-related tasks. Some
would participate out of empowerment and some out of responsibility. This stage is
often rife with hypocrisy. Management has moved its lips with empowerment but
continues to wave the stick of micromanagement — in essence, trapping some of
the newly empowered players into the mold of forced participation and unwanted
responsibility.
In the empowerment stage, supervisors begin to plan and conduct safety meet-
ings, perform area inspection, and watch for hazards. This first glimmer of light
begins to breed ownership, the next stage on the safety system continuum. Ownership
even begins to trickle down to the employees, often without input or mandates from
management. In the ownership stage all levels of the organization are involved.
Employees may facilitate safety meetings, conduct accident investigations, track
program statistics, and perform job hazard evaluations, all with little or no partici-
pation from management. Employees at all levels are involved and proud of it. They
sense the program is beneficial to them and their families.
Next is the stage of motivation. This stage, once obtained, reaps benefits beyond
comprehension by previous levels. At this level, systems will often begin to run
themselves and employees participate because they are driven to participate by an
inner need. They want to participate. Employees recognize the benefits and want
them for themselves. Participation becomes fun and rewarding. Even family mem-
bers add additional incentive to participate and perform safely.
An organization probably does not fit snugly into any single stage of the safety
continuum. It may be improving gradually from one stage to the next. It may even
have characteristics of several stages. Regardless of where a specific organization
is on the continuum, an evaluation of why it participates in safety may provide some
insight into where the company is on the safety continuum.
With all said about the safety continuum, what value is it to safety professionals?
The hope is that it will allow them to deal better with those in their organization
and to achieve greater things within the organization in which they are currently
working. Not all companies are Exxon-Mobil, just as not all are mom-and-pop
operations.
1.2 HISTORICAL EVENTS RELEVANT TO SAFETY

AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
There are entire texts devoted to the evolution of the modern safety movement, and
most books related to safety and industrial hygiene in any way have some specific
historical episodes that relate closely with their focus of attention. For that reason,
this book will address the history only in a wide, “historical,” perspective. That is,
it will not try to focus on any specific point or theory of development. The mission
here is to provide a brief, thumbnail presentation of the most significant historical
events related to safety and industrial hygiene.
Some events are historically important from a safety perspective, i.e., process
safety management development, whereas others are historically valuable from an
Introduction 3
industrial hygiene, safety, or worker’s compensation perspective. The following is

not necessarily a chronological historical perspective, rather a significant historical
implication perspective.
In 1910, a devastating fire in New York City’s Triangle Clothing Factory killed
146 employees. This disaster, called the Triangle Fire, outraged the public and
spurred demand for factory legislation and health and safety reform. After an amend-
ment to the state constitution was approved in 1913 at the general election, a
compulsory Workmen’s Compensation Act finally became effective in mid-1914.
This was among the first in the nation.
In Louisville, Kentucky in 1965, a unit that processed vinyl acetylene exploded,
killing 12 and injuring 61. Estimated cost was $51 million in damages. The accident
was attributed to mechanical failure in a process.
In 1974, 28 deaths and $167 million in damages occurred in Flixborough,
England in a chemical explosion. The chemical involved was cyclohexane vapor.
When the leaking cyclohexane reached a nearby hydrogen plant, an explosion
occurred, causing one of the most highly publicized industrial accidents in history.
As a result, knowledge of unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCE) has increased
tremendously.
The Texas City, Texas explosion on May 30, 1978 was a significant event in the
development of process safety management regulations. The explosion happened as
a result of an overfilling of one of the storage tanks of isobutane. The tank was
overpressured through an offsite pipeline pumping station. The initial explosion was
followed by approximately 20 min of additional or secondary explosions caused by
the earlier blast. The toll, 7 fatalities, 10 injuries on site, and about $100 million in
damage, left the plant nearly destroyed.
In 1982, in Tacoa, Venezuela a power station with a half-filled storage tank
containing 20,000 tons of fuel oil exploded and caught fire. A secondary explosion
tore the roof from one of the storage tanks and spewed burning oil on emergency
workers. Massive environmental damage was done to the nearby Caracas Sea. The
outcome was 145 fatalities, 500 injured, and $70 million in damages. Local fire
brigades lacked equipment to fight the blaze.
The San Juan Ixuatepec, Mexico explosion on November 19, 1984 occurred
when approximately 11,000 m3 of liquid propane gas ignited from a low-lying vapor
cloud coming from a pipeline or tank. The exact source is not known. The flames
and fireball from the initial blast triggered nine additional explosions. Of 48 cylinders
in the complex, 44 were destroyed, some to the point that they were not able to be
identified. Over 500 fatalities resulted and an additional 7000 people were injured.
The cost was estimated at $25 million.
In Bhopal, India on December 2, 1984 a methyl isocyanate storage tank exploded
at a Union Carbide plant. Several key pieces of equipment were not operational at
the time of the explosion. Poor community warning sirens were in place at the time
of the explosion, which contributed to the high fatality rate. Over 3400 were killed
and over 10,000 people were injured. This situation was exacerbated by the lack of
clear medical procedures for treating cyanide poisoning.
Chernobyl, the Ukraine, certainly among the most famous industrial accidents,
caused 31 deaths (reported); 50,000 people were permanently evacuated and over
300 square miles remains uninhabitable. Safety systems were bypassed and multiple
safety shutdown devices were not working. A runaway nuclear reaction developed
and caused release of large amounts of radioactive materials.
Yet another famous disaster that changed American industry is the Pasadena,
Texas explosion in 1989. A polyethylene plant exploded when a contract employee
placed a valve in the wrong position. About 85,000 lb of ethylene and isobutane
escaped in about 2 min; 23 people were killed and 130 injured; and there were about
$744 million in damages.
These incidents played major roles in promulgating what is known today as
Process Safety Management (PSM). They are stark reminders to everyone that safety
is not just a good thing to do. It is a life-and-death choice made with every decision.
1.3 BENCHMARKING
Once it is understood where an organization falls in the spectrum of other industries
and other businesses, chances are that the organization will want to do some bench-
marking. Benchmarking focuses on specific items, rather than looking at whole
cultures or philosophies. Benchmarking can provide hard data for parameters like
“cost of accidents” or “percent of hand injuries.” It can be steered in any direction,
from very specific to much broader. For example: cost of back injuries in women
employees vs. number of accidents per 100 employees.
Benchmarking can easily be thrown into the hat with other industry buzzwords
such as behavior modification, paradigm shifts, and globalization. In a time when
people are intensely concerned about whether their cars measure up to the neighbor’s,
it should be no surprise that industries have become very interested in comparing
themselves with other industries. Thus, enter the newest buzzword in industry:
benchmarking. Simply put, benchmarking is the comparison between one company’s
performance in a particular area and another company’s performance in that same
area. Benchmarking sounds simple enough, but all too often comparisons are offered
with the Monsantos, Procter & Gambles, Occidental Chemicals, and Dow Chemicals
of the world. This is a commendable aspiration, but most likely not very accurate
or helpful. In fact, it is similar to comparing a Little League pitcher with Nolan
Ryan: flattering, but useless.
Attempts to benchmark with another company or industry should be carefully
thought out and organized before any step toward comparison is taken. For example,
it would serve no useful purpose for “ACME Maintenance Company” to benchmark
Procter & Gamble. The differences are obvious (i.e., company size, products, and
market share), and there are no real connecting points between the two companies.
This does not mean that Procter & Gamble does not have anything to teach ACME.
It is just not the most productive tool for improving ACME.
Selection in the benchmarking process should include several criteria to obtain
successful comparisons. The first consideration should be to determine exactly what
is desired from the benchmarking. In most cases, comparisons in a very narrow field
of evaluation will be most helpful and probably all that can be utilized for benefit
at one time. For example, collecting benchmarking data for incentive programs may
be beneficial, whereas data on OSHA recordables may not be truly comparative or
Introduction 5
useful. The point is that to benchmark “the safety program” will most likely only
confuse and frustrate the recipient of the data. To benchmark a “safety program”
would be similar to asking an auto parts person if there were any Fords in stock.
Benchmarking should be used to initiate or improve a specific sector of a safety
program. Some examples of benchmark sectors that might be of a helpful nature
would be job hazard analysis utilization, incentive programs, employee observation
programs, accident investigation techniques, return-to-work policies, employee rota-
tion, ergonomic program implementation, and many others.
1.3.1 WHY DOES ONE BENCHMARK?

Benchmarking is a critical link in today’s business environment because of the
incredibly competitive nature of the marketplace as a whole. Companies are forced
to produce more product with fewer people, at a faster and more consistent pace.
Competition occurs on a global scale, which only increases the need for “best of
the best” practices. Constant improvement in every area is essential to remain
competitive on a global basis. Benchmarking allows program development in a
specific area to take place in less time, with less expenditure, and all on a shorter
learning curve. Benchmarking allows companies to heighten their market awareness
with real-time, actual situations. It lessens the need to reinvent the wheel. Bench-
marking allows learning across industry, company, and geographical boundaries.
1.3.2 WHO SHOULD BE BENCHMARKED?

Leaders in industry would be the easy answer, but not necessarily the correct answer.
It is best to benchmark the specific leaders in industry that excel in the specific area
a company wants to improve or in which it seeks to implement new programs. These
leaders might be called “Niche Heroes”: programs such as the Rohm and Haas home
safety programs, Lockhead-Martin procedures awareness and employee interaction
program, General Electric and American Ref-Fuel VPP programs. These are com-
panies that have moved to the top of a particular part of the safety culture. They
possess specific areas of excellence. In many cases these will be industry leaders,
but most often they will be companies that have had all the elements of success
come together in just the right mix. In some cases, the companies to benchmark
have come to excellence through setbacks or even catastrophes. An example is the
Phillips Petroleum Sweeny, Texas plant. After the 1989 explosion, the plant devel-
oped one of the best contractor interfaces in the industry.
1.3.3 WHERE DOES ONE START?

Most benchmarking is done over the phone. If benchmarking major programs, there
may be a need for a site visit, but most of the time a simple chain of phone calls
can get the needed information. Contacts through professional organizations make
this step much easier. Involvement in the local chapter of the American Society of
Safety Engineers (ASSE), American Industrial Hygiene Association, and other local,
state, and national safety and health organizations proves to be an excellent oppor-
tunity to find and develop contacts worthy of benchmarking. Attendance at annual
professional development conferences, such ASSE, the American Conference on

Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), and the Voluntary Protection Program
Association (VPPA), all open the window of opportunity to benchmark the best.
A common place to start the benchmarking process is with competitors. This
can be a good place to begin gathering information because there will probably be
some natural similarities in size, equipment, cultures, etc. Starting with a competitor
may have some drawbacks. First, there may be more reluctance to share data because
of fears of antitrust litigation. Although this is a genuine concern, proper dialogue
will avoid any conflicts in this area. Remember that safety and health-related infor-
mation is sought, not process design, capacities, or any proprietary information. The
contacts will probably be centered around the safety and health manager and issues
of trade secrets and formulas should never come up. If they do come up, avoid them
at all cost and end the contact immediately. In most cases, safety managers are more
than willing to share their success stories, whether they are a competitor or not. If
the area to be benchmarked has been properly defined, concerns of proprietary
information should not be an issue.
Consideration for the person helping with the benchmarking is essential. Typ-
ically, a phone call requesting information on benchmarking “return-to-work pol-
icies” or benchmarking “hoist inspection programs” is easy to explain, is not
considered confidential, and it does not take long to collect the necessary data.
Keep the scope of benchmarking narrow and specific to avoid taking large amounts
of time from the person supplying the information. It is also important to maintain
the same benchmark with each contact. It is easy for the scope of the benchmarking
to grow wider as information is accumulated. In some cases, the request to acquire
benchmarking data will be refused. Although this is very uncommon, if it happens,
just go on to the next company.
It is customary for the company wishing to benchmark to share what it is
currently doing in the benchmark area. This can be done upfront and often alleviates
any concerns the company might have. In addition, most companies that share
benchmarking information will expect to receive some kind of report or follow-up
information when the benchmarking is finished. Follow-through in this area is critical
because failure to fulfill this end of the bargain could make obtaining benchmarking
information in the future impossible.
Pitfalls in benchmarking can be much like following the wrong road on a road
map. It is always best to be sure it is the right highway before speeding off into the
sunset. Often in some companies’ quest for greatness, benchmarks are often set too
high, setting the company up for eventual failure. In choosing benchmarking stan-
dards, a company must pick benchmarks that are similar to existing needs, mean-
ingful, high enough to require effort to achieve, but within reach for employees and
management to strive for with reasonable expectation of achieving.
Benchmarks that are too broad in scope can also be detrimental to a company.
Seldom would one company seek to benchmark every program a mentor company
might have. More productive would be selection of specific programs that closely
fit the company’s culture and abilities. When specific goals are set, employees and
management can picture attainment of the predetermined benchmark, and achieve-
ment of the benchmark is much more realistic and tangible.
Introduction 7
Another pitfall of benchmarking is pushing the benchmark harder than the

foundations of the safety program. In other words, it is important to keep the “main
thing” the “main thing.” When a company loses sight of its safety programs in pursuit
of a benchmark goal, it ends up losing ground on safety.
Given these general parameters, benchmarking can be the tool of choice for
companies to choose the “Best of the Best” for constant improvements in specific
areas of safety and health programs. Benchmarking is but one of many tools that
can be used to change the direction of an overall safety program.
2 Employment Situations
2.1 THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONAL
In today’s industry and business sectors, few occupations can afford the luxury of
wearing a single hat when it comes to work-related responsibilities. With the down-
sizing, rightsizing, and outsourcing movements in recent years, most employees are
required to wear multiple hats of specialization. For example, it is not unusual for
employees to have portions of a downsized employee’s workload placed on their
responsibility list. In fact, in some severe situations, employees can find themselves
doing the entire workload of an another employee or former employee.
The whole work environment is fueled by efficiency and competitiveness. This
trend of work responsibility consolidation will not disappear from work environ-
ments any time soon. If companies and organizations are to remain competitive in
the global economy, they must get everything they can out of every employee.
When looking specifically in the area of the safety manager, this business method
is especially true. The very nature of what is considered safety related feeds this
process even more. For example, the line between “safety” and “industrial hygiene”
is often too slight to measure. That is not to say that everything that deals with safety
automatically deals with industrial hygiene. It does say that those job functions
typically related to safety are often considered to be the very tasks that are related
to industrial hygiene work. The same scenarios exist in other areas as well. Safety
and environmental systems have many tasks that are closely related, if not the same.
Safety and fire protection systems in many cases would be difficult to distinguish
from each other. This list of safety-related or safety-oriented workplace responsibil-
ities is quite lengthy, and thus the typical safety manager would be expected to wear
many hats. While these “hats” are closely related, they are sufficiently diversified
that today’s safety professional must be an expert in areas outside the area historically
designated strictly to safety.
This book addresses many of these areas in a cursory perspective. Be mindful
that in any one of these many areas that filter over into the safety profession, there
are multitudes of books and articles dealing specifically with that area. For example,
the field of industrial hygiene is treated as comprehensively as any field in industry
today. Similarly, Risk Management, Hazardous Chemicals, Fire Protection, Security,
Epidemiology, Human Resources, and many others all have complete fields of study
devoted specifically to that area of “Safety.” For this reason, this book takes the most
liberal and widespread concept of what “safety” applies to and covers. Today’s safety
professionals most likely will be involved in just about all of these areas of expertise
in the course of fulfilling their roles as “safety” professionals.
9
The old adage “jack of all trades — master of none” does not apply to the safety
professional. Granted, safety professionals cannot be experts on every one of these
many fields. But they must be versed enough in the different areas to serve their
companies well. Just as a general practitioner (GP) medical doctor would not typi-
cally perform surgery, the GP must still be well versed on the general needs and
procedures of a surgeon to work more effectively with the surgeon in the total
treatment of the patient. Similarly, the surgeon must be familiar with the general
needs and procedures of the GP to work more effectively with the GP. This example
holds true for the safety professional dealing with air-sampling protocols that would
typically be handled by the expert industrial hygienist. In this case it may not be
necessary for the safety professional to be an expert in all aspects of air sampling.
However, it is important to have a thorough working knowledge of air sampling
techniques and to be familiar enough with industrial hygiene work to know when
to summon the help of the industrial hygiene expert.
This book will try to provide many of those fundamentals from various areas
of expertise. This book is not intended to provide the information needed to become
an expert in any one of these many areas discussed here, but, rather, to provide some
basic tips, information, commonly used factors, charts, and other useful information
that will allow access to this information quickly.
Current trends in the safety field have as many different twists as there are
organizations and industries. There are, however, several “trends” that should be
understood. It will be useful to talk about the reporting line of the safety manager
in a typical organization. Keep in mind that in one organization this position may
be called a manager, whereas in another it may be a coordinator, and in still another
it may be called a specialist. In most cases, the exact title is not as important as the
job responsibilities that have been assigned to the position. The author knows of
one organization where the company air plane pilot has the official title of “Pilot
and Safety Manager.” Granted, this is an atypical situation, but it clearly shows how
job responsibilities can vary drastically between organizations.
More on the variations of safety positions later. How a safety position falls into
the organization depends largely on the organization and the specific responsibilities
assigned. If the safety position has a “hands-on” twist, it may be very common for
the position to answer to the operations manager. If the position has more of an
“administrative” twist, it might be more common to report to the human resources
manager. In organizations where there is a large staff of safety, environmental, or
industrial hygiene personnel it may be more common to have a specific department
head who oversees this “safety-oriented” department. In smaller organizations, it is
common for the person assigned with safety responsibilities to have additional
responsibilities and to report wherever those primary responsibilities report. For
example, a design engineer who also has safety responsibilities may report to the
manager responsible for engineering.
In all these cases, safety can work well if given the proper attention and effort.
There is one critical question that should always be asked in regard to where the safety
person reports in the organization: How close to the top is the safety responsibility
assigned? Typically, the head of an organization wants as few “reports” as possible.
If the general manager has everyone reporting directly to him or her, it makes for a
Employment Situations 11
micromanaged organization, as effective management is impossible. On the other

hand, if the general manager has only three major department heads reporting to him
or her, it might escalate safety to an entirely new level if the reporting of the safety
representative is also to the general manager. This is not always possible, but should
be kept in mind when considering to whom the safety representative should report.
Another common reporting scheme for the safety representative is to divide the
safety responsibilities. This is common in small organizations or in organizations
that do not wish to hire a full-time safety representative. Although this can be
successful, it is much more difficult to hold the safety representative responsible for
the safety responsibilities.
In larger organizations, it will be common for the safety manager to be assigned
duties relatively close to the field of safety. For example, safety may include some
worker compensation duties as well as the safety duties. Safety and environmental
and safety and industrial hygiene are common assignment constructs.
The exact makeup in an organization should only be determined by what works
in that organization. What an organization can afford or what the culture will accept
can only be determined by that organization. What works well for one organization
may be a total disaster for another. The specific talents and experience of individuals
within an organization will also make a significant difference in which reporting
order and responsibility assignments will work best.
2.2 THE ROLE OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

In today’s industrial settings, the role of the industrial hygienist is ever increasing.
With the proliferation of chemicals in use and the ever-growing list of new products
and processes, this increased need for industrial hygiene (IH) professionals will
never diminish. Even within the IH profession, there are many specialized areas of
expertise that make the field unbelievably broad. To understand any area of the IH
profession, one must have a clear understanding of the human body, including
anatomy, physiology, and pathology. Similar knowledge of all forms of life is
essential. Toxicology, epidemiology, ergonomics all revolve around detailed knowl-
edge of how life interacts with its environment.
Safety is no longer a single-focus profession. To provide an injury-free work-
place is only a small step in the direction of overall employee and community health
protection. “Safety” must now include not only the immediate health of workers,
but also long-term effects of the overall well-being of society as a whole. Product
safety may mean understanding health effects on end users decades after the product
was first made.
IH is concerned with all aspects of exposure. All routes of entry to the body and
environment must be considered. The IH professional may study a chemical exposure
to the skin, but must also be familiar with the entry or the chemical and its effect
on the ground. The IH field is so wide and deep that many specialized areas are
needed to cover the entire gamut. The industrialized world has created entire fields
of study that did not even exist 25 years ago.
The workplace of today can contain thermal, nuclear, biological, chemical, and
carcinogenic hazards. The effects of noise, radiation, and vibration all are of
paramount interest to the industrial hygienist. While safety professionals must be

aware of all of these areas, they need not be experts in every field. In fact, the
professional must know enough about these different fields to know when an expert
in the field is needed. The practitioner with no knowledge of a particular hazard
may bring a false sense of security to the workplace. Even Certified Industrial
Hygienists (CIHs) and Certified Safety Professionals (CSPs) should not try to cover
every avenue of employee safety. The Code of Ethics for both the CIH and CSP
states that they “should only perform services in the areas of their expertise."
The workplace of today has intertwined issues that involve the environment,
health, safety, industrial hygiene, legal issues, and so on. It is becoming increasingly
important that the safety practitioner be competent in more and more of these areas.
That is not to say an expert in every field, but aware of the issues in a multitude of
areas. The days of placing the safety and health of workers in the hands of an
unskilled and uninterested person are long past.
2.3 SUPERVISOR SAFETY TRAINING

“Mike” was the best electrician in the shop. He has been with the company for 8
years and has not been involved in any problem situations. The department supervisor
is retiring, and Mike has been selected as his replacement. Unfortunately, the com-
pany has just created another situation commonly referred to as “The Peter Princi-
ple.” Mike has been promoted to the point of incompetence. This has become more
the rule than the exception in corporate America. Mike’s incompetence does not
come from his unwillingness to perform; rather Mike has not been given any of the
tools to succeed as a supervisor. Although Mike made an outstanding electrician,
he has little or no supervisory skills to utilize in his newfound promotion.
New supervisors as well as those who have been in a supervisory role for years
need tools to perform their function successfully. Just as an electrician might have
a “tool pouch” of various tools for the trade, supervisors need a similar “tool pouch”
to meet the challenges of day-to-day employee management. What are those tools
and how are supervisors equipped with them? This section provides some general
guidelines for making sure that supervisors are armed with the information, skills,
and techniques to succeed.
It is important to remember that the supervisor’s tool pouch of management
skills and techniques is not necessarily filled to overflowing. Some supervisors may
indeed have many management tools to use in their supervisory arsenal. The reality
is much different, however. Most supervisors, even long-time supervisors, and espe-
cially new supervisors, have few if any of these skills necessary to be an efficient
supervisor.
Although there are some essential elements in a supervisor’s training, there is
no secret list that will guarantee a supervisor is ready for any and all obstacles that
will bar his or her path. Inclusion of the following blocks of training should go a
long way in preparing supervisors for success. Absence of these basic building blocks
will almost surely set them up for failure.
2.3.1 THE BASICS

Before supervisors can successfully implement safety policies and procedures, they
must have a firm grasp of those policies and procedures. This goes farther than just
knowing the policies, as was required as an employee. Now the supervisor will be
responsible for being the “go-to person” for how things are handled. The supervisor
will be representing the company. Safety policies and procedures must be a high
priority for any supervisor before safety will have a high priority for employees.
Some of these “basics” are included here:
• Lockout / Tagout
• Machine Guarding
• Personal Protective Equipment
• Housekeeping
• Walking and Working Surfaces
• Confined Spaces
• Hazardous Communications
• Hazardous Material
• Record Keeping
• Ergonomics
• Hazard Identification
• Accident Investigation
2.3.2 PERSONAL INTERACTION SKILLS

As a supervisor it will be more important than ever to communicate effectively with
management as well as with employees under direction. Some people have natural
gifts that allow them to interact in a constructive–positive way. But most supervisors
will need some encouragement and development along the way to become effective
in interacting with others in the supervisory role. Most often this is achieved by specific
courses or seminars designed to equip the participant with skills and techniques that
are not readily learned without that specific focus. These seminars can be taught by
in-house personnel or outside consultants; they can be offered by vendors in stand-
alone courses or as part of large conferences offered by hundreds of organizations
across the country. Skills that should be acquired in this category include:
• Personality Trait Assessment
• Basic Speaking
• Conflict Resolution
• Discipline Skills and Techniques
• Stress Management
• Methods to Build Loyalty
• Listening Skills
• Cultural Diversity
• Delegation Techniques
• Motivation and Encouragement Principles
2.3.3 MANAGEMENT SKILLS

The supervisor must develop skills that were not needed or seldom used as an
employee. Supervisors may find themselves feeling like the third-string quarterback
who has been suddenly called off the bench and now is guiding the team. The game
instantly takes on a whole new perspective from that position. Even long-time
supervisors may find times when their skill in management is dwarfed by the
enormity of the supervision situation that is confronting them waiting to be
addressed. Some core management skills include:
• Presentation Skills
• Computer Skills
• Communication Methods
• Budgeting
• Coaching and Team Building
• Project Management
• Decision Making
• Performing Performance Evaluations
• Dealing with Difficult Employees
• Observation Techniques
• Documentation
2.3.4 CLEAR UNDERSTANDING OF DIRECTIONS AND GOALS

Part of arming supervisors with the proper tools and skills to succeed is to bring
them into the loop of information that runs the organization. In some organizations
this is more difficult than in others. Many things may affect how difficult this is,
such as the degree of micromanagement present in the organization, how clear the
business strategy is to management, union–management relationships, size of the
organization, and others. The goal should be to have supervisors working in the
same direction, toward the same goals, and for the same reasons that management
is doing what it is doing. Ultimately, this will lead to the ability of employees to be
on the same channel as well, positioning the supervisor for easier management and
greater chance of success. Supervisors who appear “out of the loop” or “out of
touch” lose credibility with their employees. Issues and skills that must be addressed
in this area include:
• Bringing the supervisor “up to speed” on company goals

• Strategies and directions shared and clearly communicated
• Clear communications of staff changes, new programs, and other
announcements
• “Heads-up” notice on issues that will support the supervisory role
• Inclusion of the supervisor in as much “management” decision making
as possible
• Financial compensation that clearly reflects the difference in responsibility
and authority
2.3.5 CONCLUSION
One can easily see that great supervisors need a lot of tools, skills, knowledge, and
training to be successful. There is no single course or training segment that will
prepare a supervisor in all of the areas mentioned. This equipping does not come
in 1 week or even 1 month; rather, it is a long-term commitment, strategy, and plan.
There is constant talk of improvement in the business sectors but the most precious
commodity, the employees, are often neglected. There must be a commitment to
continuous improvement of the skills and tools of supervisors. The following list
provides an outline of a basic program that, when put to use with the information
in this section, will reap huge rewards for supervisors, but more importantly, every-
one in the company, from the employees to top management.
• Create a checklist of essential supervisory skills. The lists above can serve
as a starting point. Divide the needed skill into priorities. Maintain an
ongoing status of supervisor development.
• Start with the basics. A supervisor who is not well grounded in the basics
will have a rough and rocky road to travel.
• Create a plan for achieving completion of all training on the checklist.
The plan should be realistic but also aggressive. Supervisors should have
most of the elements mentioned in this section completed in the first 18
months or so of their supervisory career.
• Continuous improvement should be the ongoing theme for a supervisor’s
development.
• Each year’s performance goals should include additional supervisor train-
ing objectives.
• Performance reviews should reflect whether or not the training objectives
were accomplished.
• Do not use all in-house trainers to accomplish training needs. Familiar
faces are often less effective and lack the specific knowledge to provide
beneficial improvement in supervisory skills.
• Utilize outside consultants to provide much of the needed training. Use
of outside people can add expertise as well as fun and excitement to
sometimes dry subjects.
• Often “corporate” personnel can provide training that is useful and ben-
eficial in these areas.
• Continually review training to ensure that it is viewed as beneficial and
worthwhile.
Following these suggestions will not guarantee excellent supervisors, but they
will ensure that the best people possible are leading the employees. These sugges-
tions will give supervisors real tools and skills necessary to perform their jobs. The
company will profit from a more efficient, educated, and motivated staff who in turn
can convey those attributes to employees.
Although supervisor training is not specifically safety related, it is intricately
involved, just as safety is involved with the bottom line of an organization and with
every business sector within the organization.
3 Regulations
In this section, some of the major OSHA standards are included for easy reference
and quick access. In some cases, unnecessary jargon or information of no conse-
quence has been omitted to make the reading easier and less cumbersome. The intent
is to provide a single source for the more commonly used standards referencing.
3.1 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

29 CFR 1910.13256
(a)
Application. Protective equipment, including personal protective equipment for eyes,
face, head, and extremities, protective clothing, respiratory devices, and protective
shields and barriers, shall be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary and reliable
condition wherever it is necessary by reason of hazards of processes or environment,
chemical hazards, radiological hazards, or mechanical irritants encountered in a
manner capable of causing injury or impairment in the function of any part of the
body through absorption, inhalation, or physical contact.
(b)
Employee-owned equipment. Where employees provide their own protective equip-
ment, the employer shall be responsible to assure its adequacy, including proper
maintenance, and sanitation of such equipment.
(c)
Design. All personal protective equipment shall be of safe design and construction
for the work to be performed.
(d)
Hazard assessment and equipment selection.
(d)(1)
The employer shall assess the workplace to determine if hazards are present, or are
likely to be present, which necessitate the use of personal protective equipment
(PPE). If such hazards are present, or likely to be present, the employer shall:
(d)(1)(i)
Select and have each affected employee use the types of PPE that will protect the
affected employee from the hazards identified in the hazard assessment;
(d)(1)(ii)
Communicate selection decisions to each affected employee; and
17
(d)(1)(iii)
Select PPE that properly fits each affected employee. Note: Nonmandatory Appendix
B contains an example of procedures that would comply with the requirement for
a hazard assessment.
(d)(2)
The employer shall verify that the required workplace hazard assessment has been
performed through a written certification that identifies the workplace evaluated;
the person certifying that the evaluation has been performed; the date(s) of the
hazard assessment; and that identifies the document as a certification of hazard
assessment.
(e)
Defective and damaged equipment. Defective or damaged PPE shall not be used.
(f)
Training.
(f)(1)
The employer shall provide training to each employee who is required by this section
to use PPE. Each such employee shall be trained to know at least the following:
(f)(1)(i)
When PPE is necessary;
(f)(1)(ii)
What PPE is necessary;
(f)(1)(iii)
How to properly don, doff, adjust, and wear PPE;
(f)(1)(iv)
The limitations of the PPE; and
(f)(1)(v)
The proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the PPE.
(f)(2)
Each affected employee shall demonstrate an understanding of the training specified
in paragraph (f)(1) of this section, and the ability to use PPE properly, before being
allowed to perform work requiring the use of PPE.
(f)(3)
When the employer has reason to believe that any affected employee who has already
been trained does not have the understanding and skill required by paragraph (f)(2)
of this section, the employer shall retrain each such employee. Circumstances where
retraining is required include, but are not limited to, situations where:
(f)(3)(i)
Changes in the workplace render previous training obsolete; or
Regulations 19
(f)(3)(ii)
Changes in the types of PPE to be used render previous training obsolete; or
(f)(3)(iii)
Inadequacies in an affected employee’s knowledge or use of assigned PPE indicate
that the employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill.
(f)(4)
The employer shall verify that each affected employee has received and understood
the required training through a written certification that contains the name of each
employee trained, the date(s) of training, and that identifies the subject of the
certification.
3.2 EYE AND FACE PROTECTION

29 CFR 1910.133
(a)
General requirements.
(a)(1)
The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses appropriate eye or face
protection when exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten metal,
liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, or potentially
injurious light radiation.
(a)(2)
The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses eye protection that
provides side protection when there is a hazard from flying objects. Detachable side
protectors (e.g., clip-on or slide-on side shields) meeting the pertinent requirements
of this section are acceptable.
(a)(3)
The employer shall ensure that each affected employee who wears prescription lenses
while engaged in operations that involve eye hazards wears eye protection that
incorporates the prescription in its design, or wears eye protection that can be worn
over the prescription lenses without disturbing the proper position of the prescription
lenses or the protective lenses.
(a)(4)
Eye and face PPE shall be distinctly marked to facilitate identification of the man-
ufacturer.
(a)(5)
The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses equipment with filter
lenses that have a shade number appropriate for the work being performed for
protection from injurious light radiation. The following is a listing of appropriate
shade numbers for various operations.
Filter Lenses for Protection against Radiant Energy

Electrode Size Minimuma
Operations Arc 1/32 in. Current Protective Shade
Shielded metal arc welding
<3 <60 7
3–5 60–160 8
5–8 160–250 10
>8 250–550 11
Gas metal arc welding and flux cored arc welding
<60 7
60–160 10
160–250 10
250–500 10
Gas tungsten arc welding
<50 8
50–150 8
150–500 10
Air carbon Light <500 10
Arc cutting Heavy 500–1000 11
Plasma arc welding <20 6
20–100 8
100–400 10
400–800 11
Plasma arc cutting Lightb <300 8
Mediumb 300–400 9
Heavyb 400–800 10
Torch brazing 3
Torch soldering 2
Carbon arc welding 14
Filter Lenses for Protection against Radiant Energy

Plate Thickness Minimuma
Operations in. mm Protective Shade
Gas Welding
Light <1/8 <3.2 4
Medium 1/8–1/2 3.2–12.7 5
Heavy >1/2 >12.7 6
Oxygen cutting
Light <1 <25 3
Medium 1–6 25–150 4
Heavy >6 >150 5
a As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see the weld zone. Then go to a lighter
shade that gives sufficient view of the weld zone without going below the minimum. In oxyfuel gas
welding or cutting where the torch produces a high yellow light, it is desirable to use a filter lens
that absorbs the yellow or sodium line in the visible light of the (spectrum) operation.
b These values apply where the actual arc is clearly seen. Experience has shown that lighter filters
may be used when the arc is hidden by the workpiece.

Regulations 21
(b)
Criteria for protective eye and face devices.
(b)(1)
Protective eye and face devices purchased after July 5, 1994 shall comply with ANSI
Z87.1-1989, “American National Standard Practice for Occupational and Educa-
tional Eye and Face Protection,” which is incorporated by reference as specified in
Sec. 1910.6.
(b)(2)
Eye and face protective devices purchased before July 5, 1994 shall comply with
the ANSI “USA Standard for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protec-
tion,” Z87.1-1968, which is incorporated by reference as specified in Sec. 1910.6,
or shall be demonstrated by the employer to be equally effective.
3.3 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

29 CFR 1910.134
This section applies to General Industry (part 1910), Shipyards (part 1915), Marine
Terminals (part 1917), Longshoring (part 1918), and Construction (part 1926).
(a)
Permissible practice.
(a)(1)
In the control of those occupational diseases caused by breathing air contaminated
with harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors, the primary
objective shall be to prevent atmospheric contamination. This shall be accomplished
as far as feasible by accepted engineering control measures (for example, enclosure
or confinement of the operation, general and local ventilation, and substitution of
less toxic materials). When effective engineering controls are not feasible, or while
they are being instituted, appropriate respirators shall be used pursuant to this section.
(a)(2)
Respirators shall be provided by the employer when such equipment is necessary
to protect the health of the employee. The employer shall provide the respirators
that are applicable and suitable for the purpose intended. The employer shall be
responsible for the establishment and maintenance of a respiratory protection pro-
gram, which shall include the requirements outlined in paragraph (c) of this section.
(b)
Definitions. The following definitions are important terms used in the respiratory
protection standard in this section:
“Air-purifying respirator” means a respirator with an air-purifying filter, cartridge,
or canister that removes specific air contaminants by passing ambient air through
the air-purifying element.
“Assigned protection factor” (APF) [Reserved]
“Atmosphere-supplying respirator” means a respirator that supplies the respirator

user with breathing air from a source independent of the ambient atmosphere, and
includes supplied-air respirators (SARs) and self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) units.
“Canister” or “cartridge” means a container with a filter, sorbent, or catalyst, or
a combination of these items, which removes specific contaminants from the air
passed through the container.
“Demand respirator” means an atmosphere-supplying respirator that admits
breathing air to the facepiece only when a negative pressure is created inside the
facepiece by inhalation.
“Emergency situation” means any occurrence such as, but not limited to, equipment
failure, rupture of containers, or failure of control equipment that may or does result
in an uncontrolled significant release of an airborne contaminant.
“Employee exposure” means exposure to a concentration of an airborne contami-
nant that would occur if the employees were not using respiratory protection.
“End-of-service-life indicator” (ESLI) means a system that warns the respirator
user of the approach of the end of adequate respiratory protection, for example, that
the sorbent is approaching saturation or is no longer effective.
“Escape-only respirator” means a respirator intended to be used only for emer-
gency exit.
“Filter” or air-purifying element means a component used in respirators to remove
solid or liquid aerosols from the inspired air.
“Filtering facepiece” (dust mask) means a negative-pressure particulate respirator
with a filter as an integral part of the facepiece or with the entire facepiece composed
of the filtering medium.
“Fit factor” means a quantitative estimate of the fit of a particular respirator to a
specific individual, and typically estimates the ratio of the concentration of a sub-
stance in ambient air to its concentration inside the respirator when worn.
“Fit test” means the use of a protocol to qualitatively or quantitatively evaluate the
fit of a respirator on an individual. (See also Qualitative fit test QLFT and Quanti-
tative fit test QNFT.)
“Helmet” means a rigid respiratory inlet covering that also provides head protection
against impact and penetration.
“High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter” means a filter that is at least
99.97% efficient in removing monodisperse particles of 0.3 mm in diameter. The
equivalent NIOSH 42 CFR 84 particulate filters are the N100, R100, and P100 filters.
“Hood” means a respiratory inlet covering that completely covers the head and neck
and may also cover portions of the shoulders and torso.
Regulations 23
“Immediately dangerous to life or health” (IDLH) means an atmosphere that

poses an immediate threat to life, would cause irreversible adverse health effects,
or would impair an individual’s ability to escape from a dangerous atmosphere.
“Interior structural firefighting” means the physical activity of fire suppression,
rescue or both, inside buildings or enclosed structures that are involved in a fire
situation beyond the incipient stage. (See 29 1910.155.)
“Loose-fitting facepiece” means a respiratory inlet covering that is designed to form
a partial seal with the face.
“Maximum use concentration” (MUC) [Reserved].
“Negative pressure respirator” (tight fitting) means a respirator in which the air
pressure inside the facepiece is negative during inhalation with respect to the ambient
air pressure outside the respirator.
“Oxygen deficient atmosphere” means an atmosphere with an oxygen content
below 19.5% by volume.
“Physician or other licensed health care professional” (PLHCP) means an indi-
vidual whose legally permitted scope of practice (i.e., license, registration, or certi-
fication) allows him or her to independently provide, or be delegated the responsi-
bility to provide, some or all of the health-care services required by paragraph (e)
of this section.
“Positive-pressure respirator” means a respirator in which the pressure inside the
respiratory inlet covering exceeds the ambient air pressure outside the respirator.
“Powered air-purifying respirator” (PAPR) means an air-purifying respirator that
uses a blower to force the ambient air through air-purifying elements to the inlet
covering.
“Pressure demand respirator” means a positive-pressure atmosphere-supplying
respirator that admits breathing air to the facepiece when the positive pressure is
reduced inside the facepiece by inhalation.
“Qualitative fit test” (QLFT) means a pass/fail fit test to assess the adequacy of
respirator fit that relies on the individual’s response to the test agent.
“Quantitative fit test” (QNFT) means an assessment of the adequacy of respirator
fit by numerically measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.
“Respiratory inlet covering” means that portion of a respirator that forms the
protective barrier between the user’s respiratory tract and an air-purifying device or
breathing air source, or both. It may be a facepiece, helmet, hood, suit, or a mouth-
piece respirator with nose clamp.
“Self-contained breathing apparatus” (SCBA) means an atmosphere-supplying
respirator for which the breathing air source is designed to be carried by the user.
“Service life” means the period of time that a respirator, filter, or sorbent, or other
respiratory equipment provides adequate protection to the wearer.
“Supplied-air respirator” (SAR) or airline respirator means an atmosphere-sup-

plying respirator for which the source of breathing air is not designed to be carried
by the user.
“This section” means this respiratory protection standard.
“Tight-fitting facepiece” means a respiratory inlet covering that forms a complete
seal with the face.
“User seal check” means an action conducted by the respirator user to determine
if the respirator is properly seated to the face.
(c)
Respiratory protection program. This paragraph requires the employer to develop
and implement a written respiratory protection program with required worksite-
specific procedures and elements for required respirator use. The program must be
administered by a suitably trained program administrator. In addition, certain pro-
gram elements may be required for voluntary use to prevent potential hazards
associated with the use of the respirator. The “Small Entity Compliance Guide”
contains criteria for the selection of a program administrator and a sample program
that meets the requirements of this paragraph. Copies of the “Small Entity Compli-
ance Guide” will be available on or about April 8, 1998 from the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration’s Office of Publications, Room N 3101, 200
Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C., 20210 (202-219-4667).
(c)(1)
In any workplace where respirators are necessary to protect the health of the
employee or whenever respirators are required by the employer, the employer shall
establish and implement a written respiratory protection program with worksite-
specific procedures. The program shall be updated as necessary to reflect those
changes in workplace conditions that affect respirator use. The employer shall
include in the program the following provisions of this section, as applicable:
(c)(1)(i)
Procedures for selecting respirators for use in the workplace;
(c)(1)(ii)
Medical evaluations of employees required to use respirators;
(c)(1)(iii)
Fit testing procedures for tight-fitting respirators;
(c)(1)(iv)
Procedures for proper use of respirators in routine and reasonably foreseeable emer-
gency situations;
(c)(1)(v)
Procedures and schedules for cleaning, disinfecting, storing, inspecting, repairing,
discarding, and otherwise maintaining respirators;
Regulations 25
(c)(1)(vi)
Procedures to ensure adequate air quality, quantity, and flow of breathing air for
atmosphere-supplying respirators;
(c)(1)(vii)
Training of employees in the respiratory hazards to which they are potentially
exposed during routine and emergency situations;
(c)(1)(viii)
Training of employees in the proper use of respirators, including putting them on
and removing them, any limitations on their use, and their maintenance; and
(c)(1)(ix)
Procedures for regularly evaluating the effectiveness of the program.
(c)(2)
Where respirator use is not required:
(c)(2)(i)
An employer may provide respirators at the request of employees or permit employ-
ees to use their own respirators, if the employer determines that such respirator use
will not in itself create a hazard. If the employer determines that any voluntary
respirator use is permissible, the employer shall provide the respirator users with
the information contained in Appendix D to this section (“Information for Employees
Using Respirators When Not Required under the Standard”); and
(c)(2)(ii)
In addition, the employer must establish and implement those elements of a written
respiratory protection program necessary to ensure that any employee using a res-
pirator voluntarily is medically able to use that respirator, and that the respirator is
cleaned, stored, and maintained so that its use does not present a health hazard to
the user. Exception: Employers are not required to include in a written respiratory
protection program those employees whose only use of respirators involves the
voluntary use of filtering facepieces (dust masks).
(c)(3)
The employer shall designate a program administrator who is qualified by appro-
priate training or experience that is commensurate with the complexity of the pro-
gram to administer or oversee the respiratory protection program and conduct the
required evaluations of program effectiveness.
(c)(4)
The employer shall provide respirators, training, and medical evaluations at no cost
to the employee.
(d)
Selection of respirators. This paragraph requires the employer to evaluate respiratory
hazard(s) in the workplace, to identify relevant workplace and user factors, and to
base respirator selection on these factors. The paragraph also specifies appropriately
protective respirators for use in IDLH atmospheres, and limits the selection and use
of air-purifying respirators.
(d)(1)
(d)(1)(i)
The employer shall select and provide an appropriate respirator based on the respi-
ratory hazard(s) to which the worker is exposed and workplace and user factors that
affect respirator performance and reliability.
(d)(1)(ii)
The employer shall select a NIOSH-certified respirator. The respirator shall be used
in compliance with the conditions of its certification.
(d)(1)(iii)
The employer shall identify and evaluate the respiratory hazard(s) in the workplace;
this evaluation shall include a reasonable estimate of employee exposures to respi-
ratory hazard(s) and an identification of the contaminant’s chemical state and phys-
ical form. Where the employer cannot identify or reasonably estimate the employee
exposure, the employer shall consider the atmosphere to be IDLH.
(d)(1)(iv)
The employer shall select respirators from a sufficient number of respirator models
and sizes so that the respirator is acceptable to, and correctly fits, the user.
(d)(2)
Respirators for IDLH atmospheres.
(d)(2)(i)
The employer shall provide the following respirators for employee use in IDLH
atmospheres:
(d)(2)(i)(A)
A full facepiece pressure-demand SCBA certified by NIOSH for a minimum service
life of 30 min, or
(d)(2)(i)(B)
A combination full facepiece pressure-demand supplied-air respirator (SAR) with
auxiliary self-contained air supply.
(d)(2)(ii)
Respirators provided only for escape from IDLH atmospheres shall be NIOSH-
certified for escape from the atmosphere in which they will be used.
(d)(2)(iii)
All oxygen-deficient atmospheres shall be considered IDLH. Exception: If the
employer demonstrates that, under all foreseeable conditions, the oxygen concen-
tration can be maintained within the ranges . . . (of acceptable oxygen concentrations,
i.e., 19.5–21.0) . . . then any atmosphere-supplying respirator may be used.
Regulations 27
(d)(3)
Respirators for atmospheres that are not IDLH.
(d)(3)(i)
The employer shall provide a respirator that is adequate to protect the health of the
employee and ensure compliance with all other OSHA statutory and regulatory
requirements, under routine and reasonably foreseeable emergency situations.
(d)(3)(i)(A)
Assigned Protection Factors (APFs) [Reserved]
(d)(3)(i)(B)
Maximum Use Concentration (MUC) [Reserved]
(d)(3)(ii)
The respirator selected shall be appropriate for the chemical state and physical form
of the contaminant.
(d)(3)(iii)
For protection against gases and vapors, the employer shall provide:
(d)(3)(iii)(A)
An atmosphere-supplying respirator, or
(d)(3)(iii)(B)
An air-purifying respirator, provided that:
(d)(3)(iii)(B)(1)
The respirator is equipped with an end-of-service-life indicator (ESLI) certified by
NIOSH for the contaminant; or
(d)(3)(iii)(B)(2)
If there is no ESLI appropriate for conditions in the employer’s workplace, the
employer implements a change schedule for canisters and cartridges that is based
on objective information or data that will ensure that canisters and cartridges are
changed before the end of their service life. The employer shall describe in the
respirator program the information and data relied upon, the basis for the canister
and cartridge change schedule, and the basis for reliance on the data.
(d)(3)(iv)
For protection against particulates, the employer shall provide:
(d)(3)(iv)(A)
An atmosphere-supplying respirator; or
(d)(3)(iv)(B)
An air-purifying respirator equipped with a filter certified by NIOSH under 30 CFR
part 11 as a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, or an air-purifying respi-
rator equipped with a filter certified for particulates by NIOSH under 42 CFR part
84; or
(d)(3)(iv)(C)
For contaminants consisting primarily of particles with mass median aerodynamic
diameters (MMAD) of at least 2 µm, an air-purifying respirator equipped with any
filter certified for particulates by NIOSH.
(e)
Medical evaluation. Using a respirator may place a physiological burden on employ-
ees that varies with the type of respirator worn, the job and workplace conditions
in which the respirator is used, and the medical status of the employee. Accordingly,
this paragraph specifies the minimum requirements for medical evaluation that
employers must implement to determine the employee’s ability to use a respirator.
(e)(1)
General. The employer shall provide a medical evaluation to determine the
employee’s ability to use a respirator, before the employee is fit-tested or required
to use the respirator in the workplace. The employer may discontinue an employee’s
medical evaluations when the employee is no longer required to use a respirator.
(e)(2)
Medical evaluation procedures.
(e)(2)(i)
The employer shall identify a physician or other licensed health care professional
(PLHCP) to perform medical evaluations using a medical questionnaire or an initial
medical examination that obtains the same information as the medical questionnaire.
(e)(2)(ii)
The medical evaluation shall obtain the information requested by the questionnaire
in Sections 1 and 2, Part A of Appendix C of this section.
(e)(3)
Follow-up medical examination.
(e)(3)(i)
The employer shall ensure that a follow-up medical examination is provided for an
employee who gives a positive response to any question among questions 1 through
8 in Section 2, Part A of Appendix C or whose initial medical examination demon-
strates the need for a follow-up medical examination.
(e)(3)(ii)
The follow-up medical examination shall include any medical tests, consultations,
or diagnostic procedures that the PLHCP deems necessary to make a final determi-
nation.
(e)(4)
Administration of the medical questionnaire and examinations.
(e)(4)(i)
The medical questionnaire and examinations shall be administered confidentially
during the employee’s normal working hours or at a time and place convenient to
Regulations 29
the employee. The medical questionnaire shall be administered in a manner that

ensures that the employee understands its content.
(e)(4)(ii)
The employer shall provide the employee with an opportunity to discuss the ques-
tionnaire and examination results with the PLHCP.
(e)(5)
Supplemental information for the PLHCP.
(e)(5)(i)
The following information must be provided to the PLHCP before the PLHCP makes
a recommendation concerning an employee’s ability to use a respirator:
(e)(5)(i)(A)
The type and weight of the respirator to be used by the employee;
(e)(5)(i)(B)
The duration and frequency of respirator use (including use for rescue and escape);
(e)(5)(i)(C)
The expected physical work effort;
(e)(5)(i)(D)
Additional protective clothing and equipment to be worn; and
(e)(5)(i)(E)
Temperature and humidity extremes that may be encountered.
(e)(5)(ii)
Any supplemental information provided previously to the PLHCP regarding an
employee need not be provided for a subsequent medical evaluation if the informa-
tion and the PLHCP remain the same.
(e)(5)(iii)
The employer shall provide the PLHCP with a copy of the written respiratory
protection program and a copy of this section.
Note: When the employer replaces a PLHCP, the employer must ensure that the
new PLHCP obtains this information, either by providing the documents directly to
the PLHCP or by having the documents transferred from the former PLHCP to the
new PLHCP. However, OSHA does not expect employers to have employees med-
ically reevaluated solely because a new PLHCP has been selected.
(e)(6)
Medical determination. In determining the employee’s ability to use a respirator, the
employer shall:
(e)(6)(i)
Obtain a written recommendation regarding the employee’s ability to use the res-
pirator from the PLHCP. The recommendation shall provide only the following
information:
(e)(6)(i)(A)
Any limitations on respirator use related to the medical condition of the employee,
or relating to the workplace conditions in which the respirator will be used, including
whether or not the employee is medically able to use the respirator;
(e)(6)(i)(B)
The need, if any, for follow-up medical evaluations; and
(e)(6)(i)(C)
A statement that the PLHCP has provided the employee with a copy of the PLHCP’s
written recommendation.
(e)(6)(ii)
If the respirator is a negative pressure respirator and the PLHCP finds a medical
condition that may place the employee’s health at increased risk if the respirator is
used, the employer shall provide a PAPR if the PLHCP’s medical evaluation finds
that the employee can use such a respirator; if a subsequent medical evaluation finds
that the employee is medically able to use a negative pressure respirator, then the
employer is no longer required to provide a PAPR.
(e)(7)
Additional medical evaluations. At a minimum, the employer shall provide additional
medical evaluations that comply with the requirements of this section if:
(e)(7)(i)
An employee reports medical signs or symptoms that are related to the ability to
use a respirator;
(e)(7)(ii)
A PLHCP, supervisor, or the respirator program administrator informs the employer
that an employee needs to be reevaluated;
(e)(7)(iii)
Information from the respiratory protection program, including observations made
during fit testing and program evaluation, indicates a need for employee reevaluation;
or
(e)(7)(iv)
A change occurs in workplace conditions (e.g., physical work effort, protective
clothing, temperature) that may result in a substantial increase in the physiological
burden placed on an employee.
(f)
Fit testing. This paragraph requires that, before an employee may be required to use
any respirator with a negative or positive pressure tight-fitting facepiece, the
employee must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and size of respirator
that will be used. This paragraph specifies the kinds of fit tests allowed, the proce-
dures for conducting them, and how the results of the fit tests must be used.
Regulations 31
(f)(1)
The employer shall ensure that employees using a tight-fitting facepiece respirator
pass an appropriate qualitative fit test (QLFT) or quantitative fit test (QNFT) as
stated in this paragraph.
(f)(2)
The employer shall ensure that an employee using a tight-fitting facepiece respirator
is fit tested prior to initial use of the respirator, whenever a different respirator
facepiece (size, style, model, or make) is used and at least annually thereafter.
(f)(3)
The employer shall conduct an additional fit test whenever the employee reports, or
the employer, PLHCP, supervisor, or program administrator makes visual observa-
tions of, changes in the employee’s physical condition that could affect respirator
fit. Such conditions include, but are not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes,
cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in body weight.
(f)(4)
If after passing a QLFT or QNFT the employee subsequently notifies the employer,
program administrator, supervisor, or PLHCP that the fit of the respirator is unac-
ceptable, the employee shall be given a reasonable opportunity to select a different
respirator facepiece and to be retested.
(f)(5)
The fit test shall be administered using an OSHA-accepted QLFT or QNFT protocol.
The OSHA-accepted QLFT and QNFT protocols and procedures are contained in
Appendix A of this section.
(f)(6)
QLFT may only be used to fit test negative pressure air-purifying respirators that
must achieve a fit factor of 100 or less.
(f)(7)
If the fit factor, as determined through an OSHA-accepted QNFT protocol, is equal
to or greater than 100 for tight-fitting half facepieces, or equal to or greater than
500 for tight-fitting full facepieces, the QNFT has been passed with that respirator.
(f)(8)
Fit testing of tight-fitting atmosphere-supplying respirators and tight-fitting powered
air-purifying respirators shall be accomplished by performing quantitative or qual-
itative fit testing in the negative pressure mode, regardless of the mode of operation
(negative or positive pressure) that is used for respiratory protection.
(f)(8)(i)
Qualitative fit testing of these respirators shall be accomplished by temporarily
converting the respirator user’s actual facepiece into a negative-pressure respirator
with appropriate filters, or by using an identical negative pressure air-purifying
respirator facepiece with the same sealing surfaces as a surrogate for the atmosphere-
supplying or powered air-purifying respirator facepiece.
(f)(8)(ii)
Quantitative fit testing of these respirators shall be accomplished by modifying the
facepiece to allow sampling inside the facepiece in the breathing zone of the user,
midway between the nose and mouth. This requirement shall be accomplished by
installing a permanent sampling probe onto a surrogate facepiece, or by using a
sampling adapter designed to provide temporarily a means of sampling air from
inside the facepiece.
(f)(8)(iii)
Any modifications to the respirator facepiece for fit testing shall be completely
removed, and the facepiece restored to NIOSH-approved configuration, before that
facepiece can be used in the workplace.
(g)
Use of respirators. This paragraph requires employers to establish and implement
procedures for the proper use of respirators. These requirements include prohibiting
conditions that may result in facepiece seal leakage, preventing employees from
removing respirators in hazardous environments, taking actions to ensure continued
effective respirator operation throughout the work shift, and establishing procedures
for the use of respirators in IDLH atmospheres or in interior structural firefighting
situations.
(g)(1)
Facepiece seal protection.
(g)(1)(i)
The employer shall not permit respirators with tight-fitting facepieces to be worn
by employees who have:
(g)(1)(i)(A)
Facial hair that comes between the sealing surface of the facepiece and the face or
that interferes with valve function; or
(g)(1)(i)(B)
Any condition that interferes with the face-to-facepiece seal or valve function.
(g)(1)(ii)
If an employee wears corrective glasses or goggles or other personal protective
equipment, the employer shall ensure that such equipment is worn in a manner that
does not interfere with the seal of the facepiece to the face of the user.
(g)(1)(iii)
For all tight-fitting respirators, the employer shall ensure that employees perform a
user seal check each time they put on the respirator using the procedures in Appendix
B-1 or procedures recommended by the respirator manufacturer that the employer
demonstrates are as effective as those in Appendix B-1 of this section.
(g)(2)
Continuing respirator effectiveness.
Regulations 33
(g)(2)(i)
Appropriate surveillance shall be maintained of work area conditions and degree of
employee exposure or stress. When there is a change in work area conditions or
degree of employee exposure or stress that may affect respirator effectiveness, the
employer shall reevaluate the continued effectiveness of the respirator.
(g)(2)(ii)
The employer shall ensure that employees leave the respirator use area:
(g)(2)(ii)(A)
To wash their faces and respirator facepieces as necessary to prevent eye or skin
irritation associated with respirator use; or
(g)(2)(ii)(B)
If they detect vapor or gas breakthrough, changes in breathing resistance, or leakage
of the facepiece; or
(g)(2)(ii)(C)
To replace the respirator or the filter, cartridge, or canister elements.
(g)(2)(iii)
If the employee detects vapor or gas breakthrough, changes in breathing resistance,
or leakage of the facepiece, the employer must replace or repair the respirator before
allowing the employee to return to the work area.
(g)(3)
Procedures for IDLH atmospheres. For all IDLH atmospheres, the employer shall
ensure that:
(g)(3)(i)
One employee or, when needed, more than one employee is located outside the
IDLH atmosphere;
(g)(3)(ii)
Visual, voice, or signal line communication is maintained between the employee(s)
in the IDLH atmosphere and the employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmosphere;
(g)(3)(iii)
The employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmosphere are trained and equipped to
provide effective emergency rescue;
(g)(3)(iv)
The employer or designee is notified before the employee(s) located outside the
IDLH atmosphere enter the IDLH atmosphere to provide emergency rescue;
(g)(3)(v)
The employer or designee authorized to do so by the employer, once notified,
provides necessary assistance appropriate to the situation;
(g)(3)(vi)
Employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmospheres are equipped with:
(g)(3)(vi)(A)
Pressure-demand or other positive-pressure SCBAs, or a pressure-demand or other
positive-pressure supplied-air respirator with auxiliary SCBA; and either
(g)(3)(vi)(B)
Appropriate retrieval equipment for removing the employee(s) who enter(s) these
hazardous atmospheres where retrieval equipment would contribute to the rescue of
the employee(s) and would not increase the overall risk resulting from entry; or
(g)(3)(vi)(C)
Equivalent means for rescue where retrieval equipment is not required under para-
graph (g)(3)(vi)(B).
(g)(4)
Procedures for interior structural firefighting. In addition to the requirements set
forth under paragraph (g)(3), in interior structural fires, the employer shall ensure
that:
(g)(4)(i)
At least two employees enter the IDLH atmosphere and remain in visual or voice
contact with one another at all times;
(g)(4)(ii)
At least two employees are located outside the IDLH atmosphere; and
(g)(4)(iii)
All employees engaged in interior structural firefighting use SCBAs.
Note 1: One of the two individuals located outside the IDLH atmosphere may be
assigned to an additional role, such as incident commander in charge of the emer-
gency or safety officer, so long as this individual is able to perform assistance or
rescue activities without jeopardizing the safety or health of any firefighter working
at the incident.
Note 2: Nothing in this section is meant to preclude firefighters from performing
emergency rescue activities before an entire team has assembled.
(h)
Maintenance and care of respirators. This paragraph requires the employer to provide
for the cleaning and disinfecting, storage, inspection, and repair of respirators used
by employees.
(h)(1)
Cleaning and disinfecting. The employer shall provide each respirator user with a
respirator that is clean, sanitary, and in good working order. The employer shall
ensure that respirators are cleaned and disinfected using the procedures in Appendix
B-2 of this section, or procedures recommended by the respirator manufacturer,
provided that such procedures are of equivalent effectiveness. The respirators shall
be cleaned and disinfected at the following intervals:
Regulations 35
(h)(1)(i)
Respirators issued for the exclusive use of an employee shall be cleaned and disin-
fected as often as necessary to be maintained in a sanitary condition;
(h)(1)(ii)
Respirators issued to more than one employee shall be cleaned and disinfected before
being worn by different individuals;
(h)(1)(iii)
Respirators maintained for emergency use shall be cleaned and disinfected after each
use; and
(h)(1)(iv)
Respirators used in fit-testing and training shall be cleaned and disinfected after
each use.
(h)(2)
Storage. The employer shall ensure that respirators are stored as follows:
(h)(2)(i)
All respirators shall be stored to protect them from damage, contamination, dust,
sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and damaging chemicals, and
they shall be packed or stored to prevent deformation of the facepiece and exhalation
valve.
(h)(2)(ii)
In addition to the requirements of paragraph (h)(2)(i) of this section, emergency
respirators shall be:
(h)(2)(ii)(A)
Kept accessible to the work area;
(h)(2)(ii)(B)
Stored in compartments or in covers that are clearly marked as containing emergency
respirators; and
(h)(2)(ii)(C)
Stored in accordance with any applicable manufacturer instructions.
(h)(3)
Inspection.
(h)(3)(i)
The employer shall ensure that respirators are inspected as follows:
(h)(3)(i)(A)
All respirators used in routine situations shall be inspected before each use and
during cleaning;
(h)(3)(i)(B)
All respirators maintained for use in emergency situations shall be inspected at least
monthly and in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations, and shall be
checked for proper function before and after each use; and
(h)(3)(i)(C)
Emergency escape-only respirators shall be inspected before being carried into the
workplace for use.
(h)(3)(ii)
The employer shall ensure that respirator inspections include the following:
(h)(3)(ii)(A)
A check of respirator function, tightness of connections, and the condition of the
various parts including, but not limited to, the facepiece, head straps, valves, con-
necting tube, and cartridges, canisters or filters; and
(h)(3)(ii)(B)
A check of elastomeric parts for pliability and signs of deterioration.
(h)(3)(iii)
In addition to the requirements of paragraphs (h)(3)(i) and (ii) of this section, self-
contained breathing apparatus shall be inspected monthly. Air and oxygen cylinders
shall be maintained in a fully charged state and shall be recharged when the pressure
falls to 90% of the manufacturer’s recommended pressure level. The employer shall
determine that the regulator and warning devices function properly.
(h)(3)(iv)
For respirators maintained for emergency use, the employer shall:
(h)(3)(iv)(A)
Certify the respirator by documenting the date the inspection was performed, the
name (or signature) of the person who made the inspection, the findings, required
remedial action, and a serial number or other means of identifying the inspected
respirator; and
(h)(3)(iv)(B)
Provide this information on a tag or label that is attached to the storage compartment
for the respirator, is kept with the respirator, or is included in inspection reports
stored as paper or electronic files. This information shall be maintained until replaced
following a subsequent certification.
(h)(4)
Repairs. The employer shall ensure that respirators that fail an inspection or are
otherwise found to be defective are removed from service, and are discarded or
repaired or adjusted in accordance with the following procedures:
(h)(4)(i)
Repairs or adjustments to respirators are to be made only by persons appropriately
trained to perform such operations and shall use only the respirator manufacturer’s
NIOSH-approved parts designed for the respirator;
Regulations 37
(h)(4)(ii)
Repairs shall be made according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and spec-
ifications for the type and extent of repairs to be performed; and
(h)(4)(iii)
Reducing and admission valves, regulators, and alarms shall be adjusted or repaired
only by the manufacturer or a technician trained by the manufacturer.
(i)
Breathing air quality and use. This paragraph requires the employer to provide
employees using atmosphere-supplying respirators (supplied-air and SCBA) with
breathing gases of high purity.
(i)(1)
The employer shall ensure that compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, and
liquid oxygen used for respiration accords with the following specifications:
(i)(1)(i)
Compressed and liquid oxygen shall meet the U.S Pharmacopoeia requirements for
medical or breathing oxygen; and
(i)(1)(ii)
Compressed breathing air shall meet at least the requirements for Grade D breathing
air described in ANSI/Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for
Air, G-7.1-1989, to include:
(i)(1)(ii)(A)
Oxygen content (v/v) of 19.5 to 23.5%;
(i)(1)(ii)(B)
Hydrocarbon (condensed) content of 5 mg/m3 of air or less;
(i)(1)(ii)(C)
Carbon monoxide (CO) content of 10 ppm or less;
(i)(1)(ii)(D)
Carbon dioxide content of 1000 ppm or less; and
(i)(1)(ii)(E)
Lack of noticeable odor.
(i)(2)
The employer shall ensure that compressed oxygen is not used in atmosphere-
supplying respirators that have previously used compressed air.
(i)(3)
The employer shall ensure that oxygen concentrations greater than 23.5% are used
only in equipment designed for oxygen service or distribution.
(i)(4)
The employer shall ensure that cylinders used to supply breathing air to respirators
meet the following requirements:
(i)(4)(i)
Cylinders are tested and maintained as prescribed in the Shipping Container Spec-
ification Regulations of the Department of Transportation (49 CFR part 173 and
part 178);
(i)(4)(ii)
Cylinders of purchased breathing air have a certificate of analysis from the supplier
that the breathing air meets the requirements for Grade D breathing air; and
(i)(4)(iii)
The moisture content in the cylinder does not exceed a dew point of –50°F (–45.6°C)
at 1 atm pressure.
(i)(5)
The employer shall ensure that compressors used to supply breathing air to respi-
rators are constructed and situated so as to:
(i)(5)(i)
Prevent entry of contaminated air into the air-supply system;
(i)(5)(ii)
Minimize moisture content so that the dew point at 1 atm pressure is 10°F (5.56°C)
below the ambient temperature;
(i)(5)(iii)
Have suitable in-line air-purifying sorbent beds and filters to further ensure breathing
air quality. Sorbent beds and filters shall be maintained and replaced or refurbished
periodically following the manufacturer’s instructions.
(i)(5)(iv)
Have a tag containing the most recent change date and the signature of the person
authorized by the employer to perform the change. The tag shall be maintained at
the compressor.
(i)(6)
For compressors that are not oil-lubricated, the employer shall ensure that carbon
monoxide levels in the breathing air do not exceed 10 ppm.
(i)(7)
For oil-lubricated compressors, the employer shall use a high-temperature or carbon
monoxide alarm, or both, to monitor carbon monoxide levels. If only high-temper-
ature alarms are used, the air supply shall be monitored at intervals sufficient to
prevent carbon monoxide in the breathing air from exceeding 10 ppm.
(i)(8)
The employer shall ensure that breathing air couplings are incompatible with outlets
for nonrespirable worksite air or other gas systems. No asphyxiating substance shall
be introduced into breathing air lines.
Regulations 39
(i)(9)
The employer shall use breathing gas containers marked in accordance with the
NIOSH respirator certification standard, 42 CFR part 84.
(j)
Identification of filters, cartridges, and canisters. The employer shall ensure that all
filters, cartridges, and canisters used in the workplace are labeled and color-coded
with the NIOSH approval label and that the label is not removed and remains legible.
(k)
Training and information. This paragraph requires the employer to provide effective
training to employees who are required to use respirators. The training must be
comprehensive, understandable, and recur annually, and more often if necessary.
This paragraph also requires the employer to provide the basic information on
respirators in Appendix D of this section to employees who wear respirators when
not required by this section or by the employer to do so.
(k)(1)
The employer shall ensure that each employee can demonstrate knowledge of at
least the following:
(k)(1)(i)
Why the respirator is necessary and how improper fit, usage, or maintenance can
compromise the protective effect of the respirator;
(k)(1)(ii)
What the limitations and capabilities of the respirator are;
(k)(1)(iii)
How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including situations
in which the respirator malfunctions;
(k)(1)(iv)
How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check the seals of the respirator;
(k)(1)(v)
What the procedures are for maintenance and storage of the respirator;
(k)(1)(vi)
How to recognize medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent the effective
use of respirators; and
(k)(1)(vii)
The general requirements of this section.
(k)(2)
The training shall be conducted in a manner that is understandable to the employee.
(k)(3)
The employer shall provide the training prior to requiring the employee to use a
respirator in the workplace.
(k)(4)
An employer who is able to demonstrate that a new employee has received training
within the last 12 months that addresses the elements specified in paragraph (k)(1)(i)
through (vii) is not required to repeat such training provided that, as required by
paragraph (k)(1), the employee can demonstrate knowledge of those element(s).
Previous training not repeated initially by the employer must be provided no later
than 12 months from the date of the previous training.
(k)(5)
Retraining shall be administered annually, and when the following situations occur:
(k)(5)(i)
Changes in the workplace or the type of respirator render previous training obsolete;
(k)(5)(ii)
Inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge or use of the respirator indicate that the
employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill; or
(k)(5)(iii)
Any other situation arises in which retraining appears necessary to ensure safe
respirator use.
(k)(6)
The basic advisory information on respirators, as presented in Appendix D of this
section, shall be provided by the employer in any written or oral format, to employees
who wear respirators when such use is not required by this section or by the employer.
(l)
Program evaluation. This section requires the employer to conduct evaluations of
the workplace to ensure that the written respiratory protection program is being
properly implemented, and to consult employees to ensure that they are using the
respirators properly.
(l)(1)
The employer shall conduct evaluations of the workplace as necessary to ensure that
the provisions of the current written program are being effectively implemented and
that it continues to be effective.
(l)(2)
The employer shall regularly consult employees required to use respirators to assess
the employees’ views on program effectiveness and to identify any problems. Any
problems that are identified during this assessment shall be corrected. Factors to be
assessed include, but are not limited to:
(l)(2)(i)
Respirator fit (including the ability to use the respirator without interfering with
effective workplace performance);
(l)(2)(ii)
Appropriate respirator selection for the hazards to which the employee is exposed;
Regulations 41
(l)(2)(iii)
Proper respirator use under the workplace conditions the employee encounters; and
(l)(2)(iv)
Proper respirator maintenance.
(m)
Record keeping. This section requires the employer to establish and retain written
information regarding medical evaluations, fit testing, and the respirator program.
This information will facilitate employee involvement in the respirator program,
assist the employer in auditing the adequacy of the program, and provide a record
for compliance determinations by OSHA.
(m)(1)
Medical evaluation. Records of medical evaluations required by this section must
be retained and made available in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.1020.
(m)(2)
Fit testing.
(m)(2)(i)
The employer shall establish a record of the qualitative and quantitative fit tests
administered to an employee including:
(m)(2)(i)(A)
The name or identification of the employee tested;
(m)(2)(i)(B)
Type of fit test performed;
(m)(2)(i)(C)
Specific make, model, style, and size of respirator tested;
(m)(2)(i)(D)
Date of test; and
(m)(2)(i)(E)
The pass/fail results for QLFTs or the fit factor and strip chart recording or other
recording of the test results for QNFTs.
(m)(2)(ii)
Fit test records shall be retained for respirator users until the next fit test is admin-
istered.
(m)(3)
A written copy of the current respirator program shall be retained by the employer.
(m)(4)
Written materials required to be retained under this paragraph shall be made available
upon request to affected employees and to the Assistant Secretary or designee for
examination and copying.
(n)
Dates.
(n)(1)
Effective date. This section is effective April 8, 1998. The obligations imposed by
this section commence on the effective date unless otherwise noted in this paragraph.
Compliance with obligations that do not commence on the effective date shall occur
no later than the applicable start-up date.
(n)(2)
Compliance dates. All obligations of this section commence on the effective date
except as follows:
(n)(2)(i)
The determination that respirator use is required (paragraph (a)) shall be completed
no later than September 8, 1998.
(o)
Appendices.
(o)(1)
Compliance with Appendix A, Appendix B-1, Appendix B-2, and Appendix C of
this section is mandatory.
(o)(2)
Appendix D of this section is nonmandatory and is not intended to create any
additional obligations not otherwise imposed or to detract from any existing obli-
gations.
APPENDIX A TO §1910.134: FIT-TESTING PROCEDURES (MANDATORY)

Part I. OSHA-Accepted Fit-Test Protocols
A. Fit-Testing Procedures — General Requirements
The employer shall conduct fit testing using the following procedures. The require-
ments in this appendix apply to all OSHA-accepted fit-test methods, both QLFT
and QNFT.
1. The test subject shall be allowed to pick the most acceptable respirator from a
sufficient number of respirator models and sizes so that the respirator is acceptable
to, and correctly fits, the user.
2. Prior to the selection process, the test subject shall be shown how to put on a
respirator, how it should be positioned on the face, how to set strap tension, and
how to determine an acceptable fit. A mirror shall be available to assist the subject
in evaluating the fit and positioning of the respirator. This instruction may not
constitute the subject’s formal training on respirator use, because it is only a
review.
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3. The test subject shall be informed that he or she is being asked to select the
respirator that provides the most acceptable fit. Each respirator represents a different
size and shape, and if fitted and used properly, will provide adequate protection.
4. The test subject shall be instructed to hold each chosen facepiece up to the face
and eliminate those that obviously do not give an acceptable fit.
5. The more acceptable facepieces are noted in case the one selected proves unac-
ceptable; the most comfortable mask is donned and worn for at least 5 min to assess
comfort. Assistance in assessing comfort can be given by discussing the points in
the following item A.6. If the test subject is not familiar with using a particular
respirator, the test subject shall be directed to don the mask several times and to
adjust the straps each time to become adept at setting proper tension on the straps.
6. Assessment of comfort shall include a review of the following points with the
test subject and allowing the test subject adequate time to determine the comfort of
the respirator:
(a) Position of the mask on the nose
(b) Room for eye protection
(c) Room to talk
(d) Position of mask on face and cheeks
7. The following criteria shall be used to help determine the adequacy of the
respirator fit:
(a) Chin properly placed;
(b) Adequate strap tension, not overly tightened;
(c) Fit across nose bridge;
(d) Respirator of proper size to span distance from nose to chin;
(e) Tendency of respirator to slip;
(f) Self-observation in mirror to evaluate fit and respirator position.
8. The test subject shall conduct a user seal check, either the negative and positive
pressure seal checks described in Appendix B-1 of this section or those recommended
by the respirator manufacturer which provide equivalent protection to the procedures
in Appendix B-1. Before conducting the negative and positive pressure checks, the
subject shall be told to seat the mask on the face by moving the head from side-to-
side and up and down slowly while taking in a few slow deep breaths. Another
facepiece shall be selected and retested if the test subject fails the user seal check tests.
9. The test shall not be conducted if there is any hair growth between the skin and
the facepiece sealing surface, such as stubble beard growth, beard, mustache, or
sideburns that cross the respirator sealing surface. Any type of apparel that interferes
with a satisfactory fit shall be altered or removed.
10. If a test subject exhibits difficulty in breathing during the tests, he or she shall
be referred to a physician or other licensed health-care professional, as appropriate,
to determine whether the test subject can wear a respirator while performing his or
her duties.
11. If the employee finds the fit of the respirator unacceptable, the test subject shall
be given the opportunity to select a different respirator and to be retested.
12. Exercise regimen. Prior to the commencement of the fit test, the test subject
shall be given a description of the fit test and the test subject’s responsibilities during
the test procedure. The description of the process shall include a description of the
test exercises that the subject will be performing. The respirator to be tested shall
be worn for at least 5 min before the start of the fit test.
13. The fit test shall be performed while the test subject is wearing any applicable
safety equipment that may be worn during actual respirator use which could interfere
with respirator fit.
14. Test exercises.
(a) The following test exercises are to be performed for all fit testing methods
prescribed in this appendix, except for the CNP method. A separate fit testing
exercise regimen is contained in the CNP protocol. The test subject shall perform
exercises, in the test environment, in the following manner:
(1) Normal breathing. In a normal standing position, without talking, the subject
shall breathe normally.
(2) Deep breathing. In a normal standing position, the subject shall breathe slowly
and deeply, taking caution not to hyperventilate.
(3) Turning head side to side. Standing in place, the subject shall slowly turn his
or her head from side to side between the extreme positions on each side. The head
shall be held at each extreme momentarily so the subject can inhale at each side.
(4) Moving head up and down. Standing in place, the subject shall slowly move his
or her head up and down. The subject shall be instructed to inhale in the up position
(i.e., when looking toward the ceiling).
(5) Talking. The subject shall talk out loud slowly and loud enough to be heard
clearly by the test conductor. The subject can read from a prepared text such as the
Rainbow Passage, count backward from 100, or recite a memorized poem or song.
Rainbow Passage
When the sunlight strikes raindrops in the air, they act like a prism and form a rainbow.
The rainbow is a division of white light into many beautiful colors. These take the
shape of a long round arch, with its path high above, and its two ends apparently
beyond the horizon. There is, according to legend, a boiling pot of gold at one end.
People look, but no one ever finds it. When a man looks for something beyond reach,
his friends say he is looking for the pot of gold at the end of the rainbow.
Regulations 45
(6) Grimace. The test subject shall grimace by smiling or frowning. (This applies
only to QNFT testing; it is not performed for QLFT.)
(7) Bending over. The test subject shall bend at the waist as if he or she were to
touch his or her toes. Jogging in place shall be substituted for this exercise in those
test environments such as shroud type QNFT or QLFT units that do not permit
bending over at the waist.
(8) Normal breathing. Same as exercise (1).
(b) Each test exercise shall be performed for 1 min except for the grimace exercise,
which shall be performed for 15 s. The test subject shall be questioned by the test
conductor regarding the comfort of the respirator upon completion of the protocol.
If it has become unacceptable, another model of respirator shall be tried. The
respirator shall not be adjusted once the fit-test exercises begin. Any adjustment
voids the test, and the fit test must be repeated.
B. Qualitative Fit-Test (QLFT) Protocols
1. General
(a) The employer shall ensure that persons administering QLFT are able to prepare
test solutions, calibrate equipment, perform tests properly, recognize invalid tests,
and ensure that test equipment is in proper working order.
(b) The employer shall ensure that QLFT equipment is kept clean and well main-
tained so that it operates within the parameters for which it was designed.
2. Isoamyl Acetate Protocol
Note: This protocol is not appropriate to use for the fit testing of particulate respi-
rators. If used to fit test particulate respirators, the respirator must be equipped with
an organic vapor filter.
(a) Odor Threshold Screening. Odor threshold screening, performed without wear-
ing a respirator, is intended to determine if the individual tested can detect the odor
of isoamyl acetate (IAA) at low levels.
(1) Three 1 liter glass jars with metal lids are required.
(2) Odor-free water (e.g., distilled or spring water) at approximately 25°C (77°F)
shall be used for the solutions.
(3) The IAA (also known at isopentyl acetate) stock solution is prepared by adding
1 ml of pure IAA to 800 ml of odor-free water in a 1 liter jar, closing the lid and
shaking for 30 s. A new solution shall be prepared at least weekly.
(4) The screening test shall be conducted in a room separate from the room used
for actual fit testing. The two rooms shall be well ventilated to prevent the odor of
IAA from becoming evident in the general room air where testing takes place.
(5) The odor test solution is prepared in a second jar by placing 0.4 ml of the stock
solution into 500 ml of odor-free water using a clean dropper or pipette. The solution
shall be shaken for 30 s and allowed to stand for 2 to 3 min so that the IAA
concentration above the liquid may reach equilibrium. This solution shall be used
for only 1 day.
(6) A test blank shall be prepared in a third jar by adding 500 cc of odor-free water.
(7) The odor test and test blank jar lids shall be labeled (e.g., 1 and 2) for jar
identification. Labels shall be placed on the lids so that they can be peeled off
periodically and switched to maintain the integrity of the test.
(8) The following instruction shall be typed on a card and placed on the table in
front of the two test jars (i.e., 1 and 2): “The purpose of this test is to determine if
you can smell banana oil at a low concentration. The two bottles in front of you
contain water. One of these bottles also contains a small amount of banana oil. Be
sure the covers are on tight, then shake each bottle for 2 s. Unscrew the lid of each
bottle, one at a time, and sniff at the mouth of the bottle. Indicate to the test conductor
which bottle contains banana oil.”
(9) The mixtures used in the IAA odor detection test shall be prepared in an area
separate from where the test is performed, in order to prevent olfactory fatigue in
the subject.
(10) If the test subject is unable to correctly identify the jar containing the odor test
solution, the IAA qualitative fit test shall not be performed.
(11) If the test subject correctly identifies the jar containing the odor test solution,
the test subject may proceed to respirator selection and fit testing.
(b) Isoamyl Acetate Fit Test
(1) The fit-test chamber shall be a clear 55-gal drum liner suspended inverted over
a 2-ft-diameter frame so that the top of the chamber is about 6 in. above the test
subject’s head. If no drum liner is available, a similar chamber shall be constructed
using plastic sheeting. The inside top center of the chamber shall have a small hook
attached.
(2) Each respirator used for the fitting and fit testing shall be equipped with organic
vapor cartridges or offer protection against organic vapors.
(3) After selecting, donning, and properly adjusting a respirator, the test subject
shall wear it to the fit testing room. This room shall be separate from the room used
for odor threshold screening and respirator selection, and shall be well ventilated,
by an exhaust fan or laboratory hood, to prevent general room contamination.
(4) A copy of the test exercises and any prepared text from which the subject is to
read shall be taped to the inside of the test chamber.
(5) Upon entering the test chamber, the test subject shall be given a 6- × 5-in. piece
of paper towel, or other porous, absorbent, single-ply material, folded in half and
wetted with 0.75 ml of pure IAA. The test subject shall hang the wet towel on the
hook at the top of the chamber. An IAA test swab or ampule may be substituted for
the IAA wetted paper towel provided it has been demonstrated that the alternative
Regulations 47
IAA source will generate an IAA test atmosphere with a concentration equivalent
to that generated by the paper towel method.
(6) Allow 2 min for the IAA test concentration to stabilize before starting the fit-
test exercises. This would be an appropriate time to talk with the test subject; to
explain the fit test, the importance of his or her cooperation, and the purpose for the
test exercises; or to demonstrate some of the exercises.
(7) If at any time during the test, the subject detects the banana-like odor of IAA,
the test is failed. The subject shall quickly exit from the test chamber and leave the
test area to avoid olfactory fatigue.
(8) If the test is failed, the subject shall return to the selection room and remove
the respirator. The test subject shall repeat the odor sensitivity test, select and put
on another respirator, return to the test area, and again begin the fit-test procedure
described in (b)(1) through (7) above. The process continues until a respirator that
fits well has been found. Should the odor sensitivity test be failed, the subject shall
wait at least 5 min before retesting. Odor sensitivity will usually have returned by
this time.
(9) If the subject passes the test, the efficiency of the test procedure shall be
demonstrated by having the subject break the respirator face seal and take a breath
before exiting the chamber.
(10) When the test subject leaves the chamber, the subject shall remove the saturated
towel and return it to the person conducting the test, so that there is no significant
IAA concentration buildup in the chamber during subsequent tests. The used towels
shall be kept in a self-sealing plastic bag to keep the test area from being contam-
inated.
3. Saccharin Solution Aerosol Protocol
The entire screening and testing procedure shall be explained to the test subject prior
to the conduct of the screening test.
(a) Taste threshold screening. The saccharin taste threshold screening, performed
without wearing a respirator, is intended to determine whether the individual being
tested can detect the taste of saccharin.
(1) During threshold screening as well as during fit testing, subjects shall wear an
enclosure about the head and shoulders that is approximately 12 in. in diameter by
14 in. tall with at least the front portion clear and that allows free movements of the
head when a respirator is worn. An enclosure substantially similar to the 3M hood
assembly, parts # FT 14 and # FT 15 combined, is adequate.
(2) The test enclosure shall have a 3/4-in. (1.9 cm) hole in front of the test subject’s
nose and mouth area to accommodate the nebulizer nozzle.
(3) The test subject shall don the test enclosure. Throughout the threshold screening
test, the test subject shall breathe through his or her slightly open mouth with tongue
extended. The subject is instructed to report when he or she detects a sweet taste.
(4) Using a DeVilbiss Model 40 Inhalation Medication Nebulizer or equivalent, the

test conductor shall spray the threshold check solution into the enclosure. The nozzle
is directed away from the nose and mouth of the person. This nebulizer shall be
clearly marked to distinguish it from the fit-test solution nebulizer.
(5) The threshold check solution is prepared by dissolving 0.83 g of sodium sac-
charin USP in 100 ml of warm water. It can be prepared by putting 1 ml of the fit-
test solution (see (b)(5) below) in 100 ml of distilled water.
(6) To produce the aerosol, the nebulizer bulb is firmly squeezed so that it collapses
completely, then released and allowed to fully expand.
(7) Ten squeezes are repeated rapidly and then the test subject is asked whether the
saccharin can be tasted. If the test subject reports tasting the sweet taste during the
ten squeezes, the screening test is completed. The taste threshold is noted as ten
regardless of the number of squeezes actually completed.
(8) If the first response is negative, ten more squeezes are repeated rapidly and the
test subject is again asked whether the saccharin is tasted. If the test subject reports
tasting the sweet taste during the second ten squeezes, the screening test is completed.
The taste threshold is noted as 20 regardless of the number of squeezes actually
completed.
(9) If the second response is negative, ten more squeezes are repeated rapidly and
the test subject is again asked whether the saccharin is tasted. If the test subject
reports tasting the sweet taste during the third set of ten squeezes, the screening test
is completed. The taste threshold is noted as 30 regardless of the number of squeezes
actually completed.
(10) The test conductor will take note of the number of squeezes required to solicit
a taste response.
(11) If the saccharin is not tasted after 30 squeezes (step 10), the test subject is
unable to taste saccharin and may not perform the saccharin fit test.
Note: If the test subject eats or drinks something sweet before the screening test,
he/she may be unable to taste the weak saccharin solution.
(12) If a taste response is elicited, the test subject shall be asked to take note of the
taste for reference in the fit test.
(13) Correct use of the nebulizer means that approximately 1 ml of liquid is used
at a time in the nebulizer body.
(14) The nebulizer shall be thoroughly rinsed in water, shaken dry, and refilled at
least each morning and afternoon or at least every 4 h.
(b) Saccharin solution aerosol fit-test procedure.
(1) The test subject may not eat, drink (except plain water), smoke, or chew gum
for 15 min before the test.
(2) The fit test uses the same enclosure described in 3 (a) above.
Regulations 49
(3) The test subject shall don the enclosure while wearing the respirator selected in
Section I.A of this appendix. The respirator shall be properly adjusted and equipped
with a particulate filter(s).
(4) A second DeVilbiss Model 40 Inhalation Medication Nebulizer or equivalent is
used to spray the fit-test solution into the enclosure. This nebulizer shall be clearly
marked to distinguish it from the screening test solution nebulizer.
(5) The fit-test solution is prepared by adding 83 g of sodium saccharin to 100 ml
of warm water.
(6) As before, the test subject shall breathe through the slightly open mouth with
tongue extended, and report if he or she tastes the sweet taste of saccharin.
(7) The nebulizer is inserted into the hole in the front of the enclosure and an initial
concentration of saccharin fit-test solution is sprayed into the enclosure using the
same number of squeezes (10, 20, or 30 squeezes) based on the number of squeezes
required to elicit a taste response as noted during the screening test. A minimum of
10 squeezes is required.
(8) After generating the aerosol, the test subject shall be instructed to perform the
exercises in Section I.A.14. of this appendix.
(9) Every 30 s the aerosol concentration shall be replenished using one half the
original number of squeezes used initially (e.g., 5, 10, or 15).
(10) The test subject shall indicate to the test conductor if at any time during the
fit test the taste of saccharin is detected. If the test subject does not report tasting
the saccharin, the test is passed.
(11) If the taste of saccharin is detected, the fit is deemed unsatisfactory and the
test is failed. A different respirator shall be tried and the entire test procedure is
repeated (taste threshold screening and fit testing).
(12) Since the nebulizer has a tendency to clog during use, the test operator must
make periodic checks of the nebulizer to ensure that it is not clogged. If clogging
is found at the end of the test session, the test is invalid.
4. BitrexTM (Denatonium Benzoate) Solution Aerosol Qualitative Fit-Test Protocol
The BitrexTM (Denatonium benzoate) solution aerosol QLFT protocol uses the pub-
lished saccharin test protocol because that protocol is widely accepted. Bitrex is
routinely used as a taste-aversion agent in household liquids that children should
not be drinking and is endorsed by the American Medical Association, the National
Safety Council, and the American Association of Poison Control Centers. The entire
screening and testing procedure shall be explained to the test subject prior to the
conduct of the screening test.
(a) Taste Threshold Screening. The Bitrex taste threshold screening, performed
without wearing a respirator, is intended to determine whether the individual being
tested can detect the taste of Bitrex.
(1) During threshold screening as well as during fit-testing, subjects shall wear an
enclosure about the head and shoulders that is approximately 12 in (30.5 cm) in
diameter by 14 in (35.6 cm) tall. The front portion of the enclosure shall be clear
from the respirator and allow free movement of the head when a respirator is worn.
An enclosure substantially similar to the 3M hood assembly, parts # FT 14 and
# FT 15 combined, is adequate.
(2) The test enclosure shall have a 3/4-in. (1.9-cm) hole in front of the test subject’s
nose and mouth area to accommodate the nebulizer nozzle.
(3) The test subject shall don the test enclosure. Throughout the threshold screening
test, the test subject shall breathe through his or her slightly open mouth with tongue
extended. The subject is instructed to report when he or she detects a bitter taste.
(4) Using a DeVilbiss Model 40 Inhalation Medication Nebulizer or equivalent, the
test conductor shall spray the Threshold Check Solution into the enclosure. This
nebulizer shall be clearly marked to distinguish it from the fit-test solution nebulizer.
(5) The Threshold Check Solution is prepared by adding 13.5 mg of Bitrex to 100
ml of 5% salt (NaCl) solution in distilled water.
(6) To produce the aerosol, the nebulizer bulb is firmly squeezed so that the bulb
collapses completely, and is then released and allowed to expand fully.
(7) An initial ten squeezes are repeated rapidly and then the test subject is asked
whether the Bitrex can be tasted. If the test subject reports tasting the bitter taste
during the ten squeezes, the screening test is completed. The taste threshold is noted
as ten regardless of the number of squeezes actually completed.
(8) If the first response is negative, ten more squeezes are repeated rapidly and the
test subject is again asked whether the Bitrex is tasted. If the test subject reports
tasting the bitter taste during the second ten squeezes, the screening test is completed.
The taste threshold is noted as 20 regardless of the number of squeezes actually
completed.
(9) If the second response is negative, ten more squeezes are repeated rapidly and
the test subject is again asked whether the Bitrex is tasted. If the test subject reports
tasting the bitter taste during the third set of ten squeezes, the screening test is
completed. The taste threshold is noted as 30 regardless of the number of squeezes
actually completed.
(10) The test conductor will take note of the number of squeezes required to solicit
a taste response.
(11) If the Bitrex is not tasted after 30 squeezes (step 10), the test subject is unable
to taste Bitrex and may not perform the Bitrex fit test.
(12) If a taste response is elicited, the test subject shall be asked to take note of the
taste for reference in the fit test.
(13) Correct use of the nebulizer means that approximately 1 ml of liquid is used
at a time in the nebulizer body.
Regulations 51
(14) The nebulizer shall be thoroughly rinsed in water, shaken to dry, and refilled
at least each morning and afternoon or at least every 4 hours.
(b) Bitrex Solution Aerosol Fit Test Procedure
(1) The test subject may not eat, drink (except plain water), smoke, or chew gum
for 15 min before the test.
(2) The fit test uses the same enclosure as that described in 4(a) above.
(3) The test subject shall don the enclosure while wearing the respirator selected
according to Section I.A. of this appendix. The respirator shall be properly adjusted
and equipped with any type of particulate filter(s).
(4) A second DeVilbiss Model 40 Inhalation Medication Nebulizer or equivalent is
used to spray the fit test solution into the enclosure. This nebulizer shall be clearly
marked to distinguish it from the screening test solution nebulizer.
(5) The fit test solution is prepared by adding 337.5 mg of Bitrex to 200 ml of a
5% salt (NaCl) solution in warm water.
(6) As before, the test subject shall breathe through his or her slightly open mouth
with tongue extended, and be instructed to report if he or she tastes the bitter taste
of Bitrex.
(7) The nebulizer is inserted into the hole in the front of the enclosure and an initial
concentration of the fit-test solution is sprayed into the enclosure using the same
number of squeezes (either 10, 20, or 30 squeezes) based on the number of squeezes
required to elicit a taste response as noted during the screening test.
(8) After generating the aerosol, the test subject shall be instructed to perform the
exercises in Section I.A.14. of this appendix.
(9) Every 30 s the aerosol concentration shall be replenished using one half the
number of squeezes used initially (e.g., 5, 10, or 15).
(10) The test subject shall indicate to the test conductor if at any time during the
fit test the taste of Bitrex is detected. If the test subject does not report tasting the
Bitrex, the test is passed.
(11) If the taste of Bitrex is detected, the fit is deemed unsatisfactory and the test
is failed. A different respirator shall be tried and the entire test procedure is repeated
(taste threshold screening and fit testing).
5. Irritant Smoke (Stannic Chloride) Protocol
This qualitative fit test uses a person’s response to the irritating chemicals released
in the “smoke” produced by a stannic chloride ventilation smoke tube to detect
leakage into the respirator.
(a) General Requirements and Precautions
(1) The respirator to be tested shall be equipped with high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) or P100 series filter(s).
(2) Only stannic chloride smoke tubes shall be used for this protocol.
(3) No form of test enclosure or hood for the test subject shall be used.
(4) The smoke can be irritating to the eyes, lungs, and nasal passages. The test
conductor shall take precautions to minimize the test subject’s exposure to irritant
smoke. Sensitivity varies, and certain individuals may respond to a greater degree
to irritant smoke. Care shall be taken when performing the sensitivity screening
checks that determine whether the test subject can detect irritant smoke to use only
the minimum amount of smoke necessary to elicit a response from the test subject.
(5) The fit test shall be performed in an area with adequate ventilation to prevent
exposure of the person conducting the fit test or the buildup of irritant smoke in the
general atmosphere.
(b) Sensitivity Screening Check. The person to be tested must demonstrate his or
her ability to detect a weak concentration of the irritant smoke.
(1) The test operator shall break both ends of a ventilation smoke tube containing
stannic chloride, and attach one end of the smoke tube to a low-flow air pump set
to deliver 200 ml/min, or an aspirator squeeze bulb. The test operator shall cover
the other end of the smoke tube with a short piece of tubing to prevent potential
injury from the jagged end of the smoke tube.
(2) The test operator shall advise the test subject that the smoke can be irritating to
the eyes, lungs, and nasal passages and instruct the subject to keep his or her eyes
closed while the test is performed.
(3) The test subject shall be allowed to smell a weak concentration of the irritant
smoke before the respirator is donned to become familiar with its irritating properties
and to determine if he or she can detect the irritating properties of the smoke. The
test operator shall carefully direct a small amount of the irritant smoke in the test
subject’s direction to determine that he or she can detect it.
(c) Irritant Smoke Fit-Test Procedure
(1) The person being fit-tested shall don the respirator without assistance, and
perform the required user seal check(s).
(2) The test subject shall be instructed to keep his or her eyes closed.
(3) The test operator shall direct the stream of irritant smoke from the smoke tube
toward the face-seal area of the test subject, using the low-flow pump or the squeeze
bulb. The test operator shall begin at least 12 in. from the facepiece and move the
smoke stream around the whole perimeter of the mask. The operator shall gradually
make two more passes around the perimeter of the mask, moving to within 6 in. of
the respirator.
(4) If the person being tested has not had an involuntary response and/or detected
the irritant smoke, proceed with the test exercises.
Regulations 53
(5) The exercises identified in Section I.A.14 of this appendix shall be performed
by the test subject while the respirator seal is being continually challenged by the
smoke, directed around the perimeter of the respirator at a distance of 6 in.
(6) If the person being fit-tested reports detecting the irritant smoke at any time,
the test is failed. The person being retested must repeat the entire sensitivity check
and fit-test procedure.
(7) Each test subject passing the irritant smoke test without evidence of a response
(involuntary cough, irritation) shall be given a second sensitivity screening check,
with the smoke from the same smoke tube used during the fit test, once the respirator
has been removed, to determine whether he or she still reacts to the smoke. Failure
to evoke a response shall void the fit test.
(8) If a response is produced during this second sensitivity check, then the fit test
is passed.
C. Quantitative Fit-Testing (QNFT) Protocols
The following quantitative fit-testing procedures have been demonstrated to be
acceptable: Quantitative fit testing using a nonhazardous test aerosol, such as corn
oil, polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400), di-2-ethyl hexyl sebacate (DEHS), or
sodium chloride, generated in a test chamber, and employing instrumentation to
quantify the fit of the respirator; Quantitative fit testing using ambient aerosol as the
test agent and appropriate instrumentation (condensation nuclei counter) to quantify
the respirator fit; Quantitative fit testing using controlled negative pressure and
appropriate instrumentation to measure the volumetric leak rate of a facepiece to
quantify the respirator fit.
1. General
(a) The employer shall ensure that persons administering QNFT are able to calibrate
equipment and perform tests properly, recognize invalid tests, calculate fit factors
properly, and ensure that test equipment is in proper working order.
(b) The employer shall ensure that QNFT equipment is kept clean, and is maintained
and calibrated according to the manufacturer’s instructions so that it operates at the
parameters for which it was designed.
2. Generated Aerosol Quantitative Fit-Testing Protocol
(a) Apparatus.
(1) Instrumentation. Aerosol generation, dilution, and measurement systems using
particulates, such as corn oil, polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400), di-2-ethyl hexyl
sebacate (DEHS), or sodium chloride, as test aerosols shall be used for quantitative
fit testing.
(2) Test chamber. The test chamber shall be large enough to permit all test subjects
to perform freely all required exercises without disturbing the test agent concentra-
tion or the measurement apparatus. The test chamber shall be equipped and con-
structed so that the test agent is effectively isolated from the ambient air, yet uniform
in concentration throughout the chamber.
(3) When testing air-purifying respirators, the normal filter or cartridge element
shall be replaced with a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) or P100 series filter
supplied by the same manufacturer.
(4) The sampling instrument shall be selected so that a computer record or strip
chart record may be made of the test showing the rise and fall of the test agent
concentration with each inspiration and expiration at fit factors of at least 2000.
Integrators or computers that integrate the amount of test agent penetration leakage
into the respirator for each exercise may be used provided a record of the readings
is made.
(5) The combination of substitute air-purifying elements, test agent and test agent
concentration shall be such that the test subject is not exposed in excess of an
established exposure limit for the test agent at any time during the testing process,
based upon the length of the exposure and the exposure limit duration.
(6) The sampling port on the test specimen respirator shall be placed and constructed
so that no leakage occurs around the port (e.g., where the respirator is probed), a
free air flow is allowed into the sampling line at all times, and there is no interference
with the fit or performance of the respirator. The in-mask sampling device (probe)
shall be designed and used so that the air sample is drawn from the breathing zone
of the test subject, midway between the nose and mouth and with the probe extending
into the facepiece cavity at least 1/4 in.
(7) The test setup shall permit the person administering the test to observe the test
subject inside the chamber during the test.
(8) The equipment generating the test atmosphere shall maintain the concentration
of test agent constant to within a 10% variation for the duration of the test.
(9) The time lag (interval between an event and the recording of the event on the
strip chart or computer or integrator) shall be kept to a minimum. There shall be a
clear association between the occurrence of an event and its being recorded.
(10) The sampling line tubing for the test chamber atmosphere and for the respirator
sampling port shall be of equal diameter and of the same material. The length of
the two lines shall be equal.
(11) The exhaust flow from the test chamber shall pass through an appropriate filter
(i.e., high-efficiency particulate filter) before release.
(12) When sodium chloride aerosol is used, the relative humidity inside the test
chamber shall not exceed 50%.
(13) The limitations of instrument detection shall be taken into account when deter-
mining the fit factor.
(14) Test respirators shall be maintained in proper working order and be inspected
regularly for deficiencies such as cracks or missing valves and gaskets.
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(b) Procedural Requirements

(1) When performing the initial user seal check using a positive or negative pressure
check, the sampling line shall be crimped closed to avoid air pressure leakage during
either of these pressure checks.
(2) The use of an abbreviated screening QLFT test is optional. Such a test may be
utilized to quickly identify poorly fitting respirators that passed the positive and/or
negative pressure test and reduce the amount of QNFT time. The use of the CNC
QNFT instrument in the count mode is another optional method to obtain a quick
estimate of fit and eliminate poorly fitting respirators before going on to perform a
full QNFT.
(3) A reasonably stable test agent concentration shall be measured in the test cham-
ber prior to testing. For canopy or shower curtain types of test units, the determination
of the stability of the test agent may be established after the test subject has entered
the test environment.
(4) Immediately after the subject enters the test chamber, the test agent concentration
inside the respirator shall be measured to ensure that the peak penetration does not
exceed 5% for a half mask or 1% for a full-facepiece respirator.
(5) A stable test agent concentration shall be obtained prior to the actual start of
testing.
(6) Respirator restraining straps shall not be overtightened for testing. The straps
shall be adjusted by the wearer without assistance from other persons to give a
reasonably comfortable fit typical of normal use. The respirator shall not be adjusted
once the fit test exercises begin.
(7) The test shall be terminated whenever any single peak penetration exceeds 5%
for half masks and 1% for full-facepiece respirators. The test subject shall be refitted
and retested.
(8) Calculation of fit factors.
(i) The fit factor shall be determined for the quantitative fit test by taking the ratio
of the average chamber concentration to the concentration measured inside the
respirator for each test exercise except the grimace exercise.
(ii) The average test chamber concentration shall be calculated as the arithmetic
average of the concentration measured before and after each test (i.e., seven exer-
cises) or the arithmetic average of the concentration measured before and after each
exercise or the true average measured continuously during the respirator sample.
(iii) The concentration of the challenge agent inside the respirator shall be deter-
mined by one of the following methods:
(A) Average peak penetration method means the method of determining test agent
penetration into the respirator utilizing a strip chart recorder, integrator, or computer.
The agent penetration is determined by an average of the peak heights on the graph
or by computer integration, for each exercise except the grimace exercise. Integrators
or computers that calculate the actual test agent penetration into the respirator for
each exercise will also be considered to meet the requirements of the average peak
penetration method.
(B) Maximum peak penetration method means the method of determining test agent
penetration in the respirator as determined by strip chart recordings of the test. The
highest peak penetration for a given exercise is taken to be representative of average
penetration into the respirator for that exercise.
(C) Integration by calculation of the area under the individual peak for each exercise
except the grimace exercise. This includes computerized integration.
(D) The calculation of the overall fit factor using individual exercise fit factors
involves first converting the exercise fit factors to penetration values, determining
the average, and then converting that result back to a fit factor. This procedure is
described in the following equation:
Number of Exercises
Overall Fit Factor =
1 / ff1 + 1 / ff2 + 1 / ff3 + 1 / ff4 + 1 / ff5 + 1 / ff6 + 1 / ff7 + 1 / ff8
where ff1, ff2, ff3, etc. are the fit factors for exercises 1, 2, 3, etc.
(9) The test subject shall not be permitted to wear a half mask or quarter-facepiece
respirator unless a minimum fit factor of 100 is obtained, or a full-facepiece respirator
unless a minimum fit factor of 500 is obtained.
(10) Filters used for quantitative fit testing shall be replaced whenever increased
breathing resistance is encountered, or when the test agent has altered the integrity
of the filter media.
3. Ambient Aerosol Condensation Nuclei Counter (CNC) Quantitative Fit-Testing
Protocol
The ambient aerosol CNC quantitative fit-testing (PortacountTM ) protocol quantita-
tively fit tests respirators with the use of a probe. The probed respirator is only used
for quantitative fit tests. A probed respirator has a special sampling device, installed
on the respirator, that allows the probe to sample the air from inside the mask. A
probed respirator is required for each make, style, model, and size that the employer
uses and can be obtained from the respirator manufacturer or distributor. The CNC
instrument manufacturer, TSI Inc., also provides probe attachments (TSI sampling
adapters) that permit fit testing in an employee’s own respirator. A minimum fit
factor pass level of at least 100 is necessary for a half-mask respirator and a minimum
fit factor pass level of at least 500 is required for a full-facepiece negative-pressure
respirator. The entire screening and testing procedure shall be explained to the test
subject prior to the conduct of the screening test.
(a) Portacount Fit-Test Requirements
(1) Check the respirator to make sure the sampling probe and line are properly
attached to the facepiece and that the respirator is fitted with a particulate filter
capable of preventing significant penetration by the ambient particles used for the
Regulations 57
fit test (e.g., NIOSH 42 CFR 84 series 100, series 99, or series 95 particulate filter)
per manufacturer’s instruction.
(2) Instruct the person to be tested to don the respirator for 5 min before the fit test
starts. This purges the ambient particles trapped inside the respirator and permits
the wearer to make certain the respirator is comfortable. This individual shall already
have been trained on how to wear the respirator properly.
(3) Check the following conditions for the adequacy of the respirator fit: chin
properly placed; adequate strap tension, not overly tightened; fit across nose bridge;
respirator of proper size to span distance from nose to chin; tendency of the respirator
to slip; self-observation in a mirror to evaluate fit and respirator position.
(4) Have the person wearing the respirator do a user seal check. If leakage is
detected, determine the cause. If leakage is from a poorly fitting facepiece, try
another size of the same model respirator, or another model of respirator.
(5) Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for operating the Portacount and proceed
with the test.
(6) The test subject shall be instructed to perform the exercises in Section I.A.14
of this appendix.
(7) After the test exercises, the test subject shall be questioned by the test conductor
regarding the comfort of the respirator upon completion of the protocol. If it has
become unacceptable, another model of respirator shall be tried.
(b) Portacount Test Instrument
(1) The Portacount will automatically stop and calculate the overall fit factor for
the entire set of exercises. The overall fit factor is what counts. The Pass or Fail
message will indicate whether or not the test was successful. If the test was a Pass,
the fit test is over.
(2) Since the pass or fail criterion of the Portacount is user programmable, the test
operator shall ensure that the pass or fail criterion meets the requirements for
minimum respirator performance in this appendix.
(3) A record of the test shall be kept on file, assuming the fit test was successful.
The record must contain the test subject’s name; overall fit factor; make, model,
style, and size of respirator used; and date tested.
4. Controlled Negative Pressure (CNP) Quantitative Fit-Testing Protocol
The CNP protocol provides an alternative to aerosol fit-test methods. The CNP fit-
test method technology is based on exhausting air from a temporarily sealed respi-
rator facepiece to generate and then maintain a constant negative-pressure inside the
facepiece. The rate of air exhaust is controlled so that a constant negative pressure
is maintained in the respirator during the fit test. The level of pressure is selected
to replicate the mean inspiratory pressure that causes leakage into the respirator
under normal use conditions. With pressure held constant, air flow out of the respi-
rator is equal to air flow into the respirator. Therefore, measurement of the exhaust
stream that is required to hold the pressure in the temporarily sealed respirator
constant yields a direct measure of leakage air flow into the respirator. The CNP fit-
test method measures leak rates through the facepiece as a method for determining
the facepiece fit for negative-pressure respirators. The CNP instrument manufacturer
Dynatech Nevada also provides attachments (sampling manifolds) that replace the
filter cartridges to permit fit-testing in an employee’s own respirator. To perform the
test, the test subject closes his or her mouth and holds his or her breath, after which
an air pump removes air from the respirator facepiece at a preselected constant
pressure. The facepiece fit is expressed as the leak rate through the facepiece,
expressed as milliliters per minute. The quality and validity of the CNP fit tests are
determined by the degree to which the in-mask pressure tracks the test pressure
during the system measurement time of approximately 5 s. Instantaneous feedback
in the form of a real-time pressure trace of the in-mask pressure is provided and
used to determine test validity and quality. A minimum fit factor pass level of 100
is necessary for a half-mask respirator and a minimum fit factor of at least 500 is
required for a full-facepiece respirator. The entire screening and testing procedure
shall be explained to the test subject prior to the conduct of the screening test.
(a) CNP Fit-Test Requirements.
(1) The instrument shall have a nonadjustable test pressure of 15.0 mm water
pressure.
(2) The CNP system defaults selected for test pressure shall be set at –15 mm of
water (–0.58 in. of water) and the modeled inspiratory flow rate shall be 53.8 l/min
for performing fit tests.
[Note: CNP systems have built-in capability to conduct fit testing that is specific to
unique work rate, mask, and gender situations that might apply in a specific work-
place. Use of system default values, which were selected to represent respirator wear
with medium cartridge resistance at a low to moderate work rate, will allow intertest
comparison of the respirator fit.]
(3) The individual who conducts the CNP fit testing shall be thoroughly trained to
perform the test.
(4) The respirator filter or cartridge needs to be replaced with the CNP test manifold.
The inhalation valve downstream from the manifold either needs to be temporarily
removed or propped open.
(5) The test subject shall be trained to hold his or her breath for at least 20 s.
(6) The test subject shall don the test respirator without any assistance from the
individual who conducts the CNP fit test.
(7) The QNFT protocol shall be followed according to Section I.C.1 of this appendix
with an exception for the CNP test exercises.
Regulations 59
(b) CNP Test Exercises.

(1) Normal breathing. In a normal standing position, without talking, the subject
shall breathe normally for 1 min. After the normal breathing exercise, the subject
needs to hold his or her head straight ahead and hold his or her breath for 10 s
during the test measurement.
(2) Deep breathing. In a normal standing position, the subject shall breathe slowly
and deeply for 1 min, being careful not to hyperventilate. After the deep breathing
exercise, the subject shall hold his or her head straight ahead and hold his or her
breath for 10 s during test measurement.
(3) Turning head side to side. Standing in place, the subject shall slowly turn his
or her head from side to side between the extreme positions on each side for 1 min.
The head shall be held at each extreme momentarily so the subject can inhale at
each side. After the turning head side to side exercise, the subject needs to hold his
or her head full left and hold his or her breath for 10 s during test measurement.
Next, the subject needs to hold his or her head full right and hold his or her breath
for 10 s during test measurement.
(4) Moving head up and down. Standing in place, the subject shall slowly move his
or her head up and down for 1 min. The subject shall be instructed to inhale in the
up position (i.e., when looking toward the ceiling). After the moving head up and
down exercise, the subject shall hold his or her head full up and hold his or her
breath for 10 s during test measurement. Next, the subject shall hold his or her head
full down and hold his or her breath for 10 s during test measurement.
(5) Talking. The subject shall talk out loud slowly and loudly enough to be heard
clearly by the test conductor. The subject can read from a prepared text such as the
Rainbow Passage, count backward from 100, or recite a memorized poem or song
for 1 min. After the talking exercise, the subject shall hold his or her head straight
ahead and hold his or her breath for 10 s during the test measurement.
(6) Grimace. The test subject shall grimace by smiling or frowning for 15 s.
(7) Bending over. The test subject shall bend at the waist as if he or she were to
touch his or her toes for 1 min. Jogging in place shall be substituted for this exercise
in those test environments such as shroud-type QNFT units that prohibit bending at
the waist. After the bending-over exercise, the subject shall hold his or her head
straight ahead and hold his or her breath for 10 s during the test measurement.
(8) Normal breathing. The test subject shall remove and re-don the respirator within
a 1-min period. Then, in a normal standing position, without talking, the subject
shall breathe normally for 1 min. After the normal breathing exercise, the subject
shall hold his or her head straight ahead and hold his or her breath for 10 s during
the test measurement. After the test exercises, the test subject shall be questioned
by the test conductor regarding the comfort of the respirator upon completion of the
protocol. If it has become unacceptable, another model of respirator shall be tried.
(c) CNP Test Instrument.

(1) The test instrument shall have an effective audio warning device when the test
subject fails to hold his or her breath during the test. The test shall be terminated
whenever the test subject failed to hold his or her breath. The test subject may be
refitted and retested.
(2) A record of the test shall be kept on file, assuming the fit test was successful.
The record must contain the test subject’s name; overall fit factor; make, model,
style, and size of respirator used; and date tested.
Part II. New Fit-Test Protocols
A. Any person may submit to OSHA an application for approval of a new fit-test
protocol. If the application meets the following criteria, OSHA will initiate a rule-
making proceeding under Section 6(b)(7) of the OSHA Act to determine whether
to list the new protocol as an approved protocol in this Appendix A.
B. The application must include a detailed description of the proposed new fit-test
protocol. This application must be supported by either:
1. A test report prepared by an independent government research laboratory (e.g.,
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the
National Institute for Standards and Technology) stating that the laboratory has tested
the protocol and had found it to be accurate and reliable; or
2. An article that has been published in a peer-reviewed industrial hygiene journal
describing the protocol and explaining how test data support the accuracy and
reliability of the protocol.
C. If OSHA determines that additional information is required before the Agency
commences a rulemaking proceeding under this section, OSHA will so notify the
applicant and afford the applicant the opportunity to submit the supplemental infor-
mation. Initiation of a rulemaking proceeding will be deferred until OSHA has
received and evaluated the supplemental information.
APPENDIX B-1 TO §1910.134: USER SEAL CHECK PROCEDURES (MANDATORY)

The individual who uses a tight-fitting respirator is to perform a user seal check to
ensure that an adequate seal is achieved each time the respirator is put on. Either
the positive- and negative-pressure checks listed in this Appendix or the respirator
manufacturer’s recommended user seal check method shall be used. User seal checks
are not substitutes for qualitative or quantitative fit tests.
I. Facepiece Positive and/or Negative Pressure Checks
A. Positive pressure check. Close off the exhalation valve and exhale gently into
the facepiece. The face fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can
be built up inside the facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at
the seal. For most respirators this method of leak testing requires the wearer first to
Regulations 61
remove the exhalation valve cover before closing off the exhalation valve and then
carefully replacing it after the test.
B. Negative pressure check. Close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge(s)
by covering with the palm of the hand(s) or by replacing the filter seal(s), inhale
gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly, and hold the breath for 10 s. The
design of the inlet opening of some cartridges cannot be effectively covered with
the palm of the hand. The test can be performed by covering the inlet opening of
the cartridge with a thin latex or nitrile glove. If the facepiece remains in its slightly
collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air is detected, the tightness of the
respirator is considered satisfactory.
II. Manufacturer’s Recommended User Seal Check Procedures
The respirator manufacturer’s recommended procedures for performing a user seal

check may be used instead of the positive- and/or negative-pressure check procedures
provided that the employer demonstrates that the manufacturer’s procedures are
equally effective.
APPENDIX B-2 TO §1910.134: RESPIRATOR CLEANING PROCEDURES (MANDATORY)

These procedures are provided for employer use when cleaning respirators. They
are general in nature, and the employer as an alternative may use the cleaning
recommendations provided by the manufacturer of the respirators used by its
employees, provided such procedures are as effective as those listed here in Appendix
B-2. Equivalent effectiveness simply means that the procedures used must accom-
plish the objectives set forth in Appendix B-2, i.e., must ensure that the respirator
is properly cleaned and disinfected in a manner that prevents damage to the respirator
and does not cause harm to the user.
I. Procedures for Cleaning Respirators
A. Remove filters, cartridges, or canisters. Disassemble facepieces by removing

speaking diaphragms, demand and pressure-demand valve assemblies, hoses, or any
components recommended by the manufacturer. Discard or repair any defective
parts.
B. Wash components in warm (43°C; 110°F maximum) water with a mild detergent
or with a cleaner recommended by the manufacturer. A stiff bristle (not wire) brush
may be used to facilitate the removal of dirt.
C. Rinse components thoroughly in clean, warm (43°C; 110°F maximum), prefer-
ably running water. Drain.
D. When the cleaner used does not contain a disinfecting agent, respirator compo-
nents should be immersed for 2 min in one of the following:
1. Hypochlorite solution (50 ppm of chlorine) made by adding approximately 1 ml
of laundry bleach to 1 liter of water at 43°C (110°F); or
2. Aqueous solution of iodine (50 ppm iodine) made by adding approximately 0.8
ml of tincture of iodine (6 to 8 g ammonium and/or potassium iodide/100 cc of 45%
alcohol) to 1 liter of water at 43°C (110°F); or
3. Other commercially available cleansers of equivalent disinfectant quality when
used as directed, if their use is recommended or approved by the respirator manu-
facturer.
E. Rinse components thoroughly in clean, warm (43°C; 110°F maximum), prefer-
ably running water. Drain. The importance of thorough rinsing cannot be overem-
phasized. Detergents or disinfectants that dry on facepieces may result in dermatitis.
In addition, some disinfectants may cause deterioration of rubber or corrosion of
metal parts if not completely removed.
F. Components should be hand-dried with a clean, lint-free cloth or air-dried.
G. Reassemble facepiece, replacing filters, cartridges, and canisters where neces-
sary.
H. Test the respirator to ensure that all components work properly.
APPENDIX C TO §1910.134: OSHA RESPIRATOR MEDICAL

EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE (MANDATORY)
To the employer: Answers to questions in Section 1, and to question 9 in Section 2
of Part A, do not require a medical examination.
To the employee:
Can you read (circle one): Yes/No
Your employer must allow you to answer this questionnaire during normal working
hours, or at a time and place that is convenient to you. To maintain your confiden-
tiality, your employer or supervisor must not look at or review your answers, and
your employer must tell you how to deliver or send this questionnaire to the health-
care professional who will review it.
Part A. Section 1. (Mandatory) The following information must be provided by every
employee who has been selected to use any type of respirator (please print).
1. Today’s date: _______________________________________________

2. Your name: ________________________________________________
3. Your age (to nearest year): ____________________________________
4. Sex (circle one): Male/Female
5. Your height: _______ ft _______ in.
6. Your weight: _______ lb
7. Your job title: ______________________________________________
8. A phone number where you can be reached by the health-care professional
who reviews this questionnaire (include the area code): ____________
9. The best time to call you at this number: ________________________
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10. Has your employer told you how to contact the health-care professional
who will review this questionnaire? (circle one) Yes/No
11. Check the type of respirator you will use (you can check more than one
category):
a. ______ N, R, or P disposable respirator (filter-mask, noncartridge type
only).
b. ______ Other type (for example, half- or full-facepiece type, powered-
air purifying, supplied-air, self-contained breathing apparatus).
12. Have you worn a respirator? (circle one) Yes/No
If “yes,” what type(s): ________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Part A. Section 2. (Mandatory) Questions 1 through 9 below must be answered by
every employee who has been selected to use any type of respirator (please circle
“yes” or “no”).
1. Do you currently smoke tobacco, or have you smoked tobacco in the last
month? Yes/No
2. Have you ever had any of the following conditions?
a. Seizures (fits): Yes/No
b. Diabetes (sugar disease): Yes/No
c. Allergic reactions that interfere with your breathing: Yes/No
d. Claustrophobia (fear of closed-in places): Yes/No
e. Trouble smelling odors? Yes/No
3. Have you ever had any of the following pulmonary or lung problems?
a. Asbestosis: Yes/No
b. Asthma: Yes/No
c. Chronic bronchitis: Yes/No
d. Emphysema: Yes/No
e. Pneumonia: Yes/No
f. Tuberculosis: Yes/No
g. Silicosis: Yes/No
h. Pneumothorax (collapsed lung): Yes/No
i. Lung cancer: Yes/No
j. Broken ribs: Yes/No
k. Any chest injuries or surgeries: Yes/No
l. Any other lung problem that you’ve been told about: Yes/No
4. Do you currently have any of the following symptoms of pulmonary or
lung illness?
a. Shortness of breath: Yes/No
b. Shortness of breath when walking fast on level ground or walking up
a slight hill or incline: Yes/No
c. Shortness of breath when walking with other people at an ordinary
pace on level ground: Yes/No
d. Have to stop for breath when walking at your own pace on level ground:
Yes/No
e. Shortness of breath when washing or dressing yourself: Yes/No
f. Shortness of breath that interferes with your job: Yes/No

g. Coughing that produces phlegm (thick sputum): Yes/No
h. Coughing that wakes you early in the morning: Yes/No
i. Coughing that occurs mostly when you are lying down: Yes/No
j. Coughing up blood in the last month: Yes/No
k. Wheezing: Yes/No
l. Wheezing that interferes with your job: Yes/No
m. Chest pain when you breathe deeply: Yes/No
n. Any other symptoms that you think may be related to lung problems:
Yes/No
5. Have you ever had any of the following cardiovascular or heart problems?
a. Heart attack: Yes/No
b. Stroke: Yes/No
c. Angina: Yes/No
d. Heart failure: Yes/No
e. Swelling in your legs or feet (not caused by walking): Yes/No
f. Heart arrhythmia (heart beating irregularly): Yes/No
g. High blood pressure: Yes/No
h. Any other heart problem that you have been told about: Yes/No
6. Have you ever had any of the following cardiovascular or heart symptoms?
a. Frequent pain or tightness in your chest: Yes/No
b. Pain or tightness in your chest during physical activity: Yes/No
c. Pain or tightness in your chest that interferes with your job: Yes/No
d. In the past 2 years, have you noticed your heart skipping or missing a
beat: Yes/No
e. Heartburn or indigestion that is not related to eating: Yes/No
f. Any other symptoms that you think may be related to heart or circu-
lation problems: Yes/No
7. Do you currently take medication for any of the following problems?
a. Breathing or lung problems: Yes/No
b. Heart trouble: Yes/No
c. Blood pressure: Yes/No
d. Seizures (fits): Yes/No
8. If you have used a respirator, have you ever had any of the following
problems? (If you have never used a respirator, check the following space
and go to question 9:) _____
a. Eye irritation: Yes/No
b. Skin allergies or rashes: Yes/No
c. Anxiety: Yes/No
d. General weakness or fatigue: Yes/No
e. Any other problem that interferes with your use of a respirator: Yes/No
9. Would you like to talk to the health-care professional who will review
this questionnaire about your answers to this questionnaire? Yes/No
Questions 10 to 15 below must be answered by every employee who has been
selected to use either a full-facepiece respirator or a self-contained breathing
Regulations 65
apparatus (SCBA). For employees who have been selected to use other types of
respirators, answering these questions is voluntary.
10. Have you ever lost vision in either eye (temporarily or permanently)?
Yes/No
11. Do you currently have any of the following vision problems?
a. Wear contact lenses: Yes/No
b. Wear glasses: Yes/No
c. Color blind: Yes/No
d. Any other eye or vision problem: Yes/No
12. Have you ever had an injury to your ears, including a broken ear drum?
Yes/No
13. Do you currently have any of the following hearing problems?
a. Difficulty hearing: Yes/No
b. Wear a hearing aid: Yes/No
c. Any other hearing or ear problem: Yes/No
14. Have you ever had a back injury? Yes/No
15. Do you currently have any of the following musculoskeletal problems?
a. Weakness in any of your arms, hands, legs, or feet: Yes/No
b. Back pain: Yes/No
c. Difficulty fully moving your arms and legs: Yes/No
d. Pain or stiffness when you lean forward or backward at the waist:
Yes/No
e. Difficulty fully moving your head up or down: Yes/No
f. Difficulty fully moving your head side to side: Yes/No
g. Difficulty bending at your knees: Yes/No
h. Difficulty squatting to the ground: Yes/No
i. Difficulty climbing a flight of stairs or a ladder carrying more than 25
lb: Yes/No
j. Any other muscle or skeletal problem that interferes with using a
respirator: Yes/No
Part B. Any of the following questions, and other questions not listed, may be added
to the questionnaire at the discretion of the health-care professional who will review
the questionnaire.
1. In your present job, are you working at high altitudes (over 5000 ft) or
in a place that has lower-than-normal amounts of oxygen? Yes/No
If “yes,” do you have feelings of dizziness, shortness of breath, pounding
in your chest, or other symptoms when you are working under these
conditions: Yes/No
2. At work or at home, have you ever been exposed to hazardous solvents,
hazardous airborne chemicals (e.g., gases, fumes, or dust), or have you
come into skin contact with hazardous chemicals? Yes/No
If “yes,” name the chemicals if you know them: ___________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Have you ever worked with any of the materials, or under any of the
conditions, listed below?
a. Asbestos: Yes/No
b. Silica (e.g., in sandblasting): Yes/No
c. Tungsten/cobalt (e.g., grinding or welding this material): Yes/No
d. Beryllium: Yes/No
e. Aluminum: Yes/No
f. Coal (for example, mining): Yes/No
g. Iron: Yes/No
h. Tin: Yes/No
i. Dusty environments: Yes/No
j. Any other hazardous exposures: Yes/No
If “yes,” describe these exposures: ______________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. List any second jobs or side businesses you have:__________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
5. List your previous occupations: ________________________________
6. List your current and previous hobbies: _________________________
__________________________________________________________
7. Have you been in the military services? Yes/No
If “yes,” were you exposed to biological or chemical agents (either in
training or combat): Yes/No
8. Have you ever worked on a HAZMAT team? Yes/No
9. Other than medications for breathing and lung problems, heart trouble,
blood pressure, and seizures mentioned earlier in this questionnaire, are
you taking any other medications for any reason (including over-the-
counter medications)? Yes/No
If “yes,” name the medications if you know them: _________________
10. Will you be using any of the following items with your respirator(s)?
a. HEPA filters: Yes/No
b. Canisters (for example, gas masks): Yes/No
c. Cartridges: Yes/No
11. How often are you expected to use the respirator(s) (circle “yes” or “no”
for all answers that apply to you)?
a. Escape only (no rescue): Yes/No
b. Emergency rescue only: Yes/No
c. Less than 5 h/week: Yes/No
d. Less than 2 h/day: Yes/No
e. 2 to 4 h/day: Yes/No
f. Over 4 h/day: Yes/No
Regulations 67
12. During the period you are using the respirator(s), is your work effort:
a. Light (less than 200 kcal per hour)? Yes/No
If “yes,” how long does this period last during the average shift:
_______ hr _______ min
Examples of a light work effort are sitting while writing, typing, draft-
ing, or performing light assembly work; or standing while operating a
drill press (1 to 3 lb) or controlling machines.
b. Moderate (200 to 350 kcal/h)? Yes/No
_______ hr _______ min
Examples of moderate work effort are sitting while nailing or filing;
driving a truck or bus in urban traffic; standing while drilling, nailing,
performing assembly work, or transferring a moderate load (about
35 lb) at trunk level; walking on a level surface about 2 mph or down
a 5° grade about 3 mph; or pushing a wheelbarrow with a heavy load
(about 100 lb) on a level surface.
c. Heavy (above 350 kcal/h)? Yes/No
_______ hr _______ min
Examples of heavy work are lifting a heavy load (about 50 lb) from
the floor to your waist or shoulder; working on a loading dock; shov-
eling; standing while bricklaying or chipping castings; walking up an
8° grade about 2 mph; climbing stairs with a heavy load (about 50 lb).
13. Will you be wearing protective clothing and/or equipment (other than the
respirator) when you are using your respirator? Yes/No
If “yes,” describe this protective clothing and/or equipment: _________
__________________________________________________________
14. Will you be working under hot conditions (temperature exceeding 77°F)?
Yes/No
15. Will you be working under humid conditions? Yes/No
16. Describe the work you will be doing while you are using your respirator(s):
17. Describe any special or hazardous conditions you might encounter when
you are using your respirator(s) (for example, confined spaces, life-threat-
ening gases):
18. Provide the following information, if you know it, for each toxic substance
that you will be exposed to when you are using your respirator(s):
Name of the first toxic substance: _______________________________
Estimated maximum exposure level per shift: _____________________
Duration of exposure per shift: _________________________________
Name of the second toxic substance: ____________________________
Name of the third toxic substance: ______________________________
The name of any other toxic substances that you will be exposed to while
using your respirator:
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
19. Describe any special responsibilities you will have while using your
respirator(s) that may affect the safety and well-being of others (for
example, rescue, security):
__________________________________________________________
APPENDIX D TO §1910.134 (MANDATORY) INFORMATION

FOR EMPLOYEES USING RESPIRATORS WHEN NOT REQUIRED
UNDER THE STANDARD
Respirators are an effective method of protection against designated hazards when

properly selected and worn. Respirator use is encouraged, even when exposures
are below the exposure limit, to provide an additional level of comfort and pro-
tection for workers. However, if a respirator is used improperly or not kept clean,
the respirator itself can become a hazard to the worker. Sometimes, workers may
wear respirators to avoid exposures to hazards, even if the amount of hazardous
substance does not exceed the limits set by OSHA standards. If your employer
provides respirators for your voluntary use, of if you provide your own respirator,
you need to take certain precautions to be sure that the respirator itself does not
present a hazard.
You should do the following:
1. Read and heed all instructions provided by the manufacturer on use,

maintenance, cleaning, and care, and warnings regarding the limitations
of the respirators.
2. Choose respirators certified for use to protect against the contaminant of
concern. NIOSH, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, certifies
respirators. A label or statement of certification should appear on the
respirator or respirator packaging. It will tell you what the respirator is
designed for and how much it will protect you.
3. Do not wear your respirator into atmospheres containing contaminants
for which your respirator is not designed to protect against. For example,
a respirator designed to filter dust particles will not protect you against
gases, vapors, or very small solid particles of fumes or smoke.
4. Keep track of your respirator so that you do not mistakenly use someone
else’s respirator.
Regulations 69
3.4 HEAD PROTECTION

29 CFR 1910.135
(a)
(a)(1)
The employer shall ensure that each affected employee wears a protective helmet
when working in areas where there is a potential for injury to the head from falling
objects.
(a)(2)
The employer shall ensure that a protective helmet designed to reduce electrical
shock hazard is worn by each such affected employee when near exposed electrical
conductors that could contact the head.
(b)
Criteria for protective helmets.
(b)(1)
Protective helmets purchased after July 5, 1994 shall comply with ANSI Z89.1-
1986, “American National Standard for Personnel Protection—Protective Headwear
for Industrial Workers—Requirements,” which is incorporated by reference as spec-
ified in Section 1910.6, or shall be demonstrated to be equally effective.
(b)(2)
Protective helmets purchased before July 5, 1994 shall comply with the ANSI
standard “American National Standard Safety Requirements for Industrial Head
Protection,” ANSI Z89.1-1969, which is incorporated by reference as specified in
Section 1910.6, or shall be demonstrated by the employer to be equally effective.
3.5 FOOT PROTECTION

29 CFR 1910.136
(a)
General requirements. The employer shall ensure that each affected employee uses
protective footwear when working in areas where there is a danger of foot injuries
due to falling or rolling objects, or objects piercing the sole, and where such
employee’s feet are exposed to electrical hazards.
(b)
Criteria for protective footwear.
(b)(1)
Protective footwear purchased after July 5, 1994 shall comply with ANSI Z41-1991,
“American National Standard for Personal Protection—Protective Footwear,” which
is incorporated by reference as specified in Section 1910.6, or shall be demonstrated
by the employer to be equally effective.
(b)(2)
Protective footwear purchased before July 5, 1994 shall comply with the ANSI
standard “USA Standard for Men’s Safety — Toe Footwear,” Z41.1-1967, which is
incorporated by reference as specified in Section 1910.6, or shall be demonstrated
by the employer to be equally effective.
3.6 FIRE PROTECTION

29 CFR 1910.155
(a)
Scope. This subpart contains requirements for fire brigades, and all portable and
fixed fire suppression equipment, fire detection systems, and fire or employee alarm
systems installed to meet the fire protection requirements of 29 CFR Part 1910.
(b)
Application. This subpart applies to all employments except for maritime, construc-
tion, and agriculture.
(c)
Definitions applicable to this subpart.
(c)(1)
“After-flame” means the time a test specimen continues to flame after the flame
source has been removed.
(c)(2)
“Aqueous film forming foam” (AFFF) means a fluorinated surfactant with a foam
stabilizer that is diluted with water to act as a temporary barrier to exclude air from
mixing with the fuel vapor by developing an aqueous film on the fuel surface of
some hydrocarbons that is capable of suppressing the generation of fuel vapors.
(c)(3)
“Approved” means acceptable to the Assistant Secretary under the following criteria:
(c)(3)(i)
If it is accepted, or certified, or listed, or labeled or otherwise determined to be safe
by a nationally recognized testing laboratory; or
(c)(3)(ii)
With respect to an installation or equipment of a kind that no nationally recognized
testing laboratory accepts, certifies, lists, labels, or determines to be safe, if it is
inspected or tested by another federal agency and found in compliance with the
provisions of the applicable National Fire Protection Association Fire Code; or
(c)(3)(iii)
With respect to custom-made equipment or related installations that are designed,
fabricated for, and intended for use by its manufacturer on the basis of test data that
the employer keeps and makes available for inspection to the Assistant Secretary.
Regulations 71
(c)(3)(iv)
For the purposes of paragraph (c)(3) of this section:
(c)(3)(iv)(A)
Equipment is listed if it is of a kind mentioned in a list that is published by a
nationally recognized testing laboratory that makes periodic inspections of the pro-
duction of such equipment and that states that such equipment meets nationally
recognized standards or has been tested and found safe for use in a specified manner;
(c)(3)(iv)(B)
Equipment is labeled if there is attached to it a label, symbol, or other identifying
mark of a nationally recognized testing laboratory that makes periodic inspections
of the production of such equipment, and whose labeling indicates compliance with
nationally recognized standards or tests to determine safe use in a specified manner;
(c)(3)(iv)(C)
Equipment is accepted if it has been inspected and found by a nationally recognized
testing laboratory to conform to specified plans or to procedures of applicable codes;
and
(c)(3)(iv)(D)
Equipment is certified if it has been tested and found by a nationally recognized
testing laboratory to meet nationally recognized standards or to be safe for use in a
specified manner or is of a kind whose production is periodically inspected by a
nationally recognized testing laboratory, and if it bears a label, tag, or other record
of certification.
(c)(4)
“Assistant Secretary” means the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational
Safety and Health or designee.
(c)(5)
“Automatic fire detection device” means a device designed to automatically detect
the presence of fire by heat, flame, light, smoke, or other products of combustion.
(c)(6)
“Buddy-breathing device” means an accessory to self-contained breathing appa-
ratus that permits a second person to share the same air supply as that of the wearer
of the apparatus.
(c)(7)
“Carbon dioxide” means a colorless, odorless, electrically nonconductive inert gas
(chemical formula CO2) that is a medium for extinguishing fires by reducing the
concentration of oxygen or fuel vapor in the air to the point where combustion is
impossible.
(c)(8)
“Class A fire” means a fire involving ordinary combustible materials such as paper,
wood, cloth, and some rubber and plastic materials.
(c)(9)
“Class B fire” means a fire involving flammable or combustible liquids, flammable
gases, greases and similar materials, and some rubber and plastic materials.
(c)(10)
“Class C fire” means a fire involving energized electrical equipment where safety
to the employee requires the use of electrically nonconductive extinguishing media.
(c)(11)
“Class D fire” means a fire involving combustible metals such as magnesium,
titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and potassium.
(c)(12)
“Dry chemical” means an extinguishing agent composed of very small particles of
chemicals such as, but not limited to, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate,
urea-based potassium bicarbonate, potassium chloride, or monoammonium phos-
phate supplemented by special treatment to provide resistance to packing and mois-
ture absorption (caking) as well as to provide proper flow capabilities. Dry chemical
does not include dry powders.
(c)(13)
“Dry powder” means a compound used to extinguish or control Class D fires.
(c)(14)
“Education” means the process of imparting knowledge or skill through systematic
instruction. It does not require formal classroom instruction.
(c)(15)
“Enclosed structure” means a structure with a roof or ceiling and at least two walls
that may present fire hazards to employees, such as accumulations of smoke, toxic
gases, and heat, similar to those found in buildings.
(c)(16)
“Extinguisher classification” means the letter classification given an extinguisher
to designate the class or classes of fire on which an extinguisher will be effective.
(c)(17)
“Extinguisher rating” means the numerical rating given to an extinguisher that
indicates the extinguishing potential of the unit based on standardized tests developed
by Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.
(c)(18)
“Fire brigade” (private fire department, industrial fire department) means an orga-
nized group of employees who are knowledgeable, trained, and skilled in at least
basic fire-fighting operations.
(c)(19)
“Fixed extinguishing system” means a permanently installed system that either
extinguishes or controls a fire at the location of the system.
Regulations 73
(c)(20)
“Flame resistance” is the property of materials or combinations of component
materials to retard ignition and restrict the spread of flame.
(c)(21)
“Foam” means a stable aggregation of small bubbles that flow freely over a burning
liquid surface and form a coherent blanket that seals combustible vapors and thereby
extinguishes the fire.
(c)(22)
“Gaseous agent” is a fire-extinguishing agent that is in the gaseous state at normal
room temperature and pressure. It has low viscosity, can expand or contract with
changes in pressure and temperature, and has the ability to diffuse readily and to
distribute itself uniformly throughout an enclosure.
(c)(23)
“Halon 1211” means a colorless, faintly sweet-smelling, electrically nonconductive
liquefied gas (chemical formula CBrC1F2) that is a medium for extinguishing fires
by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of fuel and oxygen. It is also known as
bromochlorodifluoromethane.
(c)(24)
“Halon 1301” means a colorless, odorless, electrically nonconductive gas (chemical
formula CBrF3), which is a medium for extinguishing fires by inhibiting the chemical
chain reaction of fuel and oxygen. It is also known as bromotrifluoromethane.
(c)(25)
“Helmet” is a head protective device consisting of a rigid shell, energy absorption
system, and chin strap intended to be worn to provide protection for the head or
portions thereof, against impact, flying or falling objects, electric shock, penetration,
heat, and flame.
(c)(26)
“Incipient stage fire” means a fire that is in the initial or beginning stage and that
can be controlled or extinguished by portable fire extinguishers, Class II standpipe,
or small hose systems without the need for protective clothing or breathing apparatus.
(c)(27)
“Inspection” means a visual check of fire protection systems and equipment to
ensure that they are in place, charged, and ready for use in the event of a fire.
(c)(28)
“Interior structural fire fighting” means the physical activity of fire suppression,
rescue, or both, inside buildings or enclosed structures that are involved in a fire
situation beyond the incipient stage.
(c)(29)
“Lining” means a material permanently attached to the inside of the outer shell of
a garment for the purpose of thermal protection and padding.
(c)(30)
“Local application system” means a fixed fire suppression system that has a supply
of extinguishing agent, with nozzles arranged to discharge automatically an extin-
guishing agent directly on the burning material to extinguish or control a fire.
(c)(31)
“Maintenance” means the performance of services on fire protection equipment
and systems to assure that they will perform as expected in the event of a fire.
Maintenance differs from inspection in that maintenance requires the checking of
internal fittings, devices, and agent supplies.
(c)(32)
“Multipurpose dry chemical” means a dry chemical that is approved for use on
Class A, Class B, and Class C fires.
(c)(33)
“Outer shell” is the exterior layer of material on the fire coat and protective trousers
that forms the outermost barrier between the firefighter and the environment. It is
attached to the vapor barrier and liner and is usually constructed with a storm flap,
suitable closures, and pockets.
(c)(34)
“Positive-pressure breathing apparatus” means a self-contained breathing appa-
ratus in which the pressure in the breathing zone is positive in relation to the
immediate environment during inhalation and exhalation.
(c)(35)
“Pre-discharge employee alarm” means an alarm that will sound at a set time
prior to actual discharge of an extinguishing system so that employees may evacuate
the discharge area prior to system discharge.
(c)(36)
“Quick disconnect valve” means a device that starts the flow of air by inserting
the hose (which leads from the facepiece) into the regulator of self-contained
breathing apparatus, and stops the flow of air by disconnecting the hose from the
regulator.
(c)(37)
“Sprinkler alarm” means an approved device installed so that any water flow from
a sprinkler system equal to or greater than that from a single automatic sprinkler
will result in an audible alarm signal on the premises.
(c)(38)
“Sprinkler system” means a system of piping designed in accordance with fire
protection engineering standards and installed to control or extinguish fires. The
system includes an adequate and reliable water supply, and a network of specially
sized piping and sprinklers, which are interconnected. The system also includes a
control valve and a device for actuating an alarm when the system is in operation.
Regulations 75
(c)(39)(i)
“Class I standpipe system” means a 2 1/2 in. (6.3 cm) hose connection for use by
fire departments and those trained in handling heavy fire streams.
(c)(39)(ii)
“Class II standpipe system” means a 1 1/2 in. (3.8 cm) hose system that provides
a means for the control or extinguishment of incipient stage fires.
(c)(39)(iii)
“Class III standpipe system” means a combined system of hose that is intended
for the use of employees trained in the use of hose operations and that is capable
of furnishing effective water discharge during the more-advanced stages of fire
(beyond the incipient stage) in the interior of workplaces. Hose outlets are available
for both 1 1/2 in. (3.8 cm) and 2 1/2 in. (6.3 cm) hose.
(c)(39)(iv)
“Small hose system” means a system of hose ranging in diameter from 5/8 in. (1.6
cm) up to 1 1/2 in. (3.8 cm) that is for the use of employees and that provides a
means for the control and extinguishment of incipient stage fires.
(c)(40)
“Total flooding system” means a fixed suppression system that is arranged to
discharge automatically a predetermined concentration of agent into an enclosed
space for the purpose of fire extinguishment or control.
(c)(41)
“Training” means the process of making proficient through instruction and hands-
on practice in the operation of equipment, including respiratory protection equip-
ment, that is expected to be used and in the performance of assigned duties.
(c)(42)
“Vapor barrier” means that material used to prevent or inhibit substantially the
transfer of water, corrosive liquids, and steam or other hot vapors from the outside
of a garment to the wearer’s body.
3.7 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

29 CFR 1910.157
(a)
Scope and application. The requirements of this section apply to the placement, use,
maintenance, and testing of portable fire extinguishers provided for the use of
employees. Paragraph (d) of this section does not apply to extinguishers provided
for employee use on the outside of workplace buildings or structures. Where extin-
guishers are provided but are not intended for employee use and the employer has
an emergency action plan and a fire prevention plan that meet the requirements of
1910.38, then only the requirements of paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section apply.
(b)
Exemptions.
(b)(1)
Where the employer has established and implemented a written fire safety policy
that requires the immediate and total evacuation of employees from the workplace
upon the sounding of a fire alarm signal and that includes an emergency action plan
and a fire prevention plan that meet the requirements of 1910.38, and when extin-
guishers are not available in the workplace, the employer is exempt from all require-
ments of this section unless a specific standard in Part 1910 requires that a portable
fire extinguisher be provided.
(b)(2)
Where the employer has an emergency action plan meeting the requirements of
1910.38 that designates certain employees to be the only employees authorized to
use the available portable fire extinguishers and that requires all other employees in
the fire area to evacuate immediately the affected work area upon the sounding of
the fire alarm, the employer is exempt from the distribution requirements in para-
graph (d) of this section.
(c)
(c)(1)
The employer shall provide portable fire extinguishers and shall mount, locate, and
identify them so that they are readily accessible to employees without subjecting
the employees to possible injury.
(c)(2)
Only approved portable fire extinguishers shall be used to meet the requirements of
this section.
(c)(3)
The employer shall not provide or make available in the workplace portable fire
extinguishers using carbon tetrachloride or chlorobromomethane extinguishing
agents.
(c)(4)
The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are maintained in a fully
charged and operable condition and kept in their designated places at all times except
during use.
(c)(5)
The employer shall remove from service all soldered or riveted shell self-generating
soda acid or self-generating foam or gas cartridge water type portable fire extin-
guishers that are operated by inverting the extinguisher to rupture the cartridge or
to initiate an uncontrollable pressure-generating chemical reaction to expel the
agent.
Regulations 77
(d)
Selection and distribution.
(d)(1)
Portable fire extinguishers shall be provided for employee use and selected and
distributed based on the classes of anticipated workplace fires and on the size and
degree of hazard that would affect their use.
(d)(2)
The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers for use by employees on
Class A fires so that the travel distance for employees to any extinguisher is 75 ft
(22.9 m) or less.
(d)(3)
The employer may use uniformly spaced standpipe systems or hose stations con-
nected to a sprinkler system installed for emergency use by employees instead of
Class A portable fire extinguishers, provided that such systems meet the respective
requirements of 1910.158 or 1910.159, that they provide total coverage of the area
to be protected, and that employees are trained at least annually in their use.
(d)(4)
The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers for use by employees on
Class B fires so that the travel distance from the Class B hazard area to any
extinguisher is 50 ft (15.2 m) or less.
(d)(5)
The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers used for Class C hazards
on the basis of the appropriate pattern for the existing Class A or Class B hazards.
(d)(6)
The employer shall distribute portable fire extinguishers or other containers of Class
D extinguishing agent for use by employees so that the travel distance from the
combustible metal working area to any extinguishing agent is 75 ft (22.9 m) or less.
Portable fire extinguishers for Class D hazards are required in those combustible
metal working areas where combustible metal powders, flakes, shavings, or similarly
sized products are generated at least once every 2 weeks.
(e)
Inspection, maintenance, and testing.
(e)(1)
The employer shall be responsible for the inspection, maintenance, and testing of
all portable fire extinguishers in the workplace.
(e)(2)
Portable extinguishers or hose used in lieu thereof under paragraph (d)(3) of this
section shall be visually inspected monthly.
(e)(3)
The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are subjected to an
annual maintenance check. Stored pressure extinguishers do not require an internal
examination. The employer shall record the annual maintenance date and retain
this record for 1 year after the last entry or the life of the shell, whichever is less.
The record shall be available to the Assistant Secretary upon request.
(e)(4)
The employer shall assure that stored pressure dry chemical extinguishers that
require a 12-year hydrostatic test are emptied and subjected to applicable mainte-
nance procedures every 6 years. Dry chemical extinguishers having nonrefillable
disposable containers are exempt from this requirement. When recharging or hydro-
static testing is performed, the 6-year requirement begins from that date.
(e)(5)
The employer shall assure that alternative equivalent protection is provided when
portable fire extinguishers are removed from service for maintenance and recharging.
(f)
Hydrostatic testing.
(f)(1)
The employer shall assure that hydrostatic testing is performed by trained persons
with suitable testing equipment and facilities.
(f)(2)
The employer shall assure that portable extinguishers are hydrostatically tested at
the intervals listed in Table L-1 of this section, except under any of the following
conditions:
(f)(2)(i)
When the unit has been repaired by soldering, welding, brazing, or use of patching
compounds;
(f)(2)(ii)
When the cylinder or shell threads are damaged;
(f)(2)(iii)
When there is corrosion that has caused pitting, including corrosion under removable
name plate assemblies;
(f)(2)(iv)
When the extinguisher has been burned in a fire; or
(f)(2)(v)
When a calcium chloride extinguishing agent has been used in a stainless steel shell.
(f)(3)
In addition to an external visual examination, the employer shall assure that an
internal examination of cylinders and shells to be tested is made prior to the hydro-
static tests.
Regulations 79
TABLE L-1
Type of Extinguisher Test Interval (years)
Soda acid (stainless steel shell) 5
Cartridge operated water and/or antifreeze 5
Stored pressure water and/or antifreeze 5
Wetting agent 5
Foam (stainless steel shell) 5
Aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) 5
Loaded stream 5
Dry chemical with stainless steel 5
Carbon dioxide 5
Dry chemical, stored pressure, with mild steel, brazed brass, or
aluminum shells 12
Dry chemical, cartridge or cylinder operated, with mild steel
shells 12
Halon 1211 12
Halon 1301 12
Dry powder, cartridge or cylinder operated, with mild steel
shells 12
(f)(4)
The employer shall assure that portable fire extinguishers are hydrostatically tested
whenever they show new evidence of corrosion or mechanical injury, except under
the conditions listed in paragraphs (f)(2)(i) to (v) of this section.
(f)(5)
The employer shall assure that hydrostatic tests are performed on extinguisher hose
assemblies that are equipped with a shutoff nozzle at the discharge end of the hose.
The test interval shall be the same as specified for the extinguisher on which the
hose is installed.
(f)(6)
The employer shall assure that carbon dioxide hose assemblies with a shutoff nozzle
are hydrostatically tested at 1250 psi (8620 kPa).
(f)(7)
The employer shall assure that dry chemical and dry powder hose assemblies with
a shutoff nozzle are hydrostatically tested at 300 psi (2070 kPa).
(f)(8)
Hose assemblies passing a hydrostatic test do not require any type of recording or
stamping.
(f)(9)
The employer shall assure that hose assemblies for carbon dioxide extinguishers
that require a hydrostatic test are tested within a protective cage device.
(f)(10)
The employer shall assure that carbon dioxide extinguishers and nitrogen or carbon
dioxide cylinders used with wheeled extinguishers are tested every 5 years at 5/3 of
the service pressure as stamped into the cylinder. Nitrogen cylinders that comply
with 49 CFR 173.34(e)(15) may be hydrostatically tested every 10 years.
(f)(11)
The employer shall assure that all stored pressure and Halon 1211 types of extin-
guishers are hydrostatically tested at the factory test pressure not to exceed two
times the service pressure.
(f)(12)
The employer shall assure that acceptable self-generating type soda acid and foam
extinguishers are tested at 350 psi (2410 kPa).
(f)(13)
Air or gas pressure may not be used for hydrostatic testing.
(f)(14)
Extinguisher shells, cylinders, or cartridges that fail a hydrostatic pressure test, or
that are not fit for testing shall be removed from service and from the workplace.
(f)(15)
(f)(15)(i)
The equipment for testing compressed gas type cylinders shall be of the water jacket
type. The equipment shall be provided with an expansion indicator that operates
with an accuracy within 1% of the total expansion or 0.1 cc (0.1 ml) of liquid.
(f)(15)(ii)
The equipment for testing noncompressed gas type cylinders shall consist of the
following:
(f)(15)(ii)(A)
A hydrostatic test pump, hand or power operated, capable of producing not less than
150% of the test pressure, which shall include appropriate check valves and fittings;
(f)(15)(ii)(B)
A flexible connection for attachment to fittings to test through the extinguisher
nozzle, test bonnet, or hose outlet, as is applicable; and
(f)(15)(ii)(C)
A protective cage or barrier for personal protection of the tester, designed to provide
visual observation of the extinguisher under test.
(f)(16)
The employer shall maintain and provide upon request to the Assistant Secretary
evidence that the required hydrostatic testing of fire extinguishers has been per-
formed at the time intervals shown in Table L-1. Such evidence shall be in the form
of a certification record that includes the date of the test, the signature of the person
who performed the test, and the serial number, or other identifier, of the fire
extinguisher that was tested. Such records shall be kept until the extinguisher is
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hydrostatically retested at the time interval specified in Table L-1 or until the
extinguisher is taken out of service, whichever comes first.
(g)
Training and education.
(g)(1)
Where the employer has provided portable fire extinguishers for employee use in
the workplace, the employer shall also provide an educational program to familiarize
employees with the general principles of fire extinguisher use and the hazards
involved with incipient-stage firefighting.
(g)(2)
The employer shall provide the education required in paragraph (g)(1) of this section
upon initial employment and at least annually thereafter.
(g)(3)
The employer shall provide employees who have been designated to use fire-fighting
equipment as part of an emergency action plan with training in the use of the
appropriate equipment.
(g)(4)
The employer shall provide the training required in paragraph (g)(3) of this section
upon initial assignment to the designated group of employees and at least annually
thereafter.
3.8 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY

29 CFR 1910.146
SubPart Number: J
SubPart Title: General Environmental Controls
(a)
Scope and application. This section contains requirements for practices and proce-
dures to protect employees in general industry from the hazards of entry into permit-
required confined spaces. This section does not apply to agriculture, to construction,
or to shipyard employment (Parts 1928, 1926, and 1915 of this chapter, respectively).
(b)
Definitions.
“Acceptable entry conditions” means the conditions that must exist in a permit
space to allow entry and to ensure that employees involved with a permit-required
confined space entry can safely enter into and work within the space.
“Attendant” means an individual stationed outside one or more permit spaces who
monitors the authorized entrants and who performs all attendant’s duties assigned
in the employer’s permit space program.
“Authorized entrant” means an employee who is authorized by the employer to

enter a permit space.
“Blanking or blinding” means the absolute closure of a pipe, line, or duct by the
fastening of a solid plate (such as a spectacle blind or a skillet blind) that completely
covers the bore and that is capable of withstanding the maximum pressure of the
pipe, line, or duct with no leakage beyond the plate.
“Confined space” means a space that:
(1) Is large enough and so configured that an employee can bodily enter and perform
assigned work; and
(2) Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (for example, tanks, vessels,
silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, and pits are spaces that may have limited means
of entry); and
(3) Is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.
“Double block and bleed” means the closure of a line, duct, or pipe by closing
and locking or tagging two in-line valves and by opening and locking or tagging a
drain or vent valve in the line between the two closed valves.
“Emergency” means any occurrence (including any failure of hazard control or
monitoring equipment) or event internal or external to the permit space that could
endanger entrants.
“Engulfment” means the surrounding and effective capture of a person by a liquid
or finely divided (flowable) solid substance that can be aspirated to cause death by
filling or plugging the respiratory system or that can exert enough force on the body
to cause death by strangulation, constriction, or crushing.
“Entry” means the action by which a person passes through an opening into a
permit-required confined space. Entry includes ensuing work activities in that space
and is considered to have occurred as soon as any part of the entrant’s body breaks
the plane of an opening into the space.
“Entry permit (permit)” means the written or printed document that is provided
by the employer to allow and control entry into a permit space and that contains the
information specified in paragraph (f) of this section.
“Entry supervisor” means the person (such as the employer, foreman, or crew
chief) responsible for determining if acceptable entry conditions are present at a
permit space where entry is planned, for authorizing entry and overseeing entry
operations, and for terminating entry as required by this section.
Note: An entry supervisor also may serve as an attendant or as an authorized entrant,
as long as that person is trained and equipped as required by this section for each
role he or she fills. Also, the duties of entry supervisor may be passed from one
individual to another during the course of an entry operation.
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“Hazardous atmosphere” means an atmosphere that may expose employees to the

risk of death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue (that is, escape
unaided from a permit space), injury, or acute illness from one or more of the
following causes:
(1) Flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its lower flammable limit
(LFL);
(2) Airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or exceeds its LFL;
Note: This concentration may be approximated as a condition in which the dust
obscures vision at a distance of 5 ft (1.52 m) or less.
(3) Atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19.5% or above 23.5%;
(4) Atmospheric concentration of any substance for which a dose or a permissible
exposure limit is published in Subpart G, Occupational Health and Environmental
Control, or in Subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, of this Part and which
could result in employee exposure in excess of its dose or permissible exposure limit;
Note: An atmospheric concentration of any substance that is not capable of causing
death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue, injury, or acute illness
due to its health effects is not covered by this provision.
(5) Any other atmospheric condition that is immediately dangerous to life or health.
Note: For air contaminants for which OSHA has not determined a dose or permis-
sible exposure limit, other sources of information, such as Material Safety Data
Sheets that comply with the Hazard Communication Standard, Sec. 1910.1200 of
this Part, published information, and internal documents can provide guidance in
establishing acceptable atmospheric conditions.
“Hot work permit” means the employer’s written authorization to perform opera-
tions (for example, riveting, welding, cutting, burning, and heating) capable of
providing a source of ignition.
“Immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH)” means any condition that poses
an immediate or delayed threat to life or that would cause irreversible adverse health
effects or that would interfere with an individual’s ability to escape unaided from a
permit space.
Note: Some materials — hydrogen fluoride gas and cadmium vapor, for example
— may produce immediate transient effects that, even if severe, may pass without
medical attention, but are followed by sudden, possibly fatal collapse 12 to 72 hours
after exposure. The victim “feels normal” from recovery from transient effects until
collapse. Such materials in hazardous quantities are considered to be “immediately”
dangerous to life or health.
“Inerting” means the displacement of the atmosphere in a permit space by a
noncombustible gas (such as nitrogen) to such an extent that the resulting atmosphere
is noncombustible.
Note: This procedure produces an IDLH oxygen-deficient atmosphere.

“Isolation” means the process by which a permit space is removed from service
and completely protected against the release of energy and material into the space
by such means as blanking or blinding; misaligning or removing sections of lines,
pipes, or ducts; a double block and bleed system; lockout or tagout of all sources
of energy; or blocking or disconnecting all mechanical linkages.
“Line breaking” means the intentional opening of a pipe, line, or duct that is or
has been carrying flammable, corrosive, or toxic material, an inert gas, or any fluid
at a volume, pressure, or temperature capable of causing injury.
“Non-permit confined space” means a confined space that does not contain or,
with respect to atmospheric hazards, have the potential to contain any hazard capable
of causing death or serious physical harm.
“Oxygen-deficient atmosphere” means an atmosphere containing less than 19.5%
oxygen by volume.
“Oxygen-enriched atmosphere” means an atmosphere containing more than 23.5%
oxygen by volume.
“Permit-required confined space (permit space)” means a confined space that has
one or more of the following characteristics:
(1) Contains or has a potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere;
(2) Contains a material that has the potential for engulfing an entrant;
(3) Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated
by inwardly converging walls or by a floor that slopes downward and tapers to a
smaller cross section; or
(4) Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard.
“Permit-required confined space program (permit space program)” means the
employer’s overall program for controlling and, where appropriate, for protecting
employees from permit space hazards and for regulating employee entry into permit
spaces.
“Permit system” means the employer’s written procedure for preparing and issuing
permits for entry and for returning the permit space to service following termination
of entry.
“Prohibited condition” means any condition in a permit space that is not allowed
by the permit during the period when entry is authorized.
“Rescue service” means the personnel designated to rescue employees from permit
spaces.
“Retrieval system” means the equipment (including a retrieval line, chest or full-
body harness, wristlets, if appropriate, and a lifting device or anchor) used for
nonentry rescue of persons from permit spaces.
Regulations 85
“Testing” means the process by which the hazards that may confront entrants of a
permit space are identified and evaluated. Testing includes specifying the tests that
are to be performed in the permit space.
Note: Testing enables employers both to devise and implement adequate control
measures for the protection of authorized entrants and to determine if acceptable
entry conditions are present immediately prior to, and during, entry.
(c)
(c)(1)
The employer shall evaluate the workplace to determine if any spaces are permit-
required confined spaces.
(c)(2)
If the workplace contains permit spaces, the employer shall inform exposed employ-
ees, by posting danger signs or by any other equally effective means, of the existence
and location of and the danger posed by the permit spaces.
Note: A sign reading DANGER — PERMIT-REQUIRED CONFINED SPACE, DO
NOT ENTER or using other similar language would satisfy the requirement for a
sign.
(c)(3)
If the employer decides that its employees will not enter permit spaces, the employer
shall take effective measures to prevent its employees from entering the permit spaces
and shall comply with paragraphs (c)(1), (c)(2), (c)(6), and (c)(8) of this section.
(c)(4)
If the employer decides that its employees will enter permit spaces, the employer
shall develop and implement a written permit space program that complies with this
section. The written program shall be available for inspection by employees and
their authorized representatives.
(c)(5)
An employer may use the alternate procedures specified in paragraph (c)(5)(ii) of
this section for entering a permit space under the conditions set forth in paragraph
(c)(5)(i) of this section.
(c)(5)(i)
An employer whose employees enter a permit space need not comply with para-
graphs (d) through (f) and (h) through (k) of this section, provided that:
(c)(5)(i)(A)
The employer can demonstrate that the only hazard posed by the permit space is an
actual or potential hazardous atmosphere;
(c)(5)(i)(B)
The employer can demonstrate that continuous forced-air ventilation alone is suffi-
cient to maintain that permit space safe for entry;
(c)(5)(i)(C)
The employer develops monitoring and inspection data that support the demonstra-
tions required by paragraphs (c)(5)(i)(A) and (c)(5)(i)(B) of this section;
(c)(5)(i)(D)
If an initial entry of the permit space is necessary to obtain the data required by
paragraph (c)(5)(i)(C) of this section, the entry is performed in compliance with
paragraphs (d) through (k) of this section;
(c)(5)(i)(E)
The determinations and supporting data required by paragraphs (c)(5)(i)(A),
(c)(5)(i)(B), and (c)(5)(i)(C) of this section are documented by the employer and
are made available to each employee who enters the permit space under the terms
of paragraph (c)(5) of this section or to that employee’s authorized representative;
and
(c)(5)(i)(F)
Entry into the permit space under the terms of paragraph (c)(5)(i) of this section is
performed in accordance with the requirements of paragraph (c)(5)(ii) of this section.
(c)(5)(ii)
The following requirements apply to entry into permit spaces that meet the conditions
set forth in paragraph (c)(5)(i) of this section.
(c)(5)(ii)(A)
Any conditions making it unsafe to remove an entrance cover shall be eliminated
before the cover is removed.
(c)(5)(ii)(B)
When entrance covers are removed, the opening shall be promptly guarded by a
railing, temporary cover, or other temporary barrier that will prevent an accidental
fall through the opening and that will protect each employee working in the space
from foreign objects entering the space.
(c)(5)(ii)(C)
Before an employee enters the space, the internal atmosphere shall be tested, with
a calibrated direct-reading instrument, for oxygen content, for flammable gases and
vapors, and for potential toxic air contaminants, in that order. Any employee who
enters the space, or that employee’s authorized representative, shall be provided an
opportunity to observe the preentry testing required by this paragraph.
(c)(5)(ii)(C)(1)
Oxygen content,
(c)(5)(ii)(C)(2)
Flammable gases and vapors, and
(c)(5)(ii)(C)(3)
Potential toxic air contaminants.
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(c)(5)(ii)(D)
There may be no hazardous atmosphere within the space whenever any employee
is inside the space.
(c)(5)(ii)(E)
Continuous forced-air ventilation shall be used, as follows:
(c)(5)(ii)(E)(1)
An employee may not enter the space until the forced-air ventilation has eliminated
any hazardous atmosphere;
(c)(5)(ii)(E)(2)
The forced-air ventilation shall be so directed to ventilate the immediate areas where
an employee is or will be present within the space and shall continue until all
employees have left the space;
(c)(5)(ii)(E)(3)
The air supply for the forced-air ventilation shall be from a clean source and may
not increase the hazards in the space.
(c)(5)(ii)(F)
The atmosphere within the space shall be periodically tested as necessary to ensure
that the continuous forced-air ventilation is preventing the accumulation of a haz-
ardous atmosphere. Any employee who enters the space, or that employee’s autho-
rized representative, shall be provided with an opportunity to observe the periodic
testing required by this paragraph.
(c)(5)(ii)(G)
If a hazardous atmosphere is detected during entry:
(c)(5)(ii)(G)(1)
Each employee shall leave the space immediately;
(c)(5)(ii)(G)(2)
The space shall be evaluated to determine how the hazardous atmosphere developed;
and
(c)(5)(ii)(G)(3)
Measures shall be implemented to protect employees from the hazardous atmosphere
before any subsequent entry takes place.
(c)(5)(ii)(H)
The employer shall verify that the space is safe for entry and that the preentry
measures required by paragraph (c)(5)(ii) of this section have been taken, through
a written certification that contains the date, the location of the space, and the
signature of the person providing the certification. The certification shall be made
before entry and shall be made available to each employee entering the space or to
that employee’s authorized representative.
(c)(6)
When there are changes in the use or configuration of a nonpermit confined space
that might increase the hazards to entrants, the employer shall reevaluate that space
and, if necessary, reclassify it as a permit-required confined space.
(c)(7)
A space classified by the employer as a permit-required confined space may be
reclassified as a nonpermit confined space under the following procedures:
(c)(7)(i)
If the permit space poses no actual or potential atmospheric hazards and if all hazards
within the space are eliminated without entry into the space, the permit space may
be reclassified as a nonpermit confined space for as long as the nonatmospheric
hazards remain eliminated.
(c)(7)(ii)
If it is necessary to enter the permit space to eliminate hazards, such entry shall be
performed under paragraphs (d) through (k) of this section. If testing and inspection
during that entry demonstrate that the hazards within the permit space have been
eliminated, the permit space may be reclassified as a nonpermit confined space for
as long as the hazards remain eliminated.
Note: Control of atmospheric hazards through forced-air ventilation does not con-
stitute elimination of the hazards. Paragraph (c)(5) covers permit space entry where
the employer can demonstrate that forced-air ventilation alone will control all haz-
ards in the space.
(c)(7)(iii)
The employer shall document the basis for determining that all hazards in a permit
space have been eliminated, through a certification that contains the date, the location
of the space, and the signature of the person making the determination. The certifi-
cation shall be made available to each employee entering the space or to that
employee’s authorized representative.
(c)(7)(iv)
If hazards arise within a permit space that has been declassified to a nonpermit space
under paragraph (c)(7) of this section, each employee in the space shall exit the
space. The employer shall then reevaluate the space and determine whether it must
be reclassified as a permit space, in accordance with other applicable provisions of
this section.
(c)(8)
When an employer (host employer) arranges to have employees of another employer
(contractor) perform work that involves permit space entry, the host employer shall:
(c)(8)(i)
Inform the contractor that the workplace contains permit spaces and that permit
space entry is allowed only through compliance with a permit space program meeting
the requirements of this section;
Regulations 89
(c)(8)(ii)
Apprise the contractor of the elements, including the hazards identified and the host
employer’s experience with the space, that make the space in question a permit space;
(c)(8)(iii)
Apprise the contractor of any precautions or procedures that the host employer has
implemented for the protection of employees in or near permit spaces where con-
tractor personnel will be working;
(c)(8)(iv)
Coordinate entry operations with the contractor, when both host employer personnel
and contractor personnel will be working in or near permit spaces, as required by
paragraph (d)(11) of this section; and
(c)(8)(v)
Debrief the contractor at the conclusion of the entry operations regarding the permit
space program followed and regarding any hazards confronted or created in permit
spaces during entry operations.
(c)(9)
In addition to complying with the permit space requirements that apply to all
employers, each contractor who is retained to perform permit space entry operations
shall:
(c)(9)(i)
Obtain any available information regarding permit space hazards and entry opera-
tions from the host employer;
(c)(9)(ii)
Coordinate entry operations with the host employer, when both host employer
personnel and contractor personnel will be working in or near permit spaces, as
required by paragraph (d)(11) of this section; and
(c)(9)(iii)
Inform the host employer of the permit space program that the contractor will follow
and of any hazards confronted or created in permit spaces, either through a debriefing
or during the entry operation.
(d)
Permit-required confined space program (permit space program). Under the permit
space program required by paragraph (c)(4) of this section, the employer shall:
(d)(1)
Implement the measures necessary to prevent unauthorized entry;
(d)(2)
Identify and evaluate the hazards of permit spaces before employees enter them;
(d)(3)
Develop and implement the means, procedures, and practices necessary for safe
permit space entry operations, including, but not limited to, the following:
(d)(3)(i)
Specifying acceptable entry conditions;
(d)(3)(ii)
Providing each authorized entrant or that employee’s authorized representative with
the opportunity to observe any monitoring or testing of permit spaces;
(d)(3)(iii)
Isolating the permit space;
(d)(3)(iv)
Purging, inerting, flushing, or ventilating the permit space as necessary to eliminate
or control atmospheric hazards;
(d)(3)(v)
Providing pedestrian, vehicle, or other barriers as necessary to protect entrants from
external hazards; and
(d)(3)(vi)
Verifying that conditions in the permit space are acceptable for entry throughout the
duration of an authorized entry.
(d)(4)
Provide the following equipment (specified in paragraphs (d)(4)(i) through (d)(4)(ix)
of this section) at no cost to employees, maintain that equipment properly, and ensure
that employees use that equipment properly:
(d)(4)(i)
Testing and monitoring equipment needed to comply with paragraph (d)(5) of this
section;
(d)(4)(ii)
Ventilating equipment needed to obtain acceptable entry conditions;
(d)(4)(iii)
Communications equipment necessary for compliance with paragraphs (h)(3) and
(i)(5) of this section;
(d)(4)(iv)
Personal protective equipment insofar as feasible engineering and work practice
controls do not adequately protect employees;
(d)(4)(v)
Lighting equipment needed to enable employees to see well enough to work safely
and to exit the space quickly in an emergency;
(d)(4)(vi)
Barriers and shields as required by paragraph (d)(3)(iv) of this section;
(d)(4)(vii)
Equipment, such as ladders, needed for safe ingress and egress by authorized
entrants;
Regulations 91
(d)(4)(viii)
Rescue and emergency equipment needed to comply with paragraph (d)(9) of this
section, except to the extent that the equipment is provided by rescue services; and
(d)(4)(ix)
Any other equipment necessary for safe entry into and rescue from permit spaces.
(d)(5)
Evaluate permit space conditions as follows when entry operations are conducted:
(d)(5)(i)
Test conditions in the permit space to determine if acceptable entry conditions exist
before entry is authorized to begin, except that, if isolation of the space is infeasible
because the space is large or is part of a continuous system (such as a sewer), preentry
testing shall be performed to the extent feasible before entry is authorized and, if
entry is authorized, entry conditions shall be continuously monitored in the areas
where authorized entrants are working;
(d)(5)(ii)
Test or monitor the permit space as necessary to determine if acceptable entry
conditions are being maintained during the course of entry operations; and
(d)(5)(iii)
When testing for atmospheric hazards, test first for oxygen, then for combustible
gases and vapors, and then for toxic gases and vapors.
(d)(5)(iv)
Provide each authorized entrant or that employee’s authorized representative an
opportunity to observe the preentry and any subsequent testing or monitoring of
permit spaces;
(d)(5)(v)
Reevaluate the permit space in the presence of any authorized entrant or that
employee’s authorized representative who requests that the employer conduct such
reevaluation because the entrant or representative has reason to believe that the
evaluation of that space may not have been adequate;
(d)(5)(vi)
Immediately provide each authorized entrant or that employee’s authorized repre-
sentative with the results of any testing conducted in accord with paragraph (d) of
this section.
(d)(6)
Provide at least one attendant outside the permit space into which entry is authorized
for the duration of entry operations;
Note: Attendants may be assigned to monitor more than one permit space provided
the duties described in paragraph (i) of this section can be effectively performed for
each permit space that is monitored. Likewise, attendants may be stationed at any
location outside the permit space to be monitored as long as the duties described in
paragraph (i) of this section can be effectively performed for each permit space that
is monitored.
(d)(7)
If multiple spaces are to be monitored by a single attendant, include in the permit
program the means and procedures to enable the attendant to respond to an emer-
gency affecting one or more of the permit spaces being monitored without distraction
from the attendant’s responsibilities under paragraph (i) of this section;
(d)(8)
Designate the persons who are to have active roles (as, for example, authorized
entrants, attendants, entry supervisors, or persons who test or monitor the atmosphere
in a permit space) in entry operations, identify the duties of each such employee,
and provide each such employee with the training required by paragraph (g) of this
section;
(d)(9)
Develop and implement procedures for summoning rescue and emergency services,
for rescuing entrants from permit spaces, for providing necessary emergency services
to rescued employees, and for preventing unauthorized personnel from attempting
a rescue;
(d)(10)
Develop and implement a system for the preparation, issuance, use, and cancellation
of entry permits as required by this section;
(d)(11)
Develop and implement procedures to coordinate entry operations when employees
of more than one employer are working simultaneously as authorized entrants in a
permit space, so that employees of one employer do not endanger the employees of
any other employer;
(d)(12)
Develop and implement procedures (such as closing off a permit space and canceling
the permit) necessary for concluding the entry after entry operations have been
completed;
(d)(13)
Review entry operations when the employer has reason to believe that the measures
taken under the permit space program may not protect employees and revise the
program to correct deficiencies found to exist before subsequent entries are autho-
rized; and
Note: Examples of circumstances requiring the review of the permit space program
include any unauthorized entry of a permit space, the detection of a permit space
hazard not covered by the permit, the detection of a condition prohibited by the
permit, the occurrence of an injury or near-miss during entry, a change in the use
or configuration of a permit space, and employee complaints about the effectiveness
of the program.
Regulations 93
(d)(14)
Review the permit space program, using the canceled permits retained under para-
graph (e)(6) of this section within 1 year after each entry and revise the program as
necessary, to ensure that employees participating in entry operations are protected
from permit space hazards.
Note: Employers may perform a single annual review covering all entries performed
during a 12-month period. If no entry is performed during a 12-month period, no
review is necessary.
(e)
Permit system.
(e)(1)
Before entry is authorized, the employer shall document the completion of measures
required by paragraph (d)(3) of this section by preparing an entry permit.
(e)(2)
Before entry begins, the entry supervisor identified on the permit shall sign the entry
permit to authorize entry.
(e)(3)
The completed permit shall be made available at the time of entry to all authorized
entrants or their authorized representatives, by posting it at the entry portal or by
any other equally effective means, so that the entrants can confirm that preentry
preparations have been completed.
(e)(4)
The duration of the permit may not exceed the time required to complete the assigned
task or job identified on the permit in accordance with paragraph (f)(2) of this section.
(e)(5)
The entry supervisor shall terminate entry and cancel the entry permit when:
(e)(5)(i)
The entry operations covered by the entry permit have been completed; or
(e)(5)(ii)
A condition that is not allowed under the entry permit arises in or near the permit
space.
(e)(6)
The employer shall retain each canceled entry permit for at least 1 year to facilitate
the review of the permit-required confined space program required by paragraph
(d)(14) of this section. Any problems encountered during an entry operation shall
be noted on the pertinent permit so that appropriate revisions to the permit space
program can be made.
(f)
Entry permit. The entry permit that documents compliance with this section and
authorizes entry to a permit space shall identify:
(f)(1)
The permit space to be entered;
(f)(2)
The purpose of the entry;
(f)(3)
The date and the authorized duration of the entry permit;
(f)(4)
The authorized entrants within the permit space, by name or by such other means
(for example, through the use of rosters or tracking systems) as will enable the
attendant to determine quickly and accurately, for the duration of the permit, which
authorized entrants are inside the permit space;
Note: This requirement may be met by inserting a reference on the entry permit
regarding the means used, such as a roster or tracking system, to keep track of the
authorized entrants within the permit space.
(f)(5)
The personnel, by name, currently serving as attendants;
(f)(6)
The individual, by name, currently serving as entry supervisor, with a space for the
signature or initials of the entry supervisor who originally authorized entry;
(f)(7)
The hazards of the permit space to be entered;
(f)(8)
The measures used to isolate the permit space and to eliminate or control permit
space hazards before entry;
Note: Those measures can include the lockout or tagging of equipment and proce-
dures for purging, inerting, ventilating, and flushing permit spaces.
(f)(9)
The acceptable entry conditions;
(f)(10)
The results of initial and periodic tests performed under paragraph (d)(5) of this
section, accompanied by the names or initials of the testers and by an indication of
when the tests were performed;
(f)(11)
The rescue and emergency services that can be summoned and the means (such as
the equipment to use and the numbers to call) for summoning those services;
(f)(12)
The communication procedures used by authorized entrants and attendants to main-
tain contact during the entry;
Regulations 95
(f)(13)
Equipment, such as personal protective equipment, testing equipment, communica-
tions equipment, alarm systems, and rescue equipment, to be provided for compli-
ance with this section;
(f)(14)
Any other information whose inclusion is necessary, given the circumstances of the
particular confined space, to ensure employee safety; and
(f)(15)
Any additional permits, such as for hot work, that have been issued to authorize
work in the permit space.
(g)
Training.
(g)(1)
The employer shall provide training so that all employees whose work is regulated
by this section acquire the understanding, knowledge, and skills necessary for the
safe performance of the duties assigned under this section.
(g)(2)
Training shall be provided to each affected employee:
(g)(2)(i)
Before the employee is first assigned duties under this section;
(g)(2)(ii)
Before there is a change in assigned duties;
(g)(2)(iii)
Whenever there is a change in permit space operations that presents a hazard about
which an employee has not previously been trained;
(g)(2)(iv)
Whenever the employer has reason to believe either that there are deviations from
the permit space entry procedures required by paragraph (d)(3) of this section or
that there are inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge or use of these procedures.
(g)(3)
The training shall establish employee proficiency in the duties required by this
section and shall introduce new or revised procedures, as necessary, for compliance
with this section.
(g)(4)
The employer shall certify that the training required by paragraphs (g)(1) through
(g)(3) of this section has been accomplished. The certification shall contain each
employee’s name, the signatures or initials of the trainers, and the dates of training.
The certification shall be available for inspection by employees and their authorized
representatives.
(h)
Duties of authorized entrants. The employer shall ensure that all authorized entrants:
(h)(1)
Know the hazards that may be faced during entry, including information on the
mode, signs, or symptoms, and consequences of the exposure;
(h)(2)
Properly use equipment as required by paragraph (d)(4) of this section;
(h)(3)
Communicate with the attendant as necessary to enable the attendant to monitor
entrant status and to enable the attendant to alert entrants of the need to evacuate
the space as required by paragraph (i)(6) of this section;
(h)(4)
Alert the attendant whenever:
(h)(4)(i)
The entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a dangerous
situation, or
(h)(4)(ii)
The entrant detects a prohibited condition; and
(h)(5)
Exit from the permit space as quickly as possible whenever:
(h)(5)(i)
An order to evacuate is given by the attendant or the entry supervisor,
(h)(5)(ii)
The entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a dangerous
situation,
(h)(5)(iii)
The entrant detects a prohibited condition, or
(h)(5)(iv)
An evacuation alarm is activated.
(i)
Duties of attendants. The employer shall ensure that each attendant:
(i)(1)
Knows the hazards that may be faced during entry, including information on the
mode, signs, or symptoms, and consequences of the exposure;
(i)(2)
Is aware of possible behavioral effects of hazard exposure in authorized entrants;
Regulations 97
(i)(3)
Continuously maintains an accurate count of authorized entrants in the permit space
and ensures that the means used to identify authorized entrants under paragraph
(f)(4) of this section accurately identifies who is in the permit space;
(i)(4)
Remains outside the permit space during entry operations until relieved by another
attendant;
Note: When the employer’s permit entry program allows attendant entry for rescue,
attendants may enter a permit space to attempt a rescue if they have been trained
and equipped for rescue operations as required by paragraph (k)(1) of this section
and if they have been relieved as required by paragraph (i)(4) of this section.
(i)(5)
Communicates with authorized entrants as necessary to monitor entrant status and to
alert entrants of the need to evacuate the space under paragraph (i)(6) of this section;
(i)(6)
Monitors activities inside and outside the space to determine if it is safe for entrants
to remain in the space and orders the authorized entrants to evacuate the permit
space immediately under any of the following conditions;
(i)(6)(i)
If the attendant detects a prohibited condition;
(i)(6)(ii)
If the attendant detects the behavioral effects of hazard exposure in an authorized
entrant;
(i)(6)(iii)
If the attendant detects a situation outside the space that could endanger the autho-
rized entrants; or
(i)(6)(iv)
If the attendant cannot effectively and safely perform all the duties required under
paragraph (i) of this section;
(i)(7)
Summon rescue and other emergency services as soon as the attendant determines
that authorized entrants may need assistance to escape from permit space hazards;
(i)(8)
Takes the following actions when unauthorized persons approach or enter a permit
space while entry is under way:
(i)(8)(i)
Warn the unauthorized persons that they must stay away from the permit space;
(i)(8)(ii)
Advise the unauthorized persons that they must exit immediately if they have entered
the permit space; and
(i)(8)(iii)
Inform the authorized entrants and the entry supervisor if unauthorized persons have
entered the permit space;
(i)(9)
Performs nonentry rescues as specified by the employer’s rescue procedure; and
(i)(10)
Performs no duties that might interfere with the attendant’s primary duty to monitor
and protect the authorized entrants.
(j)
Duties of entry supervisors. The employer shall ensure that each entry supervisor:
(j)(1)
Knows the hazards that may be faced during entry, including information on the
mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the exposure;
(j)(2)
Verifies, by checking that the appropriate entries have been made on the permit, that
all tests specified by the permit have been conducted and that all procedures and
equipment specified by the permit are in place before endorsing the permit and
allowing entry to begin;
(j)(3)
Terminates the entry and cancels the permit as required by paragraph (e)(5) of this
section;
(j)(4)
Verifies that rescue services are available and that the means for summoning them
are operable;
(j)(5)
Removes unauthorized individuals who enter or who attempt to enter the permit
space during entry operations; and
(j)(6)
Determines, whenever responsibility for a permit space entry operation is transferred
and at intervals dictated by the hazards and operations performed within the space,
that entry operations remain consistent with terms of the entry permit and that
acceptable entry conditions are maintained.
(k)
Rescue and emergency services.
(k)(1)
An employer who designates rescue and emergency services, pursuant to paragraph
(d)(9) of this section, shall:
(k)(1)(i)
Evaluate a prospective rescuer’s ability to respond to a rescue summons in a timely
manner, considering the hazard(s) identified;
Regulations 99
Note: What will be considered timely will vary according to the specific hazards
involved in each entry. For example, Sec. 1910.134, Respiratory Protection, requires
that employers provide a standby person or persons capable of immediate action to
rescue employee(s) wearing respiratory protection while in work areas defined as
IDLH atmospheres.
(k)(1)(ii)
Evaluate a prospective rescue service’s ability, in terms of proficiency with rescue-
related tasks and equipment, to function appropriately while rescuing entrants from
the particular permit space or types of permit spaces identified;
(k)(1)(iii)
Select a rescue team or service from those evaluated that:
(k)(1)(iii)(A)
Has the capability to reach the victim(s) within a time frame that is appropriate for
the permit space hazard(s) identified;
(k)(1)(iii)(B)
Is equipped for and proficient in performing the needed rescue services;
(k)(1)(iv)
Inform each rescue team or service of the hazards they may confront when called
on to perform rescue at the site; and
(k)(1)(v)
Provide the rescue team or service selected with access to all permit spaces from
which rescue may be necessary so that the rescue service can develop appropriate
rescue plans and practice rescue operations.
(k)(2)
An employer whose employees have been designated to provide permit space rescue
and emergency services shall take the following measures:
(k)(2)(i)
Provide affected employees with the personal protective equipment (PPE) needed
to conduct permit space rescues safely and train affected employees so they are
proficient in the use of that PPE, at no cost to those employees;
(k)(2)(ii)
Train affected employees to perform assigned rescue duties. The employer must
ensure that such employees successfully complete the training required to establish
proficiency as an authorized entrant, as provided by paragraphs (g) and (h) of this
section;
(k)(2)(iii)
Train affected employees in basic first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
The employer shall ensure that at least one member of the rescue team or service
holding a current certification in first aid and CPR is available; and
(k)(2)(iv)
Ensure that affected employees practice making permit space rescues at least once
every 12 months, by means of simulated rescue operations in which they remove
dummies, manikins, or actual persons from the actual permit spaces or from repre-
sentative permit spaces. Representative permit spaces shall, with respect to opening
size, configuration, and accessibility, simulate the types of permit spaces from which
rescue is to be performed.
(k)(3)
To facilitate nonentry rescue, retrieval systems or methods shall be used whenever
an authorized entrant enters a permit space, unless the retrieval equipment would
increase the overall risk of entry or would not contribute to the rescue of the entrant.
Retrieval systems shall meet the following requirements.
(k)(3)(i)
Each authorized entrant shall use a chest or full-body harness, with a retrieval line
attached at the center of the entrant’s back near the shoulder level, above the entrant’s
head, or at another point that the employer can establish presents a profile small
enough for the successful removal of the entrant. Wristlets may be used in lieu of
the chest or full-body harness if the employer can demonstrate that the use of a chest
or full-body harness is infeasible or creates a greater hazard and that the use of
wristlets is the safest and most effective alternative.
(k)(3)(ii)
The other end of the retrieval line shall be attached to a mechanical device or fixed
point outside the permit space in such a manner that rescue can begin as soon as
the rescuer becomes aware that rescue is necessary. A mechanical device shall be
available to retrieve personnel from vertical-type permit spaces more than 5 ft (1.52
m) deep.
(k)(4)
If an injured entrant is exposed to a substance for which a Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) or other similar written information is required to be kept at the
worksite, that MSDS or written information shall be made available to the medical
facility treating the exposed entrant.
(l)
Employee participation.
(l)(1)
Employers shall consult with affected employees and their authorized representatives
on the development and implementation of all aspects of the permit space program
required by paragraph (c) of this section.
(l)(2)
Employers shall make available to affected employees and their authorized repre-
sentatives all information required to be developed by this section.
Regulations 101
3.9 CONTROL OF HAZARDOUS ENERGY

(LOCKOUT/TAGOUT)
CFR 1910.147
SubPart Number: J
SubPart Title: General Environmental Controls
(a)
Scope, application, and purpose.
(a)(1)
Scope.
(a)(1)(i)
This standard covers the servicing and maintenance of machines and equipment in
which the unexpected energization or startup of the machines or equipment or release
of stored energy could cause injury to employees. This standard establishes minimum
performance requirements for the control of such hazardous energy.
(a)(1)(ii)
This standard does not cover the following:
(a)(1)(ii)(A)
Construction, agriculture, and maritime employment;
(a)(1)(ii)(B)
Installations under the exclusive control of electric utilities for the purpose of power
generation, transmission, and distribution, including related equipment for commu-
nication or metering; and
(a)(1)(ii)(C)
Exposure to electrical hazards from work on, near, or with conductors or equipment
in electric utilization installations, which is covered by Subpart S of this part; and
(a)(1)(ii)(D)
Oil and gas well drilling and servicing.
(a)(2)
Application.
(a)(2)(i)
This standard applies to the control of energy during servicing and/or maintenance
of machines and equipment.
(a)(2)(ii)
Normal production operations are not covered by this standard. Servicing and/or
maintenance that takes place during normal production operations is covered by this
standard only if:
(a)(2)(ii)(A)
An employee is required to remove or bypass a guard or other safety device; or
(a)(2)(ii)(B)
An employee is required to place any part of his or her body into an area on a
machine or piece of equipment where work is actually performed upon the material
being processed (point of operation) or where an associated danger zone exists during
a machine operating cycle.
Note: Exception to paragraph (a)(2)(ii): Minor tool changes and adjustments, and
other minor servicing activities, which take place during normal production opera-
tions, are not covered by this standard if they are routine, repetitive, and integral to
the use of the equipment for production, provided that the work is performed using
alternative measures that provide effective protection.
(a)(2)(iii)
This standard does not apply to the following:
(a)(2)(iii)(A)
Work on cord- and plug-connected electric equipment for which exposure to the
hazards of unexpected energization or start-up of the equipment is controlled by the
unplugging of the equipment from the energy source and by the plug being under
the exclusive control of the employee performing the servicing or maintenance.
(a)(2)(iii)(B)
Hot tap operations involving transmission and distribution systems for substances
such as gas, steam, water, or petroleum products when they are performed on
pressurized pipelines, provided that the employer demonstrates that
(a)(2)(iii)(B)(1)
continuity of service is essential;
(a)(2)(iii)(B)(2)
shutdown of the system is impractical; and
(a)(2)(iii)(B)(3)
documented procedures are followed, and special equipment is used that will provide
proven effective protection for employees.
(a)(3)
Purpose.
(a)(3)(i)
This section requires employers to establish a program and utilize procedures for
affixing appropriate lockout devices or tagout devices to energy-isolating devices,
and to otherwise disable machines or equipment to prevent unexpected energization,
start-up, or release of stored energy to prevent injury to employees.
(a)(3)(ii)
When other standards in this part require the use of lockout or tagout, they shall be
used and supplemented by the procedural and training requirements of this section.
Regulations 103
(b)
Definitions applicable to this section.
“Affected employee.” An employee whose job requires him or her to operate or use
a machine or equipment on which servicing or maintenance is being performed
under lockout or tagout, or whose job requires him or her to work in an area in
which such servicing or maintenance is being performed.
“Authorized employee.” A person who locks out or tags out machines or equipment
to perform servicing or maintenance on that machine or equipment. An affected
employee becomes an authorized employee when that employee’s duties include
performing servicing or maintenance covered under this section.
“Capable of being locked out.” An energy-isolating device is capable of being locked
out if it has a hasp or other means of attachment to which, or through which, a lock
can be affixed, or it has a locking mechanism built into it. Other energy-isolating
devices are capable of being locked out, if lockout can be achieved without the need
to dismantle, rebuild, or replace the energy-isolating device or permanently alter its
energy control capability.
“Energized.” Connected to an energy source or containing residual or stored energy.
“Energy-isolating device.” A mechanical device that physically prevents the trans-
mission or release of energy, including but not limited to the following: a manually
operated electrical circuit breaker; a disconnect switch; a manually operated switch
by which the conductors of a circuit can be disconnected from all ungrounded supply
conductors and, in addition, no pole can be operated independently; a line valve; a
block; and any similar device used to block or isolate energy. Push-buttons, selector
switches, and other control circuit-type devices are not energy-isolating devices.
“Energy source.” Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chem-
ical, thermal, or other energy.
“Hot tap.” A procedure used in the repair, maintenance, and service activities that
involves welding on a piece of equipment (pipelines, vessels, or tanks) under pressure
to install connections or appurtenances. It is commonly used to replace or add
sections of pipeline without interruption of service for air, gas, water, steam, and
petrochemical distribution systems.
“Lockout.” The placement of a lockout device on an energy-isolating device, in
accordance with an established procedure, ensuring that the energy-isolating device
and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lockout device is
removed.
“Lockout device.” A device that utilizes a positive means such as a lock, either key
or combination type, to hold an energy-isolating device in the safe position and
prevent the energizing of a machine or equipment. Included are blank flanges and
bolted slip blinds.
“Normal production operations.” The utilization of a machine or equipment to
perform its intended production function.
“Servicing and/or maintenance.” Workplace activities such as constructing, install-

ing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting, modifying, and maintaining and/or servicing
machines or equipment. These activities include lubrication, cleaning, or unjamming
of machines or equipment and making adjustments or tool changes, where the
employee may be exposed to the unexpected energization or startup of the equipment
or release of hazardous energy.
“Setting up.” Any work performed to prepare a machine or equipment to perform
its normal production operation.
“Tagout.” The placement of a tagout device on an energy-isolating device, in accor-
dance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and
the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is
removed.
“Tagout device.” A prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attach-
ment, which can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device in accordance
with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the
equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.
(c)
General.
(c)(1)
Energy control program. The employer shall establish a program consisting of energy
control procedures, employee training, and periodic inspections to ensure that before
any employee performs any servicing or maintenance on a machine or equipment
where the unexpected energizing, startup, or release of stored energy could occur
and cause injury, the machine or equipment shall be isolated from the energy source
and rendered inoperative.
(c)(2)
Lockout/tagout.
(c)(2)(i)
If an energy-isolating device is not capable of being locked out, the employer’s
energy control program under paragraph (c)(1) of this section shall utilize a tagout
system.
(c)(2)(ii)
If an energy-isolating device is capable of being locked out, the employer’s energy
control program under paragraph (c)(1) of this section shall utilize lockout, unless
the employer can demonstrate that the utilization of a tagout system will provide
full employee protection as set forth in paragraph (c)(3) of this section.
(c)(2)(iii)
After January 2, 1990, whenever replacement or major repair, renovation, or mod-
ification of a machine or equipment is performed, and whenever new machines or
equipment are installed, energy-isolating devices for such machine or equipment
shall be designed to accept a lockout device.
Regulations 105
(c)(3)
Full employee protection.
(c)(3)(i)
When a tagout device is used on an energy-isolating device that is capable of being
locked out, the tagout device shall be attached at the same location that the lockout
device would have been attached, and the employer shall demonstrate that the tagout
program will provide a level of safety equivalent to that obtained by using a lockout
program.
(c)(3)(ii)
In demonstrating that a level of safety is achieved in the tagout program that is
equivalent to the level of safety obtained by using a lockout program, the employer
shall demonstrate full compliance with all tagout-related provisions of this standard
together with such additional elements as are necessary to provide the equivalent
safety available from the use of a lockout device. Additional means to be considered
as part of the demonstration of full employee protection shall include the implemen-
tation of additional safety measures such as the removal of an isolating circuit
element, blocking of a controlling switch, opening of an extra disconnecting device,
or the removal of a valve handle to reduce the likelihood of inadvertent energization.
(c)(4)
Energy control procedure.
(c)(4)(i)
Procedures shall be developed, documented, and utilized for the control of potentially
hazardous energy when employees are engaged in the activities covered by this
section.
Note: Exception: The employer need not document the required procedure for a
particular machine or equipment, when all of the following elements exist: (1) The
machine or equipment has no potential for stored or residual energy or reaccumu-
lation of stored energy after shutdown that could endanger employees; (2) the
machine or equipment has a single energy source that can be readily identified and
isolated; (3) the isolation and locking out of that energy source will completely
deenergize and deactivate the machine or equipment; (4) the machine or equipment
is isolated from that energy source and locked out during servicing or maintenance;
(5) a single lockout device will achieve a locked-out condition; (6) the lockout device
is under the exclusive control of the authorized employee performing the servicing
or maintenance; (7) the servicing or maintenance does not create hazards for other
employees; and (8) the employer, in utilizing this exception, has had no accidents
involving the unexpected activation or reenergization of the machine or equipment
during servicing or maintenance.
(c)(4)(ii)
The procedures shall clearly and specifically outline the scope, purpose, authoriza-
tion, rules, and techniques to be utilized for the control of hazardous energy, and
the means to enforce compliance including, but not limited to, the following:
(c)(4)(ii)(A)
A specific statement of the intended use of the procedure;
(c)(4)(ii)(B)
Specific procedural steps for shutting down, isolating, blocking, and securing
machines or equipment to control hazardous energy;
(c)(4)(ii)(C)
Specific procedural steps for the placement, removal, and transfer of lockout devices
or tagout devices and the responsibility for them; and
(c)(4)(ii)(D)
Specific requirements for testing a machine or equipment to determine and verify
the effectiveness of lockout devices, tagout devices, and other energy control mea-
sures.
(c)(5)
Protective materials and hardware.
(c)(5)(i)
Locks, tags, chains, wedges, key blocks, adapter pins, self-locking fasteners, or other
hardware shall be provided by the employer for isolating, securing, or blocking of
machines or equipment from energy sources.
(c)(5)(ii)
Lockout devices and tagout devices shall be singularly identified; shall be the only
devices(s) used for controlling energy; shall not be used for other purposes; and
shall meet the following requirements:
(c)(5)(ii)(A)
Durable.
(c)(5)(ii)(A)(1)
Lockout and tagout devices shall be capable of withstanding the environment to
which they are exposed for the maximum period of time that exposure is expected.
(c)(5)(ii)(A)(2)
Tagout devices shall be constructed and printed so that exposure to weather condi-
tions or wet and damp locations will not cause the tag to deteriorate or the message
on the tag to become illegible.
(c)(5)(ii)(A)(3)
Tags shall not deteriorate when used in corrosive environments such as areas where
acid and alkali chemicals are handled and stored.
(c)(5)(ii)(B)
Standardized. Lockout and tagout devices shall be standardized within the facility
in at least one of the following criteria: color, shape, or size. Additionally, in the
case of tagout devices, print and format shall be standardized.
(c)(5)(ii)(C)
Substantial.
Regulations 107
(c)(5)(ii)(C)(1)
Lockout devices. Lockout devices shall be substantial enough to prevent removal
without the use of excessive force or unusual techniques, such as with the use of
bolt cutters or other metal-cutting tools.
(c)(5)(ii)(C)(2)
Tagout devices. Tagout devices, including their means of attachment, shall be sub-
stantial enough to prevent inadvertent or accidental removal. Tagout device attach-
ment means shall be of a nonreusable type, attachable by hand, self-locking, and
nonreleasable with a minimum unlocking strength of no less than 50 lb and having
the general design and basic characteristics of being at least equivalent to a one-
piece, all-environment-tolerant nylon cable tie.
(c)(5)(ii)(D)
Identifiable. Lockout devices and tagout devices shall indicate the identity of the
employee applying the device(s).
(c)(5)(iii)
Tagout devices shall warn against hazardous conditions if the machine or equipment
is energized and shall include a legend such as the following: Do Not Start. Do Not
Open. Do Not Close. Do Not Energize. Do Not Operate.
(c)(6)
Periodic inspection.
(c)(6)(i)
The employer shall conduct a periodic inspection of the energy control procedure
at least annually to ensure that the procedure and the requirements of this standard
are being followed.
(c)(6)(i)(A)
The periodic inspection shall be performed by an authorized employee other than
the ones(s) utilizing the energy control procedure being inspected.
(c)(6)(i)(B)
The periodic inspection shall be conducted to correct any deviations or inadequacies
identified.
(c)(6)(i)(C)
Where lockout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall include a
review, between the inspector and each authorized employee, of that employee’s
responsibilities under the energy control procedure being inspected.
(c)(6)(i)(D)
Where tagout is used for energy control, the periodic inspection shall include a
review, between the inspector and each authorized and affected employee, of that
employee’s responsibilities under the energy control procedure being inspected, and
the elements set forth in paragraph (c)(7)(ii) of this section.
(c)(6)(ii)
The employer shall certify that the periodic inspections have been performed. The
certification shall identify the machine or equipment on which the energy control
procedure was being utilized, the date of the inspection, the employees included in
the inspection, and the person performing the inspection.
(c)(7)
Training and communication.
(c)(7)(i)
The employer shall provide training to ensure that the purpose and function of the
energy control program are understood by employees and that the knowledge and
skills required for the safe application, usage, and removal of the energy controls
are acquired by employees. The training shall include the following:
(c)(7)(i)(A)
Each authorized employee shall receive training in the recognition of applicable
hazardous energy sources, the type and magnitude of the energy available in the
workplace, and the methods and means necessary for energy isolation and control.
(c)(7)(i)(B)
Each affected employee shall be instructed in the purpose and use of the energy
control procedure.
(c)(7)(i)(C)
All other employees whose work operations are or may be in an area where energy
control procedures may be utilized, shall be instructed about the procedure, and
about the prohibition relating to attempts to restart or reenergize machines or equip-
ment that are locked out or tagged out.
(c)(7)(ii)
When tagout systems are used, employees shall also be trained in the following
limitations of tags:
(c)(7)(ii)(A)
Tags are essentially warning devices affixed to energy-isolating devices, and do not
provide the physical restraint on those devices that is provided by a lock.
(c)(7)(ii)(B)
When a tag is attached to an energy-isolating means, it is not to be removed without
authorization of the authorized person responsible for it, and it is never to be
bypassed, ignored, or otherwise defeated.
(c)(7)(ii)(C)
Tags must be legible and understandable by all authorized employees, affected
employees, and all other employees whose work operations are or may be in the
area, in order to be effective.
(c)(7)(ii)(D)
Tags and their means of attachment must be made of materials that will withstand
the environmental conditions encountered in the workplace.
Regulations 109
(c)(7)(ii)(E)
Tags may evoke a false sense of security, and their meaning needs to be understood
as part of the overall energy control program.
(c)(7)(ii)(F)
Tags must be securely attached to energy-isolating devices so that they cannot be
inadvertently or accidentally detached during use.
(c)(7)(iii)
Employee retraining.
(c)(7)(iii)(A)
Retraining shall be provided for all authorized and affected employees whenever
there is a change in their job assignments, a change in machines, equipment, or
processes that present a new hazard, or when there is a change in the energy control
procedures.
(c)(7)(iii)(B)
Additional retraining shall also be conducted whenever a periodic inspection under
paragraph (c)(6) of this section reveals, or whenever the employer has reason to
believe that there are deviations from or inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge
or use of the energy control procedures.
(c)(7)(iii)(C)
The retraining shall reestablish employee proficiency and introduce new or revised
control methods and procedures, as necessary.
(c)(7)(iv)
The employer shall certify that employee training has been accomplished and is
being kept up-to-date. The certification shall contain each employee’s name and
dates of training.
(c)(8)
Energy isolation. Lockout or tagout shall be performed only by the authorized
employees who are performing the servicing or maintenance.
(c)(9)
Notification of employees. Affected employees shall be notified by the employer or
authorized employee of the application and removal of lockout devices or tagout
devices. Notification shall be given before the controls are applied, and after they
are removed from the machine or equipment.
(d)
Application of control. The established procedures for the application of energy
control (the lockout or tagout procedures) shall cover the following elements and
actions and shall be done in the following sequence:
(d)(1)
Preparation for shutdown. Before an authorized or affected employee turns off a
machine or equipment, the authorized employee shall have knowledge of the type
and magnitude of the energy, the hazards of the energy to be controlled, and the
method or means to control the energy.
(d)(2)
Machine or equipment shutdown. The machine or equipment shall be turned off or
shut down using the procedures established for the machine or equipment. An orderly
shutdown must be utilized to avoid any additional or increased hazard(s) to employ-
ees as a result of the equipment stoppage.
(d)(3)
Machine or equipment isolation. All energy-isolating devices that are needed to
control the energy to the machine or equipment shall be physically located and
operated in such a manner as to isolate the machine or equipment from the energy
source(s).
(d)(4)
Lockout or tagout device application.
(d)(4)(i)
Lockout or tagout devices shall be affixed to each energy-isolating device by autho-
rized employees.
(d)(4)(ii)
Lockout devices, where used, shall be affixed in a manner that will hold the energy-
isolating devices in a “safe” or “off” position.
(d)(4)(iii)
Tagout devices, where used, shall be affixed in such a manner as will clearly indicate
that the operation or movement of energy-isolating devices from the “safe” or “off”
position is prohibited.
(d)(4)(iii)(A)
Where tagout devices are used with energy-isolating devices designed with the
capability of being locked, the tag attachment shall be fastened at the same point at
which the lock would have been attached.
(d)(4)(iii)(B)
Where a tag cannot be affixed directly to the energy-isolating device, the tag shall
be located as close as safely possible to the device, in a position that will be
immediately obvious to anyone attempting to operate the device.
(d)(5)
Stored energy.
(d)(5)(i)
Following the application of lockout or tagout devices to energy-isolating devices,
all potentially hazardous stored or residual energy shall be relieved, disconnected,
restrained, and otherwise rendered safe.
Regulations 111
(d)(5)(ii)
If there is a possibility of reaccumulation of stored energy to a hazardous level,
verification of isolation shall be continued until the servicing or maintenance is
completed, or until the possibility of such accumulation no longer exists.
(d)(6)
Verification of isolation. Prior to starting work on machines or equipment that have
been locked out or tagged out, the authorized employee shall verify that isolation
and deenergization of the machine or equipment have been accomplished.
(e)
Release from lockout or tagout. Before lockout or tagout devices are removed and
energy is restored to the machine or equipment, procedures shall be followed and
actions taken by the authorized employee(s) to ensure the following:
(e)(1)
The machine or equipment. The work area shall be inspected to ensure that nones-
sential items have been removed and to ensure that machine or equipment compo-
nents are operationally intact.
(e)(2)
Employees.
(e)(2)(i)
The work area shall be checked to ensure that all employees have been safely
positioned or removed.
(e)(2)(ii)
After lockout or tagout devices have been removed and before a machine or equip-
ment is started, affected employees shall be notified that the lockout or tagout
device(s) have been removed.
(e)(3)
Lockout or tagout devices removal. Each lockout or tagout device shall be removed
from each energy-isolating device by the employee who applied the device. Excep-
tion to paragraph (e)(3): When the authorized employee who applied the lockout or
tagout device is not available to remove it, that device may be removed under the
direction of the employer, provided that specific procedures and training for such
removal have been developed, documented, and incorporated into the employer’s
energy control program. The employer shall demonstrate that the specific procedure
provides equivalent safety to the removal of the device by the authorized employee
who applied it. The specific procedure shall include at least the following elements:
(e)(3)(i)
Verification by the employer that the authorized employee who applied the device
is not at the facility:
(e)(3)(ii)
Making all reasonable efforts to contact the authorized employee to inform him or
her that his or her lockout or tagout device has been removed; and
(e)(3)(iii)
Ensuring that the authorized employee has this knowledge before he or she resumes
work at that facility.
(f)
Additional requirements.
(f)(1)
Testing or positioning of machines, equipment, or components thereof. In situations
in which lockout or tagout devices must be temporarily removed from the energy-
isolating device and the machine or equipment energized to test or position the
machine, equipment, or component thereof, the following sequence of actions shall
be followed:
(f)(1)(i)
Clear the machine or equipment of tools and materials in accordance with paragraph
(e)(1) of this section;
(f)(1)(ii)
Remove employees from the machine or equipment area in accordance with para-
graph (e)(2) of this section;
(f)(1)(iii)
Remove the lockout or tagout devices as specified in paragraph (e)(3) of this section;
(f)(1)(iv)
Energize and proceed with testing or positioning;
(f)(1)(v)
Deenergize all systems and reapply energy control measures in accordance with
paragraph (d) of this section to continue the servicing and/or maintenance.
(f)(2)
Outside personnel (contractors, etc.).
(f)(2)(i)
Whenever outside servicing personnel are to be engaged in activities covered by the
scope and application of this standard, the on-site employer and the outside employer
shall inform each other of their respective lockout or tagout procedures.
(f)(2)(ii)
The on-site employer shall ensure that his or her employees understand and comply
with the restrictions and prohibitions of the outside employer’s energy control program.
(f)(3)
Group lockout or tagout.
(f)(3)(i)
When servicing and/or maintenance is performed by a crew, craft, department, or
other group, it shall utilize a procedure that affords the employees a level of pro-
tection equivalent to that provided by the implementation of a personal lockout or
tagout device.
Regulations 113
(f)(3)(ii)
Group lockout or tagout devices shall be used in accordance with the procedures
required by paragraph (c)(4) of this section including, but not necessarily limited
to, the following specific requirements:
(f)(3)(ii)(A)
Primary responsibility is vested in an authorized employee or a set number of
employees working under the protection of a group lockout or tagout device (such
as an operations lock);
(f)(3)(ii)(B)
Provision for the authorized employee to ascertain the exposure status of individual
group members with regard to the lockout or tagout of the machine or equipment; and
(f)(3)(ii)(C)
When more than one crew, craft, department, etc. is involved, assignment of overall
job-associated lockout or tagout control responsibility to an authorized employee
designated to coordinate affected work forces and ensure continuity of protection; and
(f)(3)(ii)(D)
Each authorized employee shall affix a personal lockout or tagout device to the
group lockout device, group lockbox, or comparable mechanism when he or she
begins work, and shall remove those devices when he or she stops working on the
machine or equipment being serviced or maintained.
(f)(4)
Shift or personnel changes. Specific procedures shall be utilized during shift or
personnel changes to ensure the continuity of lockout or tagout protection, including
provision for the orderly transfer of lockout or tagout device protection between off-
going and oncoming employees, to minimize exposure to hazards from the unex-
pected energization or startup of the machine or equipment, or the release of stored
energy.
3.10 HAZARDOUS COMMUNICATIONS

CRF 1910.1200
SubPart Number: Z
(a)
Purpose.
(a)(1)
The purpose of this section is to ensure that the hazards of all chemicals produced
or imported are evaluated, and that information concerning their hazards is trans-
mitted to employers and employees. This transmittal of information is to be accom-
plished by means of comprehensive hazard communication programs, which are to
include container labeling and other forms of warning, material safety data sheets,
and employee training.
(a)(2)
This occupational safety and health standard is intended to address comprehensively
the issue of evaluating the potential hazards of chemicals, and communicating
information concerning hazards and appropriate protective measures to employees,
and to preempt any legal requirements of a state, or political subdivision of a state,
pertaining to this subject. Evaluating the potential hazards of chemicals, and com-
municating information concerning hazards and appropriate protective measures to
employees, may include, for example, but is not limited to, provisions for developing
and maintaining a written hazard communication program for the workplace, includ-
ing lists of hazardous chemicals present; labeling of containers of chemicals in the
workplace, as well as of containers of chemicals being shipped to other workplaces;
preparation and distribution of material safety data sheets to employees and down-
stream employers; and development and implementation of employee training pro-
grams regarding hazards of chemicals and protective measures. Under section 18 of
the Act, no state or political subdivision of a state may adopt or enforce, through
any court or agency, any requirement relating to the issue addressed by this federal
standard, except pursuant to a federally approved state plan.
(b)
Scope and application.
(b)(1)
This section requires chemical manufacturers or importers to assess the hazards of
chemicals that they produce or import, and all employers to provide information to
their employees about the hazardous chemicals to which they are exposed, by means
of a hazard communication program, labels and other forms of warning, material
safety data sheets, and information and training. In addition, this section requires
distributors to transmit the required information to employers. (Employers who do
not produce or import chemicals need only focus on those parts of this rule that deal
with establishing a workplace program and communicating information to their
workers.)
(b)(2)
This section applies to any chemical that is known to be present in the workplace
in such a manner that employees may be exposed under normal conditions of use
or in a foreseeable emergency.
(b)(3)
This section applies to laboratories only as follows:
(b)(3)(i)
Employers shall ensure that labels on incoming containers of hazardous chemicals
are not removed or defaced;
(b)(3)(ii)
Employers shall maintain any material safety data sheets that are received with
incoming shipments of hazardous chemicals, and ensure that they are readily acces-
sible during each workshift to laboratory employees when they are in their work
areas;
Regulations 115
(b)(3)(iii)
Employers shall ensure that laboratory employees are provided information and
training in accordance with paragraph (h) of this section, except for the location and
availability of the written hazard communication program under paragraph (h)(2)(iii)
of this section; and,
(b)(3)(iv)
Laboratory employers that ship hazardous chemicals are considered to be either a
chemical manufacturer or a distributor under this rule, and thus must ensure that
any containers of hazardous chemicals leaving the laboratory are labeled in accor-
dance with paragraph (f)(1) of this section, and that a material safety data sheet is
provided to distributors and other employers in accordance with paragraphs (g)(6)
and (g)(7) of this section.
(b)(4)
In work operations where employees only handle chemicals in sealed containers
that are not opened under normal conditions of use (such as are found in marine
cargo handling, warehousing, or retail sales), this section applies to these operations
only as follows:
(b)(4)(i)
Employers shall ensure that labels on incoming containers of hazardous chemicals
are not removed or defaced;
(b)(4)(ii)
Employers shall maintain copies of any material safety data sheets that are received
with incoming shipments of the sealed containers of hazardous chemicals, shall
obtain a material safety data sheet as soon as possible for sealed containers of
hazardous chemicals received without a material safety data sheet if an employee
requests the material safety data sheet, and shall ensure that the material safety data
sheets are readily accessible during each work shift to employees when they are in
their work area(s); and
(b)(4)(iii)
Employers shall ensure that employees are provided with information and training
in accordance with paragraph (h) of this section (except for the location and avail-
ability of the written hazard communication program under paragraph (h)(2)(iii) of
this section), to the extent necessary to protect them in the event of a spill or leak
of a hazardous chemical from a sealed container.
(b)(5)
This section does not require labeling of the following chemicals:
(b)(5)(i)
Any pesticide as such term is defined in the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (7 U.S.C. 136 et seq.), when subject to the labeling requirements
of that Act and labeling regulations issued under that Act by the Environmental
Protection Agency;
(b)(5)(ii)
Any chemical substance or mixture as such terms are defined in the Toxic Substances
Control Act (15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq.), when subject to the labeling requirements of
that Act and labeling regulations issued under that Act by the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency;
(b)(5)(iii)
Any food, food additive, color additive, drug, cosmetic, or medical or veterinary
device or product, including materials intended for use as ingredients in such prod-
ucts (e.g., flavors and fragrances), as such terms are defined in the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 301 et seq.) or the Virus-Serum-Toxin Act of
1913 (21 U.S.C. 151 et seq.), and regulations issued under those Acts, when they
are subject to the labeling requirements under those Acts by either the Food and
Drug Administration or the Department of Agriculture;
(b)(5)(iv)
Any distilled spirits (beverage alcohols), wine, or malt beverage intended for non-
industrial use, as such terms are defined in the Federal Alcohol Administration Act
(27 U.S.C. 201 et seq.) and regulations issued under that Act, when subject to the
labeling requirements of that Act and labeling regulations issued under that Act by
the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms;
(b)(5)(v)
Any consumer product or hazardous substance as those terms are defined in the
Consumer Product Safety Act (15 U.S.C. 2051 et seq.), and Federal Hazardous
Substances Act (15 U.S.C. 1261 et seq.) respectively, when subject to a consumer
product safety standard or labeling requirement of those Acts, or regulations issued
under those Acts by the Consumer Product Safety Commission; and
(b)(5)(vi)
Agricultural or vegetable seed treated with pesticides and labeled in accordance with
the Federal Seed Act (7 U.S.C. 1551 et seq.) and the labeling regulations issued
under that Act by the Department of Agriculture.
(b)(6)
This section does not apply to:
(b)(6)(i)
Any hazardous waste as such term is defined by the Solid Waste Disposal Act, as
amended by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, as amended (42
U.S.C. 6901 et seq.), when subject to regulations issued under that Act by the
Environmental Protection Agency;
(b)(6)(ii)
Any hazardous substance as such term is defined by the Comprehensive Environ-
mental Response, Compensation and Liability ACT (CERCLA) (42 U.S.C. 9601 et
seq.) when the hazardous substance is the focus of remedial or removal action being
conducted under CERCLA in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency
regulations.
Regulations 117
(b)(6)(iii)
Tobacco or tobacco products;
(b)(6)(iv)
Wood or wood products, including lumber that will not be processed, where the
chemical manufacturer or importer can establish that the only hazard they pose to
employees is the potential for flammability or combustibility (wood or wood prod-
ucts that have been treated with a hazardous chemical covered by this standard, and
wood that may be subsequently sawed or cut, generating dust, are not exempted);
(b)(6)(v)
Articles (as that term is defined in paragraph (c) of this section);
(b)(6)(vi)
Food or alcoholic beverages that are sold, used, or prepared in a retail establishment
(such as a grocery store, restaurant, or drinking place), and foods intended for
personal consumption by employees while in the workplace;
(b)(6)(vii)
Any drug, as that term is defined in the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21
U.S.C. 301 et seq.), when it is in solid, final form for direct administration to the
patient (e.g., tablets or pills); drugs that are packaged by the chemical manufacturer
for sale to consumers in a retail establishment (e.g., over-the-counter drugs); and
drugs intended for personal consumption by employees while in the workplace (e.g.,
first-aid supplies);
(b)(6)(viii)
Cosmetics that are packaged for sale to consumers in a retail establishment, and
cosmetics intended for personal consumption by employees while in the work-
place;
(b)(6)(ix)
Any consumer product or hazardous substance, as those terms are defined in the
Consumer Product Safety Act (15 U.S.C. 2051 et seq.) and Federal Hazardous
Substances Act (15 U.S.C. 1261 et seq.), respectively, where the employer can show
that it is used in the workplace for the purpose intended by the chemical manufacturer
or importer of the product, and the use results in a duration and frequency of exposure
that is not greater than the range of exposures that could reasonably be experienced
by consumers when used for the purpose intended;
(b)(6)(x)
Nuisance particulates where the chemical manufacturer or importer can establish
that they do not pose any physical or health hazard covered under this section;
(b)(6)(xi)
Ionizing and nonionizing radiation; and
(b)(6)(xii)
Biological hazards.
(c)
Definitions.
“Article” means a manufactured item other than a fluid or particle: (i) which is
formed to a specific shape or design during manufacture; (ii) which has end use
function(s) dependent in whole or in part upon its shape or design during end use;
and (iii) which under normal conditions of use does not release more than very small
quantities, e.g., minute or trace amounts of a hazardous chemical (as determined
under paragraph (d) of this section), and does not pose a physical hazard or health
risk to employees.
“Assistant Secretary” means the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational
Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Labor, or designee.
“Chemical” means any element, chemical compound, or mixture of elements and/or
compounds.
“Chemical manufacturer” means an employer with a workplace where chemical(s)
are produced for use or distribution.
“Chemical name” means the scientific designation of a chemical in accordance
with the nomenclature system developed by the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) or the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) rules of
nomenclature, or a name that will clearly identify the chemical for the purpose of
conducting a hazard evaluation.
“Combustible liquid” means any liquid having a flash point at or above 100°F
(37.8°C), but below 200°F (93.3°C), except any mixture having components with
flash points of 200°F (93.3°C), or higher, the total volume of which make up 99%
or more of the total volume of the mixture.
“Commercial account” means an arrangement whereby a retail distributor sells
hazardous chemicals to an employer, generally in large quantities over time and/or
at costs that are below the regular retail price.
“Common name” means any designation or identification such as code name, code
number, trade name, brand name, or generic name used to identify a chemical other
than by its chemical name.
“Compressed gas” means (i) a gas or mixture of gases having, in a container, an
absolute pressure exceeding 40 psi at 70°F (21.1°C); or (ii) a gas or mixture of gases
having, in a container, an absolute pressure exceeding 104 psi at 130°F (54.4°C)
regardless of the pressure at 70°F (21.1°C); or (iii) a liquid having a vapor pressure
exceeding 40 psi at 100°F (37.8°C) as determined by ASTM D-323-72.
“Container” means any bag, barrel, bottle, box, can, cylinder, drum, reaction vessel,
storage tank, or the like that contains a hazardous chemical. For purposes of this
section, pipes or piping systems, and engines, fuel tanks, or other operating systems
in a vehicle are not considered containers.
Regulations 119
“Designated representative” means any individual or organization to whom an

employee gives written authorization to exercise such employee’s rights under this
section. A recognized or certified collective bargaining agent shall be treated auto-
matically as a designated representative without regard to written employee autho-
rization.
“Director” means the Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or designee.
“Distributor” means a business, other than a chemical manufacturer or importer,
that supplies hazardous chemicals to other distributors or to employers.
“Employee” means a worker who may be exposed to hazardous chemicals under
normal operating conditions or in foreseeable emergencies. Workers such as office
workers or bank tellers who encounter hazardous chemicals only in nonroutine,
isolated instances are not covered.
“Employer” means a person engaged in a business where chemicals are used or
distributed, or are produced for use or distribution, including a contractor or sub-
contractor.
“Explosive” means a chemical that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous release
of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to sudden shock, pressure, or high tem-
perature.
“Exposure or exposed” means that an employee is subjected in the course of
employment to a chemical that is a physical or health hazard, and includes potential
(e.g., accidental or possible) exposure. “Subjected” in terms of health hazards
includes any route of entry (e.g., inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, or absorption.)
“Flammable” means a chemical that falls into one of the following categories:
(i) “Aerosol, flammable” means an aerosol that, when tested by the method
described in 16 CFR 1500.45, yields a flame projection exceeding 18 in. at full valve
opening, or a flashback (a flame extending back to the valve) at any degree of valve
opening; (ii) “Gas, flammable” means (A) a gas that, at ambient temperature and
pressure, forms a flammable mixture with air at a concentration of 13% by volume
or less; or (B) a gas that, at ambient temperature and pressure, forms a range of
flammable mixtures with air wider than 12% by volume, regardless of the lower
limit; (iii) “Liquid, flammable” means any liquid having a flash point below 100°F
(37.8°C), except any mixture having components with flash points of 100°F (37.8°C)
or higher, the total of which make up 99% or more of the total volume of the mixture;
(iv) “Solid, flammable” means a solid, other than a blasting agent or explosive as
defined in 1910.109(a), that is liable to cause fire through friction, absorption of
moisture, spontaneous chemical change, or retained heat from manufacturing or
processing, or which can be ignited readily and when ignited burns so vigorously
and persistently that it creates a serious hazard. A chemical shall be considered to
be a flammable solid if, when tested by the method described in 16 CFR 1500.44,
it ignites and burns with a self-sustained flame at a rate greater than one tenth of an
inch per second along its major axis.
“Flash point” means the minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off a vapor
in sufficient concentration to ignite when tested as follows: (i) Tagliabue Closed
Tester [See American National Standard Method of Test for Flash Point by Tag
Closed Tester, Z11.24-1979 (ASTM D 56-79)] for liquids with a viscosity of less
than 45 Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) at 100°F (37.8°C), that do not contain
suspended solids and do not have a tendency to form a surface film under test; or
(ii) Pensky-Martens Closed Tester [see American National Standard Method of Test
for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester, Z11.7-1979 (ASTM D 93-79)]
for liquids with a viscosity equal to or greater than 45 SUS at 100°F (37.8°C), or
that contain suspended solids, or that have a tendency to form a surface film under
test; or (iii) Setaflash Closed Tester [see American National Standard Method of
Test for Flash Point by Setaflash Closed Tester (ASTM D 3278-78)]. Organic
peroxides, which undergo autoaccelerating thermal decomposition, are excluded
from any of the flash point determination methods specified above.
“Foreseeable emergency” means any potential occurrence such as, but not limited
to, equipment failure, rupture of containers, or failure of control equipment that
could result in an uncontrolled release of a hazardous chemical into the workplace.
“Hazardous chemical” means any chemical that is a physical hazard or a health
hazard.
“Hazard warning” means any words, pictures, symbols, or combination thereof
appearing on a label or other appropriate form of warning that convey the specific
physical and health hazard(s), including target organ effects, of the chemical(s) in
the container(s). (See the definitions for “physical hazard” and “health hazard” to
determine the hazards that must be covered.)
“Health hazard” means a chemical for which there is statistically significant evi-
dence based on at least one study conducted in accordance with established scientific
principles that acute or chronic health effects may occur in exposed employees. The
term health hazard includes chemicals that are carcinogens, toxic or highly toxic
agents, reproductive toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephro-
toxins, neurotoxins, agents that act on the hematopoietic system, and agents that
damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes.
“Identity” means any chemical or common name that is indicated on the material
safety data sheet (MSDS) for the chemical. The identity used shall permit cross-
references to be made among the required list of hazardous chemicals, the label,
and the MSDS.
“Immediate use” means that the hazardous chemical will be under the control of
and used only by the person who transfers it from a labeled container and only
within the work shift in which it is transferred.
“Importer” means the first business with employees within the Customs Territory
of the United States that receives hazardous chemicals produced in other countries
for the purpose of supplying them to distributors or employers within the United
States.
Regulations 121
“Label” means any written, printed, or graphic material displayed on or affixed to

containers of hazardous chemicals.
“Material safety data sheet” (MSDS) means written or printed material concerning
a hazardous chemical that is prepared in accordance with paragraph (g) of this
section.
“Mixture” means any combination of two or more chemicals if the combination is
not, in whole or in part, the result of a chemical reaction.
“Organic peroxide” means an organic compound that contains the bivalent
–O–O–structure and that may be considered to be a structural derivative of hydrogen
peroxide where one or both of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an organic
radical.
“Oxidizer” means a chemical other than a blasting agent or explosive as defined in
1910.109(a), that initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, thereby caus-
ing fire either of itself or through the release of oxygen or other gases.
“Physical hazard” means a chemical for which there is scientifically valid evidence
that it is a combustible liquid, a compressed gas, explosive, flammable, an organic
peroxide, an oxidizer, pyrophoric, unstable (reactive), or water reactive.
“Produce” means to manufacture, process, formulate, blend, extract, generate, emit,
or repackage.
“Pyrophoric” means a chemical that will ignite spontaneously in air at a temperature
of 130°F (54.4°C) or below.
“Responsible party” means someone who can provide additional information on
the hazardous chemical and appropriate emergency procedures, if necessary.
“Specific chemical identity” means the chemical name, Chemical Abstracts Service
(CAS) Registry Number, or any other information that reveals the precise chemical
designation of the substance.
“Trade secret” means any confidential formula, pattern, process, device, informa-
tion, or compilation of information that is used in an employer’s business, and that
gives the employer an opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors who do
not know or use it.
“Unstable (reactive)” means a chemical that in the pure state, or as produced or
transported, will vigorously polymerize, decompose, condense, or will become self-
reactive under conditions of shock, pressure, or temperature.
“Use” means to package, handle, react, emit, extract, generate as a by-product, or
transfer.
“Water-reactive” means a chemical that reacts with water to release a gas that is
either flammable or presents a health hazard.
“Work area” means a room or defined space in a workplace where hazardous
chemicals are produced or used, and where employees are present.
“Workplace” means an establishment, job site, or project, at one geographical

location containing one or more work areas.
(d)
Hazard determination.
(d)(1)
Chemical manufacturers and importers shall evaluate chemicals produced in their
workplaces or imported by them to determine if they are hazardous. Employers are
not required to evaluate chemicals unless they choose not to rely on the evaluation
performed by the chemical manufacturer or importer for the chemical to satisfy this
requirement.
(d)(2)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, or employers evaluating chemicals shall identify
and consider the available scientific evidence concerning such hazards. For health
hazards, evidence that is statistically significant and that is based on at least one
positive study conducted in accordance with established scientific principles is
considered to be sufficient to establish a hazardous effect if the results of the study
meet the definitions of health hazards in this section.
(d)(3)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer evaluating chemicals shall treat
the following sources as establishing that the chemicals listed in them are hazardous:
(d)(3)(i)
29 CFR part 1910, subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA); or
(d)(3)(ii)
“Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work
Environment,” American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH) (latest edition). The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer is still
responsible for evaluating the hazards associated with the chemicals in these source
lists in accordance with the requirements of this standard.
(d)(4)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, and employers evaluating chemicals shall treat
the following sources as establishing that a chemical is a carcinogen or potential
carcinogen for hazard communication purposes:
(d)(4)(i)
National Toxicology Program (NTP), “Annual Report on Carcinogens” (latest edi-
tion);
(d)(4)(ii)
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) “Monographs” (latest edi-
tions); or
Regulations 123
(d)(4)(iii)
29 CFR part 1910, subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration.
Note: The “Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances” published by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health indicates whether a chemical
has been found by NTP or IARC to be a potential carcinogen.
(d)(5)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer shall determine the hazards of
mixtures of chemicals as follows:
(d)(5)(i)
If a mixture has been tested as a whole to determine its hazards, the results of such
testing shall be used to determine whether the mixture is hazardous;
(d)(5)(ii)
If a mixture has not been tested as a whole to determine whether the mixture is a
health hazard, the mixture shall be assumed to present the same health hazards as
do the components that comprise 1% (by weight or volume) or greater of the mixture,
except that the mixture shall be assumed to present a carcinogenic hazard if it
contains a component in concentrations of 0.1% or greater that is considered to be
a carcinogen under paragraph (d)(4) of this section;
(d)(5)(iii)
If a mixture has not been tested as a whole to determine whether the mixture is a
physical hazard, the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer may use whatever
scientifically valid data are available to evaluate the physical hazard potential of the
mixture; and,
(d)(5)(iv)
If the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer has evidence to indicate that a
component present in the mixture in concentrations of less than 1% (or in the case
of carcinogens, less than 0.1%) could be released in concentrations that would exceed
an established OSHA permissible exposure limit or ACGIH Threshold Limit Value,
or could present a health risk to employees in those concentrations, the mixture shall
be assumed to present the same hazard.
(d)(6)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, or employers evaluating chemicals shall
describe in writing the procedures they use to determine the hazards of the chemical
they evaluate. The written procedures are to be made available, upon request, to
employees, their designated representatives, the Assistant Secretary, and the Director.
The written description may be incorporated into the written hazard communication
program required under paragraph (e) of this section.
(e)
Written hazard communication program.
(e)(1)
Employers shall develop, implement, and maintain at each workplace, a written
hazard communication program that at least describes how the criteria specified in
paragraphs (f), (g), and (h) of this section for labels and other forms of warning,
material safety data sheets, and employee information and training will be met, and
that also includes the following:
(e)(1)(i)
A list of the hazardous chemicals known to be present using an identity that is
referenced on the appropriate material safety data sheet (the list may be compiled
for the workplace as a whole or for individual work areas); and
(e)(1)(ii)
The methods the employer will use to inform employees of the hazards of nonroutine
tasks (for example, the cleaning of reactor vessels), and the hazards associated with
chemicals contained in unlabeled pipes in their work areas.
(e)(2)
Multiemployer workplaces. Employers who produce, use, or store hazardous chem-
icals at a workplace in such a way that the employees of other employer(s) may be
exposed (for example, employees of a construction contractor working on-site) shall
additionally ensure that the hazard communication programs developed and imple-
mented under this paragraph (e) include the following:
(e)(2)(i)
The methods the employer will use to provide the other employer(s) on-site access
to material safety data sheets for each hazardous chemical the other employer(s)’
employees may be exposed to while working;
(e)(2)(ii)
The methods the employer will use to inform the other employer(s) of any precau-
tionary measures that need to be taken to protect employees in the normal operating
conditions of the workplace and in foreseeable emergencies; and
(e)(2)(iii)
The methods the employer will use to inform the other employer(s) of the labeling
system used in the workplace.
(e)(3)
The employer may rely on an existing hazard communication program to comply
with these requirements, provided that it meets the criteria established in this para-
graph (e).
(e)(4)
The employer shall make the written hazard communication program available, upon
request, to employees, their designated representatives, the Assistant Secretary and
the Director, in accordance with the requirements of 29 CFR 1910.1020(e).
Regulations 125
(e)(5)
Where employees must travel between workplaces during a work shift, i.e., their
work is carried out at more than one geographical location, the written hazard
communication program may be kept at the primary workplace facility.
(f)
Labels and other forms of warning.
(f)(1)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or distributor shall ensure that each container
of hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace is labeled, tagged, or marked with
the following information:
(f)(1)(i)
Identity of the hazardous chemical(s);
(f)(1)(ii)
Appropriate hazard warnings; and
(f)(1)(iii)
Name and address of the chemical manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party.
(f)(2)
(f)(2)(i)
For solid metal (such as a steel beam or a metal casting), solid wood, or plastic
items that are not exempted as articles due to their downstream use, or shipments
of whole grain, the required label may be transmitted to the customer at the time of
the initial shipment, and need not be included with subsequent shipments to the
same employer unless the information on the label changes;
(f)(2)(ii)
The label may be transmitted with the initial shipment itself, or with the material
safety data sheet that is to be provided prior to or at the time of the first shipment; and
(f)(2)(iii)
This exception to requiring labels on every container of hazardous chemicals is only
for the solid material itself, and does not apply to hazardous chemicals used in
conjunction with, or known to be present with, the material and to which employees
handling the items in transit may be exposed (for example, cutting fluids or pesticides
in grains).
(f)(3)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, or distributors shall ensure that each container
of hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace is labeled, tagged, or marked in
accordance with this section in a manner that does not conflict with the requirements
of the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.) and regu-
lations issued under that Act by the Department of Transportation.
(f)(4)
If the hazardous chemical is regulated by OSHA in a substance-specific health
standard, the chemical manufacturer, importer, distributor, or employer shall ensure
that the labels or other forms of warning used are in accordance with the requirements
of that standard.
(f)(5)
Except as provided in paragraphs (f)(6) and (f)(7) of this section, the employer shall
ensure that each container of hazardous chemicals in the workplace is labeled,
tagged, or marked with the following information:
(f)(5)(i)
Identity of the hazardous chemical(s) contained therein; and
(f)(5)(ii)
Appropriate hazard warnings or, alternatively, words, pictures, symbols, or combi-
nation thereof, that provide at least general information regarding the hazards of the
chemicals, and that, in conjunction with the other information immediately available
to employees under the hazard communication program, will provide employees
with the specific information regarding the physical and health hazards of the
hazardous chemical.
(f)(6)
The employer may use signs, placards, process sheets, batch tickets, operating
procedures, or other such written materials in lieu of affixing labels to individual
stationary process containers, as long as the alternative method identifies the con-
tainers to which it is applicable and conveys the information required by paragraph
(f)(5) of this section to be on a label. The written materials shall be readily accessible
to the employees in their work area throughout each work shift.
(f)(7)
The employer is not required to label portable containers into which hazardous
chemicals are transferred from labeled containers, and which are intended only for
the immediate use of the employee who performs the transfer. For purposes of this
section, drugs that are dispensed by a pharmacy to a health-care provider for direct
administration to a patient are exempted from labeling.
(f)(8)
The employer shall not remove or deface existing labels on incoming containers of
hazardous chemicals, unless the container is immediately marked with the required
information.
(f)(9)
The employer shall ensure that labels or other forms of warning are legible, in
English, and prominently displayed on the container, or readily available in the work
area throughout each work shift. Employers having employees who speak other
languages may add the information in their language to the material presented, as
long as the information is presented in English as well.
(f)(10)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, distributor, or employer need not affix new
labels to comply with this section if existing labels already convey the required
information.
Regulations 127
(f)(11)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, distributors, or employers who become newly
aware of any significant information regarding the hazards of a chemical shall revise
the labels for the chemical within 3 months of becoming aware of the new informa-
tion. Labels on containers of hazardous chemicals shipped after that time shall contain
the new information. If the chemical is not currently produced or imported, the
chemical manufacturer, importers, distributor, or employer shall add the information
to the label before the chemical is shipped or introduced into the workplace again.
(g)
Material safety data sheets.
(g)(1)
Chemical manufacturers and importers shall obtain or develop a material safety data
sheet for each hazardous chemical they produce or import. Employers shall have a
material safety data sheet in the workplace for each hazardous chemical they use.
(g)(2)
Each material safety data sheet shall be in English (although the employer may
maintain copies in other languages as well), and shall contain at least the following
information:
(g)(2)(i)
The identity used on the label and, except as provided for in paragraph (i) of this
section, on trade secrets:
(g)(2)(i)(A)
If the hazardous chemical is a single substance, its chemical and common name(s);
(g)(2)(i)(B)
If the hazardous chemical is a mixture that has been tested as a whole to determine
its hazards, the chemical and common name(s) of the ingredients that contribute to
these known hazards, and the common name(s) of the mixture itself; or
(g)(2)(i)(C)
If the hazardous chemical is a mixture that has not been tested as a whole:
(g)(2)(i)(C)(1)
The chemical and common name(s) of all ingredients that have been determined to
be health hazards, and that comprise 1% or greater of the composition, except that
chemicals identified as carcinogens under paragraph (d) of this section shall be listed
if the concentrations are 0.1% or greater; and
(g)(2)(i)(C)(2)
be health hazards, and that comprise less than 1% (0.1% for carcinogens) of the
mixture, if there is evidence that the ingredient(s) could be released from the mixture
in concentrations that would exceed an established OSHA permissible exposure limit
or ACGIH Threshold Limit Value, or could present a health risk to employees; and
(g)(2)(i)(C)(3)
present a physical hazard when present in the mixture;
(g)(2)(ii)
Physical and chemical characteristics of the hazardous chemical (such as vapor
pressure, flash point);
(g)(2)(iii)
The physical hazards of the hazardous chemical, including the potential for fire,
explosion, and reactivity;
(g)(2)(iv)
The health hazards of the hazardous chemical, including signs and symptoms of
exposure, and any medical conditions that are generally recognized as being aggra-
vated by exposure to the chemical;
(g)(2)(v)
The primary route(s) of entry;
(g)(2)(vi)
The OSHA permissible exposure limit, ACGIH Threshold Limit Value, and any
other exposure limit used or recommended by the chemical manufacturer, importer,
or employer preparing the material safety data sheet, where available;
(g)(2)(vii)
Whether the hazardous chemical is listed in the National Toxicology Program (NTP)
Annual Report on Carcinogens (latest edition) or has been found to be a potential
carcinogen in the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs
(latest editions), or by OSHA;
(g)(2)(viii)
Any generally applicable precautions for safe handling and use that are known to
the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the material safety data
sheet, including appropriate hygienic practices, protective measures during repair
and maintenance of contaminated equipment, and procedures for cleanup of spills
and leaks;
(g)(2)(ix)
Any generally applicable control measures that are known to the chemical manu-
facturer, importer, or employer preparing the material safety data sheet, such as
appropriate engineering controls, work practices, or personal protective equipment;
(g)(2)(x)
Emergency and first-aid procedures;
(g)(2)(xi)
The date of preparation of the material safety data sheet or the last change to it; and
Regulations 129
(g)(2)(xii)
The name, address, and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer, importer,
employer, or other responsible party preparing or distributing the material safety
data sheet, who can provide additional information on the hazardous chemical and
appropriate emergency procedures, if necessary.
(g)(3)
If no relevant information is found for any given category on the material safety
data sheet, the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the material
safety data sheet shall mark it to indicate that no applicable information was found.
(g)(4)
Where complex mixtures have similar hazards and contents (i.e., the chemical
ingredients are essentially the same, but the specific composition varies from mixture
to mixture), the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer may prepare one
material safety data sheet to apply to all of these similar mixtures.
(g)(5)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the material safety data
sheet shall ensure that the information recorded accurately reflects the scientific
evidence used in making the hazard determination. If the chemical manufacturer,
importer, or employer preparing the material safety data sheet becomes newly aware
of any significant information regarding the hazards of a chemical, or ways to protect
against the hazards, this new information shall be added to the material safety data
sheet within 3 months. If the chemical is not currently being produced or imported,
the chemical manufacturer or importer shall add the information to the material
safety data sheet before the chemical is introduced into the workplace again.
(g)(6)
(g)(6)(i)
Chemical manufacturers or importers shall ensure that distributors and employers
are provided an appropriate material safety data sheet with their initial shipment,
and with the first shipment after a material safety data sheet is updated;
(g)(6)(ii)
The chemical manufacturer or importer shall either provide material safety data
sheets with the shipped containers or send them to the distributor or employer prior
to or at the time of the shipment;
(g)(6)(iii)
If the material safety data sheet is not provided with a shipment that has been labeled
as a hazardous chemical, the distributor or employer shall obtain one from the
chemical manufacturer or importer as soon as possible; and
(g)(6)(iv)
The chemical manufacturer or importer shall also provide distributors or employers
with a material safety data sheet upon request.
(g)(7)
(g)(7)(i)
Distributors shall ensure that material safety data sheets, and updated information,
are provided to other distributors and employers with their initial shipment and with
the first shipment after a material safety data sheet is updated;
(g)(7)(ii)
The distributor shall either provide material safety data sheets with the shipped
containers, or send them to the other distributor or employer prior to or at the time
of the shipment;
(g)(7)(iii)
Retail distributors selling hazardous chemicals to employers having a commercial
account shall provide a material safety data sheet to such employers upon request,
and shall post a sign or otherwise inform them that a material safety data sheet is
available;
(g)(7)(iv)
Wholesale distributors selling hazardous chemicals to employers over-the-counter
may also provide material safety data sheets upon the request of the employer at
the time of the over-the-counter purchase, and shall post a sign or otherwise inform
such employers that a material safety data sheet is available;
(g)(7)(v)
If an employer without a commercial account purchases a hazardous chemical from
a retail distributor not required to have material safety data sheets on file (i.e., the
retail distributor does not have commercial accounts and does not use the materials),
the retail distributor shall provide the employer, upon request, with the name, address,
and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer, importer, or distributor from
which a material safety data sheet can be obtained;
(g)(7)(vi)
Wholesale distributors shall also provide material safety data sheets to employers
or other distributors upon request; and
(g)(7)(vii)
Chemical manufacturers, importers, and distributors need not provide material safety
data sheets to retail distributors that have informed them that the retail distributor
does not sell the product to commercial accounts or open the sealed container to
use it in their own workplaces.
(g)(8)
The employer shall maintain in the workplace copies of the required material safety
data sheets for each hazardous chemical, and shall ensure that they are readily
accessible during each work shift to employees when they are in their work area(s).
(Electronic access, microfiche, and other alternatives to maintaining paper copies of
the material safety data sheets are permitted as long as no barriers to immediate
employee access in each workplace are created by such options.)
Regulations 131
(g)(9)
Where employees must travel between workplaces during a work shift, i.e., their
work is carried out at more than one geographical location, the material safety data
sheets may be kept at the primary workplace facility. In this situation, the employer
shall ensure that employees can immediately obtain the required information in an
emergency.
(g)(10)
Material safety data sheets may be kept in any form, including operating procedures,
and may be designed to cover groups of hazardous chemicals in a work area where
it may be more appropriate to address the hazards of a process rather than individual
hazardous chemicals. However, the employer shall ensure that in all cases the
required information is provided for each hazardous chemical, and is readily acces-
sible during each work shift to employees when they are in their work area(s).
(g)(11)
Material safety data sheets shall also be made readily available, upon request, to
designated representatives and to the Assistant Secretary, in accordance with the
requirements of 29 CFR 1910.1020(e). The Director shall also be given access to
material safety data sheets in the same manner.
(h)
Employee information and training.
(h)(1)
Employers shall provide employees with effective information and training on haz-
ardous chemicals in their work area at the time of their initial assignment, and
whenever a new physical or health hazard the employees have not previously been
trained about is introduced into their work area. Information and training may be
designed to cover categories of hazards (e.g., flammability, carcinogenicity) or spe-
cific chemicals. Chemical-specific information must always be available through
labels and material safety data sheets.
(h)(2)
Information. Employees shall be informed of:
(h)(2)(i)
The requirements of this section;
(h)(2)(ii)
Any operations in their work area where hazardous chemicals are present; and
(h)(2)(iii)
The location and availability of the written hazard communication program, includ-
ing the required list(s) of hazardous chemicals, and material safety data sheets
required by this section.
(h)(3)
Training. Employee training shall include at least:
(h)(3)(i)
Methods and observations that may be used to detect the presence or release of a
hazardous chemical in the work area (such as monitoring conducted by the employer,
continuous monitoring devices, visual appearance or odor of hazardous chemicals
when being released, etc.);
(h)(3)(ii)
The physical and health hazards of the chemicals in the work area;
(h)(3)(iii)
The measures employees can take to protect themselves from these hazards, includ-
ing specific procedures the employer has implemented to protect employees from
exposure to hazardous chemicals, such as appropriate work practices, emergency
procedures, and personal protective equipment to be used; and
(h)(3)(iv)
The details of the hazard communication program developed by the employer,
including an explanation of the labeling system and the material safety data sheet,
and how employees can obtain and use the appropriate hazard information.
(i)
Trade secrets.
(i)(1)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer may withhold the specific chem-
ical identity, including the chemical name and other specific identification of a
hazardous chemical, from the material safety data sheet, provided that:
(i)(1)(i)
The claim that the information withheld is a trade secret can be supported;
(i)(1)(ii)
Information contained in the material safety data sheet concerning the properties
and effects of the hazardous chemical is disclosed;
(i)(1)(iii)
The material safety data sheet indicates that the specific chemical identity is being
withheld as a trade secret; and
(i)(1)(iv)
The specific chemical identity is made available to health professionals, employees,
and designated representatives in accordance with the applicable provisions of this
paragraph.
(i)(2)
Where a treating physician or nurse determines that a medical emergency exists and
the specific chemical identity of a hazardous chemical is necessary for emergency
or first-aid treatment, the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer shall imme-
diately disclose the specific chemical identity of a trade secret chemical to that
treating physician or nurse, regardless of the existence of a written statement of need
or a confidentiality agreement. The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer
Regulations 133
may require a written statement of need and confidentiality agreement, in accordance

with the provisions of paragraphs (i)(3) and (4) of this section, as soon as circum-
stances permit.
(i)(3)
In nonemergency situations, a chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer shall,
upon request, disclose a specific chemical identity, otherwise permitted to be with-
held under paragraph (i)(1) of this section, to a health professional (i.e., physician,
industrial hygienist, toxicologist, epidemiologist, or occupational health nurse) pro-
viding medical or other occupational health services to exposed employee(s), and
to employees or designated representatives, if:
(i)(3)(i)
The request is in writing;
(i)(3)(ii)
The request describes with reasonable detail one or more of the following occupa-
tional health needs for the information:
(i)(3)(ii)(A)
To assess the hazards of the chemicals to which employees will be exposed;
(i)(3)(ii)(B)
To conduct or assess sampling of the workplace atmosphere to determine employee
exposure levels;
(i)(3)(ii)(C)
To conduct preassignment or periodic medical surveillance of exposed employees;
(i)(3)(ii)(D)
To provide medical treatment to exposed employees;
(i)(3)(ii)(E)
To select or assess appropriate personal protective equipment for exposed employees;
(i)(3)(ii)(F)
To design or assess engineering controls or other protective measures for exposed
employees; and
(i)(3)(ii)(G)
To conduct studies to determine the health effects of exposure.
(i)(3)(iii)
The request explains in detail why the disclosure of the specific chemical identity
is essential and that, in lieu thereof, the disclosure of the following information to
the health professional, employee, or designated representative would not satisfy the
purposes described in paragraph (i)(3)(ii) of this section:
(i)(3)(iii)(A)
The properties and effects of the chemical;
(i)(3)(iii)(B)
Measures for controlling workers’ exposure to the chemical;
(i)(3)(iii)(C)
Methods of monitoring and analyzing worker exposure to the chemical; and
(i)(3)(iii)(D)
Methods of diagnosing and treating harmful exposures to the chemical;
(i)(3)(iv)
The request includes a description of the procedures to be used to maintain the
confidentiality of the disclosed information; and
(i)(3)(v)
The health professional and the employer or contractor of the services of the health
professional (i.e., downstream employer, labor organization, or individual
employee), employee, or designated representative agree in a written confidentiality
agreement that the health professional, employee, or designated representative will
not use the trade secret information for any purpose other than the health need(s)
asserted and agree not to release the information under any circumstances other than
to OSHA, as provided in paragraph (i)(6) of this section, except as authorized by
the terms of the agreement or by the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer.
(i)(4)
The confidentiality agreement authorized by paragraph (i)(3)(iv) of this section:
(i)(4)(i)
May restrict the use of the information to the health purposes indicated in the written
statement of need;
(i)(4)(ii)
May provide for appropriate legal remedies in the event of a breach of the agreement,
including stipulation of a reasonable preestimate of likely damages; and
(i)(4)(iii)
May not include requirements for the posting of a penalty bond.
(i)(5)
Nothing in this standard is meant to preclude the parties from pursuing noncontrac-
tual remedies to the extent permitted by law.
(i)(6)
If the health professional, employee, or designated representative receiving the trade
secret information decides that there is a need to disclose it to OSHA, the chemical
manufacturer, importer, or employer who provided the information shall be informed
by the health professional, employee, or designated representative prior to, or at the
same time as, such disclosure.
(i)(7)
If the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer denies a written request for
disclosure of a specific chemical identity, the denial must:
Regulations 135
(i)(7)(i)
Be provided to the health professional, employee, or designated representative,
within 30 days of the request;
(i)(7)(ii)
Be in writing;
(i)(7)(iii)
Include evidence to support the claim that the specific chemical identity is a trade
secret;
(i)(7)(iv)
State the specific reasons the request is being denied; and
(i)(7)(v)
Explain in detail how alternative information may satisfy the specific medical or
occupational health need without revealing the specific chemical identity.
(i)(8)
The health professional, employee, or designated representative whose request for
information is denied under paragraph (i)(3) of this section may refer the request
and the written denial of the request to OSHA for consideration.
(i)(9)
When a health professional, employee, or designated representative refers the denial
to OSHA under paragraph (i)(8) of this section, OSHA shall consider the evidence
to determine if:
(i)(9)(i)
The chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer has supported the claim that the
specific chemical identity is a trade secret;
(i)(9)(ii)
The health professional, employee, or designated representative has supported the
claim that there is a medical or occupational health need for the information; and
(i)(9)(iii)
The health professional, employee, or designated representative has demonstrated
adequate means to protect the confidentiality.
(i)(10)
(i)(10)(i)
If OSHA determines that the specific chemical identity requested under paragraph
(i)(3) of this section is not a “bona fide” trade secret, or that it is a trade secret, but
the requesting health professional, employee, or designated representative has a
legitimate medical or occupational health need for the information, has executed a
written confidentiality agreement, and has shown adequate means to protect the
confidentiality of the information, the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer
will be subject to citation by OSHA.
(i)(10)(ii)
If a chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer demonstrates to OSHA that the
execution of a confidentiality agreement would not provide sufficient protection
against the potential harm from the unauthorized disclosure of a trade secret specific
chemical identity, the Assistant Secretary may issue such orders or impose such
additional limitations or conditions upon the disclosure of the requested chemical
information as may be appropriate to assure that the occupational health services
are provided without an undue risk of harm to the chemical manufacturer, importer,
or employer.
(i)(11)
If a citation for a failure to release specific chemical identity information is contested
by the chemical manufacturer, importer, or employer, the matter will be adjudicated
before the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission in accordance with
the enforcement scheme of the Act and the applicable commission rules of procedure.
In accordance with the Commission rules, when a chemical manufacturer, importer,
or employer continues to withhold the information during the contest, the Admin-
istrative Law Judge may review the citation and supporting documentation “in
camera” or issue appropriate orders to protect the confidentiality of such matters.
(i)(12)
Notwithstanding the existence of a trade secret claim, a chemical manufacturer,
importer, or employer shall, upon request, disclose to the Assistant Secretary any
information that this section requires the chemical manufacturer, importer, or
employer to make available. Where there is a trade secret claim, such claim shall
be made no later than at the time the information is provided to the Assistant
Secretary so that suitable determinations of trade secret status can be made and the
necessary protections can be implemented.
(i)(13)
Nothing in this paragraph shall be construed as requiring the disclosure under any
circumstances of process or percentage of mixture information that is a trade secret.
4 Chemical Profiles
Hazardous Communication (HazCom) is among the most frequently cited violations
in the OSHA standard. It is amazing that, after all these years, HazCom would be
so heavily cited. What is it that makes this standard so impossible to comply with?
How does one even begin to complete the enormous amount of training on hundreds
or thousands of chemicals? What is really expected of supervisors? Managers?
Employees? This section hopes to provide the resources to answer these questions.
To start, it is important to distinguish between the different regulations related
to chemicals. Although they may sound similar and are often confused, there are
specific differences that are important to understand. There are three main chemical
safety regulations that affect almost all companies regardless of how small or large.
Those three regulations are 29 CFR 1910.1200 — Hazardous Communications, 29
CFR 1910.120 — Hazardous Waste Operations (including emergency response),
and 49 CFR Part 172 — Hazardous Material Transportation. Do not fall victim to
complacency or naiveté and automatically think, “our facility doesn’t fall under that
regulation.” This is the first reason OSHA cites so heavily in this area. Understand
the differences in these major regulations and learn how to comply.
This section should make complying with 29 CFR 1910.1200 — Hazardous
Communications standard much more straightforward and achievable.
The first step in getting a handle on HazCom is to make a comprehensive list
of chemicals that employees could be exposed to in the workplace. This list should
include chemicals purchased from vendors, chemicals manufactured in the facility,
by-products such as fumes, gases, or vapors, and any chemicals that are transported
or stored by the facility. In small facilities this can easily be hundreds of chemicals,
whereas large facilities frequently have several thousand chemicals to list. The list
should include the chemical name, manufacturer, the manufacturer’s phone number
or contact address, the area where the chemical is stored or used, and when the latest
material safety data sheets (MSDS) were obtained.
With a thorough chemical inventory to work from, proceed to prepare and
implement a Written Hazardous Communication program. This does not have
to be a cumbersome or difficult task. Sample programs are available on the Web
and through many vendors. This process can be as simple as filling in the blanks
applicable to the facility. One important aspect of a written program is the designation
of a person(s) who will be responsible for chemical labeling of containers and who
will review and update the labeling information.
Another aspect of the written program is identifying what method will be used
to provide all employees with current MSDS. With hundreds or thousands of
MSDS to keep current and available this is an almost impossible undertaking.
Electronic data management tools have made this task much easier. These are easily
137
found in trade magazines, professional publications, as well as on the Internet.

Internet-based retrieval systems can make employee retrieval of MSDS easy and
relatively inexpensive. Many universities offer large databases of MSDSs. These are
often very helpful and quick to access. Remember the standard stipulates every
employee must have ready access to applicable MSDSs in their work areas during
their work shift.
Probably the most troublesome aspect of the HazCom regulation is the criteria
that all employees must be trained on every chemical they are exposed to in the
workplace. Where there are only a few chemicals to which an employee is exposed,
this may not be too burdensome, whereas in facilities with hundreds or thousands
of chemicals this part of the standard can be overwhelming. The National Toxicology
Program (NTP) has collected chemical data on more than 2000 chemicals suitable
for training. Training material can be accessed at
http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/Main_Pages/Chem-HS.html
Another site providing information suitable for individual chemical training is Score-
card. Scorecard provides detailed information on more than 6800 chemicals, includ-
ing most chemicals used in large amounts in the United States and all the chemicals
regulated under major environmental laws.
http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-profiles/
The regulations offer a more manageable method to address this potential training
monster. Training can be conducted by “category of hazard” (e.g., flammables,
carcinogens, acids, etc.) This method of training can cut thousands of chemicals
down, to, say, 20 “categories of hazards.” This type of chemical profile categories
of hazards is available at
[email protected]
or Starmark Engineering at 806-273-3830. Examples of these "chemical profiles”

follow.
The following pages are devoted to providing some of the basic chemical
category training needed to bring a HazCom program into compliance. This does
not represent all the chemical categories, but provides a good start, a good template
to use in developing additional and customized training modules, and resources of
vendors that might help you as well. These chemical profiles include:
Aerosols
Compressed gases
Corrosives
Flammable liquids
Fuels
Insulation
Chemical Profiles 139
Paint
Pesticides
Reactives
Solvents
Toluene or xylene
Waste
4.1 AEROSOLS
4.1.1 AEROSOL INFORMATION SOURCES
This Hazardous Communication safety information is intended to provide general
safety information only. Its intent is to serve as an easy-to-understand reference for
the different aspects of handling aerosols. One should always review the product
labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific aerosols in use. In
some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of specific aerosols
before handling them.
4.1.2 AEROSOL SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Spray Can, Spray, Propellant, Pressurized Spray Can, Pump Spray.
4.1.3 WHAT ARE AEROSOLS?

Thousands of different kinds of products come as aerosols. In general, any product
that can be sprayed from a container is an aerosol. These might include fine mists
or solids, such as foam or creams. Many different agents are used as propellants for
the product being disbursed. These propellants can be user-friendly and environ-
mentally safe, or they can be dangerous to the user and bystanders and damaging
to the environment. It is important to understand what kind of aerosol is in use and
the proper safeguards, both from a personal perspective and an environmental per-
spective.
Hazardous aerosol propellants include, but are not limited to, the following
materials: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), or other
hydrocarbons that are defined as hazardous by federal and state regulations. Since
1978, CFCs have been used only for a very small percentage of aerosols and only
those specifically approved by the government. Some foreign-supplied aerosols still
contain CFCs.
Nonhazardous and ozone-safe propellants are good alternatives. They include
aerosols that use a gas propellant, e.g., nitrogen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, which
are nonhazardous and nonreactive with the ozone layer; products that are packaged
in nonaerosols (pump-spray) containers; and products that can be applied with an
application system that uses compressed air and reusable containers. To the maxi-
mum extent possible, minimize or eliminate the use of products that generate haz-
ardous waste by selecting nonhazardous substitutes.
4.1.4 COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

The most common aerosols come in the form of a spray can. A typical example
would be a can of spray paint. Some kind of propellant is always used to force the
product out of the aerosol container. Typical propellants would include, but not be
limited to, carbon dioxide, compressed air, methane, propane, and nitrogen.
4.1.5 PERSONAL HAZARDS

All aerosols can be dangerous if not used properly. Even if the product content and
propellant are not hazardous, the container can still pose a hazard because the
container is pressurized. Pressurized containers can release tremendous amounts of
energy when punctured, burned, or otherwise damaged.
It is important to remember that aerosol hazards must be considered from at
least two different perspectives: (1) the type of product and (2) the type of propellant.
An aerosol product may be nonhazardous but may be dispensed with a hazardous
propellant. Likewise, a nonhazardous propellant may be used to dispense a hazardous
product. Careful review of the specific MSDS is important.
Eyes Use of aerosols can present significant eye irritation from both the
product and the propellant, as well as hazards related to the pres-
sure that the aerosol is under.
Skin Skin should always be protected when using an aerosol. Use of
some aerosols will require personal protective equipment (PPE).
If the product gets on skin, it should be washed off immediately.
Prolonged contact with skin of any aerosol can be dangerous and
should be avoided. See MSDS for proper PPE.
Inhalation Inhalation can represent a major hazard while using aerosols
because the product and propellant are airborne. Use adequate
ventilation. Consult the specific MSDS for proper PPE and expo-
sure limits.
Ingestion Typically, ingestion of significant amounts of a product via aerosol
is not a typical route of exposure, although it is important to
remember ingestion of a product or propellant via the suspended
particles in the air is possible. Ingestion of any propellent or
product being sprayed should be avoided.
4.1.6 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The MSDS for each aerosol in use will also provide guidance for the appropriate
protective equipment. PPE will vary according to the particular job and specific
substances involved.
Eyes Always wear eye protection while using aerosols. Safety glasses
and, in some cases, chemical safety goggles, which have indirect
ventilation ports, or face shields may be required.
Skin Check the MSDS to see if gloves are required and, if so, use those
specified for handling that specific aerosol. In some cases, fire-
retardant clothing, apron, boots, and/or full-cover work clothes
may be required.
Inhalation Respiratory protection should always be worn when using aero-
sols. In many cases, a P-100 dust filter will be adequate protection,
whereas in other cases, a specific cartridge or air-supplied respi-
rator may be needed. Always use NIOSH-approved respirators.
Consult the specific MSDS or required respiratory protection
guide. Wear proper protective clothing with self-contained breath-
ing apparatus when necessary. When a respirator is necessary, it
must meet company requirements, MSDS recommendations, and
OSHA guidelines.
Note: If employees wear any type of respirator, they must be fit-tested and trained
on proper respirator use prior to beginning use.
4.1.7 STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

Special precautions necessary to prevent a hazardous situation are also noted on the
MSDS. These precautions may identify storage procedures, such as storing in a cool,
dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing aerosols separately. In
addition, these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as well as special
tools and any other pertinent precautions.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of aerosols. Follow company
procedures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.
Always store aerosols away from excessive heat or open flame.
In case of a spill, contain and collect the free liquid. Contain spills with absor-
bents such as sand or clay. Do not allow spills to enter waterways or drainage
systems.
Aerosol containers that no longer deliver sufficient product for normal use may
still have a small amount of product or propellant remaining in the container.
Whenever any chemicals in the product or propellant are regulated materials, the
container must be considered hazardous waste. Review the MSDS for the product
to determine if the aerosol product contains any regulated materials. Do not reuse,
cut, or puncture containers.
An aerosol container that meets both of the following criteria can be managed
as nonhazardous waste:
1. The spray mechanism was not defective, and the contents and propellant
were discharged to the maximum extent practical under normal use.
2. The container did not contain an extremely or acutely hazardous material.
Dispose of waste in accordance with local, state, and federal EPA regulations.
Treat waste as outlined on the MSDS. To the maximum extent possible, minimize
or eliminate the use of products that generate hazardous waste by selecting
nonhazardous substitutes. Many aerosol containers can be recycled. When possi-

ble, this should be done.
4.1.8 EMERGENCY RESPONSE

Since it is impossible to predict when an emergency will occur, take the time to
learn the emergency procedure before working with aerosols. Consult the emergency
and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances in use.
Victims of aerosol emergencies can be seriously hurt. If seriously hurt, send for
medical help as soon as possible, and perform first aid while waiting for emergency
personnel. This may include bringing the victim to an eyewash station, safety shower,
or fresh air source or removing clothing from the victim. Follow appropriate guide-
lines in administering first-aid procedures.
Eyes Flush well with water.

Skin Wash well with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing
and launder. Seek medical attention if irritation occurs.
Inhalation Move victim to fresh air. If not breathing, use artificial respiration.
If breathing is difficult, give oxygen, if available. Seek medical
attention.
Ingestion Low oral toxicity. Do not induce vomiting. Consult a physician.
4.1.9 HELPFUL HANDLING HINTS
• Know the location of nearest eyewash stations, safety showers, fresh air
sources, and fire extinguishers. Use the right kind of extinguisher for the
chemical in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
• Keep aerosols away from heat and flame.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on aerosols handled in the work area.
Read the label on the container.
• Keep incompatible chemicals separate. Never mix or store them together.
• Label all containers, even temporary ones. Make sure that seals, screens,
caps, and containers are working properly and do not leak.
• Never interchange spray can nozzles.
• Never try to use an aerosol can as a torch.
• If an aerosol can becomes dented, discard according to MSDS instruc-
tions.
• Make sure all aerosol cans have proper Hazardous Material Information
System (HMIS) label until they are properly discarded.
• Learn first-aid skills, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and
the company’s emergency plan.
• Stay calm. Someone who is not trained to handle emergencies involving
aerosols can make the situation worse. An employee who has not received
training for handling emergencies involving aerosols can still help keep
possible injury and damage to a minimum by remaining calm.
• Have emergency PPE on hand before an emergency arises.
• If PPE is necessary, be sure to wear the appropriate PPE and make sure
it fits. Never wear less than the recommended PPE as outlined on the
MSDS.
• For additional information on aerosols, contact the National Aerosol Asso-
ciation, 584 Bellerive Drive, Suite 3D, Annapolis, MD 21401.
4.2 COMPRESSED GASES

4.2.1 COMPRESSED GASES INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling compressed gases. One should always review the
product labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific compressed
gas in use. In some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the compressed gas
manufacturer before handling the compressed gases.
4.2.2 COMPRESSED GASES SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND

SIMILAR PRODUCTS
Oxygen, Acetylene, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, LPG, Propane.
4.2.3 WHAT ARE COMPRESSED GASES?

A material or mixture in a container with an absolute pressure of 40 psi (pounds
per square inch) at 70°F, a material or mixture in a container with an absolute
pressure exceeding 104 psi at 130°F, and a liquid material having a vapor pressure
exceeding 40 psi absolute at 100°F are all considered compressed gases. Absolute
pressure is the pressure reading on the gauge plus local atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psi at sea level).

In general, gases may be hazardous because they are under high pressure, flam-
mable, asphyxiant (inert), oxidizing, corrosive, toxic or highly toxic, or cryogenic
(extremely cold).
Compressed gases are hazardous simply because of the high pressure at which
they are stored in cylinders, pressure tanks, etc. One dramatic example of what can
happen is rocketing. This occurs when a high-pressure cylinder accidentally ruptures
or when a valve assembly breaks off. Driven by the pressure of the contents, the
cylinder becomes a missile and can blast its way right through a concrete wall. This
possibility means that compressed gases should be handled with the utmost care.
Flammable gases catch fire easily and burn quickly. Hydrogen, acetylene, eth-
ylene, propane, and natural gas are some examples. Add flammability to a compres-
sion hazard, and some extremely dangerous materials result.
Compressed gases can be corrosive, combustible, flammable, explosive, toxic,
or all of these combined. So that everyone will know what type of gas is in a
compressed gas cylinder, the cylinders must be legibly marked for identification
purposes. Somewhere on the bottle, usually just below the cap, are the identification
code and label stating the contents of the bottle. Never rely solely on the color of
the bottle when trying to determine what is inside; bottles are sometimes improperly
repainted.

Corrosive gases attack tissue and other materials. Be aware that special personal
protective equipment (PPE) and a self-contained breathing apparatus are required
when handling these gases.
The degree of hazard of a compressed gas depends on its specific chemical
properties. Workers must know what materials they are handling and the hazards
they face. Review the MSDS to determine the hazards associated with the com-
pressed gas in use.

The MSDS for each compressed gas in use with will also provide guidance for the
appropriate protective equipment. PPE will vary according to the particular job and
specific substances involved.
PPE required while working with compressed gases will be determined by the
hazards of the specific compressed gas. PPE should include safety glasses and, in
some cases, chemical safety goggles, which have indirect ventilation ports, or face
shields. If gloves are required, check the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn
when handling the specific compressed gases. When a respirator is necessary, it
must meet company and MSDS standards.

Compressed gas cylinders must be stored so that they are secure and upright. The
names of the gases must be posted in the storage area. The storage area should be
well ventilated without temperature extremes (especially above 125°F). Compressed
gases should be kept away from fires, flames, and welding torches. Containers with
removable caps must have caps on while the container is not connected to dispensing
equipment. When containers are in storage, regulators, cylinder connections, hose
lines, and other similar auxiliary devices must be removed. Oxygen must be stored
separately from flammable gas containers and combustibles — 20-ft rule or non-
combustible barrier (5 ft high with a fire-resistance rating of 1/2 hour). Mark
cylinders when they are empty and avoid storing empty cylinders with full cylinders.
Special precautions necessary to prevent a hazardous situation are also noted on
the MSDS. These precautions may identify storage procedures, such as storing in a
cool, dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing compressed gases
separately. In addition, these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as
well as special tools and any other pertinent precautions.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of compressed gases. Follow

company procedures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the
supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with any compressed gas. Consult
the emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific sub-
stances in use.
If there are problems with compressed gases, first contact the gas supplier for
assistance. In addition, emergency response advice can be found by calling the
Chemical Transportation Emergency Center (CHEMTREC) at 800-424-9300.
Victims of compressed gas emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical
help as soon as possible, and perform first aid while waiting for emergency personnel.
This may include bringing the victim to an eyewash station, safety shower, or fresh
air source or removing the victim’s clothing. Follow appropriate guidelines in admin-
istering first-aid procedures.
• Inspect containers oxidizing gases can explode violently when they react
with organic and combustible materials. It is important that containers of
oxidizing gases or oxygen and associated equipment be free of oils,
greases, and other hydrocarbon-based materials. In addition, clothing that
has been exposed to an oxygen-rich atmosphere is a fire hazard.
• Identify compressed gases by a label and not solely by the color of the
cylinder. Each cylinder must have a Department of Transportation (DOT)
label that identifies its contents.
• Inspect equipment used with compressed gas cylinders, such as regulators,
valves, connectors, and hose lines, regularly. Damaged equipment should
not be accepted when it is delivered or should be removed from service
if damage is detected once in use. A damaged cylinder should never be
used, and the supplier should be contacted for disposal.
• Inspect threads on valves, regulators, and similar devices for damage, dirt,
grease, and oil. The threading on regulators and other auxiliary equipment
must match the container valve threads. Adapters are not allowed. Con-
nections should not be tampered with and not be forced together.
• Be aware of special threads on the cylinders for each type of gas. Never
try to adapt the wrong regulator to a cylinder by use of an adapter. Never
transfer pressure from one cylinder to another.
• Design regulators, pressure relief devices, valves, hoses, and other auxil-
iary equipment for the specific container and compressed gas to be used.
Do not interchange equipment between different types of gases.
• Open container valves slowly with valve outlets pointed away from the
user and other persons, using the wrench supplied by the supplier. They
should not be hammered open or closed.
• When using compressed gas cylinders, always use the correct regulator
for that particular bottle. Open the bottle valve slowly, and do not use
tools to force open a valve. If it is difficult to open, return the bottle for
a new one. Damaged or difficult-to-open cylinders should be red-tagged
and returned to the storeroom or supplier.
• Never tamper with or attempt to repair defective valves or safety relief
devices, or cylinders. Such cylinders should be returned to the vendor
immediately.
• Do not exceed the specified pressure. Pressure relief devices and safety
devices help maintain cylinder or system pressure at the desired levels.
Exceeding the desired pressure could damage the cylinder or system.
• Remember that compressed gas, under control, can be extremely helpful
in performing many tasks. Out of control, it can cause serious injury —
even death.
• Always secure cylinders when in use, in storage, and in transport. If a
cylinder is not secured, secure it or let someone know. And when a cylinder
is not in use, it should have its protective cap on. If the cylinder valve is
knocked off, the cylinder will take off like a missile.
• Secure the protective cap. Some cylinders are designed with a protective
cap that screws over the valve at the end of the cylinder. Except when the
cylinder is connected to a line or hose, the cap should be kept on the
cylinder at all times. Never use the protective cap for lifting or handling
the cylinder. Never use a hammer or wrench to open a cylinder valve.
• Be sure that a cylinder is always in the upright position when being used.
However, it should never be left in the upright position unless properly
secured by means of a substantial chain, cable, or other secure closure.
Never drop gas cylinders.
• Do not drop or bang cylinders together violently. Move them only with
approved hand trucks. When transporting cylinders by crane, use approved
material skiffs; never use magnets or slings. Never use cylinders as rollers
to move material.
• Do not drop, slide, or roll cylinders. Carts or other material-handling
equipment can be used to move cylinders.
• Keep the cylinder away from all forms of fire and spark-producing oper-
ations and electric lines. A compressed gas cylinder should never be
exposed to excessive heat so its outside surface exceeds 125°F.
• Never take a compressed gas cylinder into a confined space. Always set
the cylinder outside the space, and run the hose or tubing into the space.
• Do not use compressed gas to blow debris off clothing. This is a serious
safety violation.
• Install a check valve on the downstream side of the regulator valve when-
ever there is danger of material flowing back into the cylinder. Avoid
placing cylinders where they might form part of an electrical circuit.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the compressed gases in use in the
work area. Read the label on the container.
• Learn first-aid skills, including CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) and
• Be calm. Someone who is not trained to handle emergencies involving
compressed gases can make the situation worse. An employee who has
not received training for this chemical can still help keep possible injury
and damage to a minimum by remaining calm.
MSDS.
4.3 CORROSIVES
4.3.1 CORROSIVES INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling corrosives. One should always review the product
labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific corrosives in use. In
some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of the corrosives
before handling them.
4.3.2 CORROSIVES SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Sulfuric Acid, Caustic, Nitric Acid.
4.3.3 WHAT ARE CORROSIVES?

Whether they are acids such as sulfuric or bases such as lye, corrosives can be
hazardous when mishandled. They are usually toxic (poisonous) to the human body,
destroying skin, eyes, and other organs on contact. Corrosive vapors can harm
internal organs, if they are inhaled or swallowed. If corrosives are combined or
stored with the wrong chemicals, there may be an explosion, fire, or release of
dangerous vapors.
Contact with a corrosive can cause different amounts of damage, depending on
how the corrosive enters the body (i.e., through the skin or through breathing), the
quantity of the corrosive, its strength (concentration), and other qualities of the
chemical. Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for many corrosives have been set
by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and are listed on the appro-
priate MSDS.
Breathing in a small amount of corrosive mist can cause symptoms including
nose, mouth, and throat irritation. Breathing in more highly concentrated or a greater
quantity of corrosive mist may cause a heavy sensation in the chest, a hacking
cough or chest pain, and difficulty breathing. Swallowing even a small amount of
a corrosive may cause severe abdominal pain. Get medical help immediately in all
these situations.

These harsh corrosive acids and bases can explode, cause fires, or harm the human
body very quickly. A rapid response to an emergency can mean the difference
between a slight skin irritation and a blistering burn, or even between life and death.
Even someone who has worked with corrosives before may not know all the
different kinds of hazards they represent. Harsh corrosives, which generally are acids
or bases, are used in many processes such as water treatment, chemical manufac-
turing, and metal plating.
Eyes If a corrosive mist or other small amount gets in the eyes, symp-
toms can include burning, watering, irritation, or inflammation. If
a corrosive liquid splashes in the eyes, the results can include
cloudy scarring or even blindness. Seek emergency medical treat-
ment immediately.
Skin Skin exposed to small amounts or low concentrations of corrosives
can become irritated, itchy, or show signs of contact dermatitis. If
skin is splashed by a corrosive, the corrosive can burn, cause
blisters, or may penetrate through the skin itself.

The MSDS for each corrosive in use will also provide guidance for the appropriate
personal protective equipment (PPE). PPE will vary according to the particular job
and specific substances involved. Special PPE is required for handling most corro-
sives. Most commonly, they include safety goggles, which have indirect ventilation,
face shield, chemical apron, and gloves designed for the specific corrosive. Read
the MSDS and container label for the specific corrosive. Use the PPE and procedures
listed on the MSDS.
Emergency-response PPE should be kept in the immediate area in a designated
locker or cabinet and be clearly marked.

MSDS. These precautions may identify storage procedures such as storing in a cool,
dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing corrosives separately. In
Use common sense when storing or disposing of corrosives. Follow company
Acids and bases are an explosive combination, so store them separately. If it is
not clear whether the substance is an acid or a base, read the label or MSDS.
Store corrosives in tightly closed approved containers separate from flammable
and/or combustible liquids. Dispense them only from approved nozzles and dispens-
ers. Store large drums and containers below eye level whenever possible to avoid
splashing the face or eyes.
Check storage containers regularly for leaks, and make sure that caps and spouts
are in good working order. Do not smoke around corrosives. Do not carry lighters,
matches, or sparking devices when handling corrosives.
Know whether contaminated clothing, PPE, rags, and other materials should be
decontaminated, cleaned, or disposed of. Dispose of waste as outlined in the appro-
priate MSDS.

learn the emergency procedure before working with corrosives. Consult the emer-
gency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances.
An employee should handle a spill, leak, fire, or other emergency only if it is
small and if he or she is trained to do so. Otherwise, the employee might make the
situation more dangerous. One should evacuate the area as quickly as possible while
letting others know about the emergency.
If a corrosive contact clothing, keep gloves on while removing the clothes
immediately.
For most medical emergencies involving corrosives, the first treatment will be
water (for skin and eyes) or fresh air (for inhalation). Since corrosives are so harsh,
immediate treatment by medical professionals is always critical.
Eyes If a corrosive contacts the eyes, go directly to the nearest eyewash

station. If none is nearby, use any low-pressure clean water source,
such as a hose. Remove contact lenses, which can absorb or trap
the corrosive. Flush the eyes for 15–20 min, letting the water run
from the inside to the outside of the eyes. Do not apply neutralizers
or ointments, which have the potential to make damage worse.
Someone who has corrosives in the eyes may need to be restrained
to receive first aid. Immediately after flushing, transport the person
to a medical professional for further treatment.
Skin If a corrosive contacts the skin, rinse (do not scrub) the affected
area for 15–20 min. If a safety shower is not nearby, use a faucet,
hose, or any clean water source. Remove any contaminated cloth-
ing and, if necessary, dispose of it. Do not put clothing back on
until it has been decontaminated or cleaned. Do not apply burn

ointments or neutralizing solutions. If possible, after rinsing, cover
the burn with a sterile dressing: then seek a medical professional
immediately.
Inhalation If corrosive vapors are inhaled, symptoms can range from slight
throat irritation to serious difficulty breathing. Get to fresh air
immediately, and ask a coworker to obtain medical help right away.
Ingestion If a corrosive is swallowed, ask a co-worker to obtain medical
assistance immediately and to call the local Poison Control Center
(dial 911). Do not eat or drink anything unless so instructed by
the MSDS, the corrosive label, or a medical professional.
Victims of corrosive emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help
as soon as possible, and perform first aid while waiting for emergency personnel.
Corrosives do much of their damage quickly, but some symptoms may not appear
immediately. Victims of an emergency involving corrosives should stay under med-
ical observation until your doctor releases them.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the corrosives handled in the work
area. Read the label on the container.
• Learn first-aid skills, including CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), and
corrosives can make the situation worse. An employee who has not
received training for this chemical can still help keep possible injury and
damage to a minimum by remaining calm.
MSDS.
sources and fire extinguishers. Use the right kind of extinguisher for the
4.4 FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

4.4.1 FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling flammable liquids. One should always review the
product labels and MSDS for the specific flammable liquids in use. In some cases,
it may even be necessary to consult the flammable liquid manufacturer before
handling the flammable liquid.
4.4.2 FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND

SIMILAR PRODUCTS
Gasoline, Paints, Acetone, Toluene, Solvents, Cleaners.
4.4.3 WHAT ARE FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS?

Liquids are rated as flammable or combustible based upon the temperature required
for the liquid to give off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with the air.
Flammable liquids form such a vapor at temperatures below 100°F and combustible
liquids at temperatures between 100°F and 200°F. Gasoline will form a flammable
mixture in temperatures as low as –50°F, while some heavy fuel oils must be heated
or sprayed before they vaporize enough to form the mixture.

Flammables are common chemicals. They are liquids (like gasoline) and gases that
burn, release vapors, or even explode under what seem like safe conditions. Flam-
mable gases and liquids burn at close to room temperature (under 100°F), when they
are near a spark, flame, or even static electricity. Many of them evaporate quickly.
These are called volatile. Flammables can also explode. Their MSDSs indicate when:
look for the upper and lower explosive limits. Some chemicals are so flammable
that they burn simply from contact with air. These are called pyrophoric.
Flammable emergencies can have a domino effect quickly. A small spark that
causes gasoline to explode leads to a large fire, which then leads to a large explosion.
Injury to people and damage to property can be extensive.

The personal hazards involved with flammable materials are significant. Once a
situation has become an incident, catastrophic injuries and property damage can take
place instantly. While working with flammables, one must always protect against
the worst possible scenario of fire and explosion because even the tiniest of ignition
source can be extremely detrimental.

The MSDS for each flammable liquid will also provide guidance for the appropriate
and specific substances involved.
PPE should include safety glasses and, in some cases, chemical safety goggles,
which have indirect ventilation ports, or face shields. If gloves are required, check
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific flammable
liquids. If the job deals with many flammable liquids or continual use of flammable
liquid materials, fire-retardant clothing may be required because even the slightest
of unstable conditions can be extremely dangerous. When a respirator is necessary,
it must meet company and MSDS standards.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing flammable liquids sepa-
rately. In addition, these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as well
as special tools and any other pertinent precautions.
Large amounts of these liquids should be stored in a special flammable storage
room or cabinet. It should be well ventilated. Keep flammables far from heat or
electric sources. The amount of flammable liquid kept on hand near any industrial
operation should be limited to a supply for 1 day or one shift. Flammable liquid
containers must be clearly identifiable. A red diamond shape with black lettering is
used to designate flammables. Store flammables in a self-closing safety can with a
spark arrest or in the pouring spout. Do not leave flammable liquids in open con-
tainers because the liquid can vaporize and cause an ignitable mixture to build up.
When rags or other materials are used with flammables, store the liquid-soaked
rags in a metal container with a close-fitting lid. This keeps excess oxygen away
from the rags and reduces the possibility of a fire. When exposed to the air, some
rags can produce enough heat to cause them to ignite spontaneously.
Use common sense when disposing of flammable liquids. Never pour flammables
into the drain, sewer, garbage can, or on the ground. Follow company procedures
and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with flammable liquids. Consult the
emergency and first aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances
in use.
Knowing what to do in an emergency can prevent an accident from becoming
more serious. Because it is never known when an emergency will happen, it is a good
idea to take the time now to read the MSDS, labels, and other materials. Become
familiar with emergency plans, and speak to the supervisor if there are questions.
In an emergency, a quick response may prevent damage. But an employee should

handle the emergency only if it is small and if trained to handle it.
Turn off any flames and equipment that can spark. Open windows and ventilate
the area thoroughly. Clean up any spills using safe procedures and materials. If your
clothing is contaminated, remove it immediately. Decontaminate, wash, or dispose
of it properly.
In an emergency involving a flammable, obtain medical attention for the victims
as soon as possible. Fast response might save their vision, lungs, or even lives. Know
the location of the nearest eyewash stations, safety showers, fresh air sources, and
fire extinguishers.
Special care must be taken to clean up any spilled material, and it must be
properly disposed of in accordance with local, state, and federal regulations.
Victims of flammable liquid emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical

• Control all ignition sources around flammable liquid. The “no smoking”
rule must be enforced and nonsparking tools may be required. Special
explosion-proof electrical equipment may be required; never use standard
electric power tools around flammable liquids.
• Know what causes flammable liquids to react. Never move, mix, or work
with a flammable liquid until its nature is known. Some materials can be
ignited by the minimal energy in a static spark; therefore, when drawing
liquids from a bulk tank to a portable-use container, the containers should
be bonded to the tank, which means that there should be a solid connection
between the tank or barrel and the container. Self-closing valves must be
used with the dispensing containers to limit spills.
• For fire protection, keep fuel sources to a minimum, limit the oxygen
available to the fuel, and control heat or ignition sources.
• Keep paper and cloth away from open flames and keep matches and
cigarettes away from flammable liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, or
other solvents. Watch for excessive heat such as that generated by friction
on machines.
• Keep flammables and reactives away from each other. Reactives are chem-
icals that explode, burn, or release dangerous vapors very easily.
• Work in well-ventilated areas. Use available ventilation hoods and sys-
tems.
• Check to see that all containers are labeled, even temporary ones. They
should be in good working order. Check caps, screens, valves, seals, and
containers for leaks. Replace or dispose of containers and parts if neces-
sary.
• Do not mix flammables with other chemicals unless instructed to do so.
• Use grounding and bonding wires to prevent dangerous static electricity

while transferring flammables from one container to another.
• Know where fire extinguishers are located. Use the right kind of extin-
guisher for the flammable liquid in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
• Turn off flames or equipment that can spark, if possible, from outside the
area.
MSDS.
sources, and fire extinguishers.
4.5 FUELS
4.5.1 FUELS INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling fuels. One should always review the product labels
and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific fuels in use. In some cases,
it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of specific fuels before handling
them.
4.5.2 FUELS SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Gasoline, Petrol, Benzene, Diesel, Propane, Unleaded Gasoline.
4.5.3 WHAT ARE FUELS?

Fuels are highly flammable materials that are easily ignited by heat, sparks, or flames.

Fuels are products that have very low flash points. Vapors may form explosive
mixtures with air. Vapors may travel to a source of ignition and flash back. Most
vapors are heavier than air. They will spread along the ground and collect in low or
confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks). Vapors are explosion hazards indoors,
outdoors, and in sewers.

Inhalation Inhalation or contact with material may irritate or burn skin and
eyes. Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation.

The MSDS for each fuel will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE). PPE will vary according to the particular job and
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling specific fuels. If the job
deals with many fuel materials or continual use of fuel materials, fire-retardant
clothing may be required because even the slightest of unstable conditions can be
extremely dangerous. When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company and
MSDS standards. Wear positive-pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
while fighting fires.
• All equipment used when handling the product must be grounded.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing fuels separately. In addition,
these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as well as special tools and
any other pertinent precautions.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of fuels. Follow company proce-
dures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the fuel. Consult the emergency
and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances.
Move the victim to fresh air. Call emergency medical care. Apply artificial
respiration if the victim is not breathing. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of contact with a
substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 min.
Wash skin with soap and water. Keep victim warm and quiet. Ensure that medical
personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect
themselves.
• Use of water spray when fighting fire may be inefficient. Dry chemical,
CO2, water spray, or regular foam should be used to fight small fires.
• Vapors are potential explosion hazards indoors, outdoors, and in sewers.
• Runoff to sewer may create fire or explosion hazard.
• Containers may explode when heated.
• Eliminate all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in
immediate area).
• Do not touch or walk through spilled material to avoid spreading the fuel
and becoming exposed to injury.
Spills or Leaks:
• Stop the leak if it possible to do it without risk.

• Prevent entry of material into waterways, sewers, basements, or confined
areas.
• Use vapor-suppressing foam to reduce vapors.
• Absorb material or cover with dry earth, sand, or other noncombustible
material and transfer to containers.
• Use clean, nonsparking tools to collect absorbed material.
• If a spill is large, dike far ahead of the liquid spill for later disposal.
• Be aware that water spray may reduce vapor, but may not prevent ignition
in closed spaces.
• Isolate spill or leak area immediately for at least 25 to 50 m (80 to 160
ft) in all directions.
• Keep out of low areas.
• Ventilate closed spaces before entering.
• Stay upwind.
• Keep unauthorized personnel away.
Victims of fuel emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help as
soon as possible, and perform first aid while waiting for emergency personnel. This
may include bringing the victim to an eyewash station, safety shower, or fresh air
source or removing clothing from the victim. Follow appropriate guidelines in
administering first-aid procedures.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on fuels handled in the work area.
Read the label on the container.
fuels can make the situation worse. An employee who has not received
training for this chemical can still help keep possible injury and damage
to a minimum by remaining calm.
MSDS.
4.6 INSULATION
4.6.1 INSULATION INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling insulation. One should always review the product
labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific insulation in use. In
some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the insulation manufacturer before
handling the insulation.
4.6.2 INSULATION SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Acoustical Backing Board, Duct Wrap, Attic Blanket, Duct Board, Insulation Batts,
Wall Insulation, Pipe Wrap Insulation, Water Heater Blanket, Rockwool, Insulboard,
Fiberglass Wool.
4.6.3 WHAT IS INSULATION?

Insulation is used for many different purposes, but generally its function can be
summed up by saying it is used to keep heat contained or to keep heat away.
Insulation slows heat transfer, thereby improving the efficiency of the system. For
example, on process pipes, insulation is used to retain as much heat as possible in
the pipes. When used in a refrigerator, insulation is used to keep the cold in and
to keep heat out of the refrigerated area. Insulation also has sound absorption
qualities that are often utilized. Insulation and refractory materials perform similar
functions.

Insulation can come in many different forms. Fiberglass (wool) is a common type
of insulation. It is a fibrous, nondense padding-type material. Fiberglass can be in
a loose form, which is installed by being blown through air hoses. Insulation can
also be a more dense material such as insulboard or acoustical backing board.

Primary Routes of Entry: Although insulation can prove irritating to skin and eyes,
it does not typically enter the body this way. If skin or eyes become irritated by
insulation, remove from source and wash affected area thoroughly.
Acute (short term): Fiberglass wool is a mechanical irritant and may cause
temporary irritation of the respiratory tract, skin, and eyes.
Chronic (long term): Fiberglass wool is a possible cancer hazard. Use of these
products has not been shown to cause cancer in humans, although some ingredients
commonly found in insulation have been determined to be possible causes of cancer
in humans (formaldehyde, for example). Consult the specific MSDS.
Medical Conditions Aggravated by Exposure: Chronic respiratory or skin con-

ditions may temporarily worsen from exposure to these products.
Ingestion: Ingestion of this material is unlikely. If it does occur, observe the
individual for several days to ensure that intestinal blockage does not occur.
The exposure limits for fibrous glass in insulation is 5 mg/m3 (respirable dust);
15 mg/m3 (total dust); ACGIH TLV (threshold limit valve) is 10 mg/m3. The exposure
limit for formaldehyde in insulation is 0.75 ppm TWA (time-washed average) and
2 ppm STEL (short-term exposure limit) according to OSHA PEL (permissible
exposure limit), and 0.03 ppm ceiling, according to the ACGIH TLV. Consult the
specific MSDS for verification of TWA, TLV, STEL, and other exposure limits. If
exact exposure concentrations are not readily known, respiratory protection that
would protect against maximum exposures should be worn. Industrial hygiene mon-
itoring should be performed.
Insulation may contain binders or other additives that may be hazardous. Consult
the MSDS of the particular insulation being used.
Carcinogenicity: The table below indicates whether or not the agencies listed
consider typical insulation ingredients as carcinogens.
Ingredient ACGIH IARC NTP OSHA

Formaldehyde Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fiberglass Wool No Yes Yes No
Cured Resin No No No No

The MSDS for each insulation will also provide guidance for the appropriate per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE). PPE will vary according to the particular job and
specifics substances involved.
Eyes Safety glasses, goggles, or face shield.

Skin Loose-fitting, long-sleeved shirt, long pants, and gloves.
Inhalation Consult the specific MSDS for the respirator to be worn. A P-100
dust mask should always be considered as the minimum respira-
tory protection.
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific insulation.
When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company and MSDS standards.
Engineering Controls: General dilution ventilation and/or local exhaust ventila-
tion should be provided as necessary to maintain exposures below regulatory limits.
Dust collection systems should be used in operations involving cutting or machining
of insulation products and may be required in operations using power tools.

Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act
(RCRA) Hazard
Class: Nonhazardous.
Toxic Substance
Control Act
(TSCA) Status: Typically each ingredient is on the inventory.
Superfund Amend- Classifies acute health and chronic health of inhala-
ments and tion as hazardous categories, whereas listing fire haz
Reauthorization Act ard, pressure hazard, and reactivity hazard as no
(SARA) Title III: hazardous categories.
Storage: No special storage or handling procedures are
required for this material.
Disposal:
Land spill Scoop up or vacuum material and put into a suitable
container for disposal as a nonhazardous waste.
Water spill This material will sink and disperse along the bottom
of waterways and ponds. It cannot easily be removed
after it is waterborne, but is generally considered
nonhazardous in water.
Air release This material will settle out of the air. It can then be
scooped up or vacuumed for disposal as a nonhaz-
ardous waste.
Special precautions necessary to prevent a hazardous situation are also noted on
the MSDS. These precautions may identify storage procedures, such as storing in a
cool, dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing insulation separately.
In addition, these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as well as
special tools and any other pertinent precautions. Use common sense when storing
or disposing of insulation. Follow company procedures and those listed on the
MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the insulation. Consult the
emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances.
Eyes Flush eyes with running water for at least 15 min. Seek medical
attention if irritation persists.
Skin Wash with mild soap and running water. Use a washcloth to help
remove fibers. To avoid further irritation, do not rub or scratch
irritated areas. Rubbing or scratching may force fibers into skin.
Seek medical attention if irritation persists.
Inhalation Move person to fresh air. Administer cardiopulmonary resuscita-

tion (CPR) if a pulse is not detectable or if the person is unable
to breathe. Provide oxygen if breathing is difficult. Obtain medical
assistance if irritation persists.
Consult the MSDS for the specifics on insulation handled in the work area. Read
the label on the container.
Fire Fighting Instructions: Use self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) in a
sustained fire.
Hazardous Combustion Products: Primary combustion products are carbon mon-
oxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water.
Victims of insulation emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help

• Never mix, pour, stir, or otherwise work insulation without the use of a
respirator (dust mask). Some insulations will require a cartridge respirator.
Always consult the applicable MSDS.
• Never cut or saw insulation without the use of a respirator (dust mask).
Some refractories will require a cartridge respirator. Always consult the
applicable MSDS.
insulation can make the situation worse. An employee who has not
received training for this insulation can still help keep possible injury and
damage to a minimum by remaining calm.
• If PPE is necessary, be sure to wear the appropriate PPE and make sure it
fits. Never wear less than the recommended PPE as outlined on the MSDS.
insulation in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
4.7 PAINT
4.7.1 PAINT INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling paints. One should always review the product labels
and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific paint in use. In some cases,
it may even be necessary to consult the paint manufacturer before handling the paint.
4.7.2 PAINT SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Latex, Oil Based, Epoxy, Acrylic, Aerosol.
4.7.3 WHAT IS PAINT?

People have been using paint for thousands of years. In fact, prehistoric cave dwellers
used paint to decorate the stone walls of their primitive homes. Spray painting has
been known for more than 15,000 years, even though some may have thought of it
as a recent invention. In those days, the paint was probably a combination of mud
and colored clay. But today’s paints are complex chemical mixtures of pigments to
add color and binders that allow paint to adhere to various surfaces. However, the
chemicals that enable modern paints to perform under a wide variety of applications
can present some hazards if not handled properly. Modern paint is applied with
brushes, rollers, aerosol cans, and spray guns. Rollers and sprays cover a greater
area than brushes, but because they spread more paint, they also increase the amount
of both solvents and pigments in the air.
Pigments The pigments that give paints their color can contain hazardous
materials such as lead, zinc, chromium, titanium oxide, and sili-
cates.
Binders The binders that cause the paint to adhere to the surface being
painted can contain hazardous materials, such as acyl and epoxy
resins.
Solvents These pigments and binders are dissolved in water or potentially
hazardous solvents such as naphtha, ether, xylene, mineral spirits,
or alcohol. When the paint is applied, these solvents evaporate
leaving behind the pigment and binder.

Although some of the materials in pigments, binders, and solvents in paint are
considered hazardous, they can only cause harmful health effects if they enter the
body.
Once a substance enters the body, two types of health effects can occur — acute
and chronic. Acute effects take place soon after exposure. Chronic effects can persist
for months or years. Acute or chronic effects can result from exposure to the
hazardous materials in paints by any of the three routes of entry: skin, inhalation,
and ingestion.
Skin Skin contact with paints can cause skin irritation, and eye contact
can result in serious eye injuries. For example, prolonged or
repeated skin contact with paints containing solvents, such as xylene
and toluene, can cause a skin condition known as dermatitis. Symp-
toms of dermatitis include inflammation and flaking of the skin.
Inhalation Examples of chronic effects of inhaling certain paint vapors is
permanent liver or kidney damage. Inhaling paint vapors can result
in irritation, headaches, dizziness, mental disorientation, or uncon-
sciousness.
Ingestion Paints containing lead can be harmful if inhaled or ingested. Con-
tinual exposure to even small amounts of lead can result in lead
poisoning. Some symptoms of lead poisoning are headaches and/or
dizziness. Ingesting paints can cause abdominal pain or nausea.
Although the materials in some paints can cause acute and chronic health effects,
it is important to understand that these health effects occur only when excessive
quantities of hazardous materials enter the body.

The MSDS for each paint will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE). PPE will vary according to the particular job and the
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling that specific paint. Other
PPE might include aprons and barrier creams; be sure to check the MSDS. Under
certain conditions, respiratory and hearing (if noisy spray equipment is used) pro-
tection may also be necessary. Check the MSDS to determine if respiratory or hearing
protection is recommended for the paints or painting method in use. When a respi-
rator is necessary, it must meet company and MSDS standards.
To help prevent overexposure from occurring, health professionals have estab-
lished occupational exposure limits. The most important of these limits is the
TLV-TWA (threshold limit value – time weighted average). This is the average
concentration of material a person may be exposed to for a normal 8-hour day
without adverse health effects. The TLV-TWA can be found in the section for
hazardous ingredients in the MSDS.

MSDS. Proper storage is important when using paints. It is preferable to store paints
in cabinets or rooms specially designed for flammable liquid storage. Storage areas
should be cool, dry, well ventilated, and away from heat and flames. Storage areas
and cabinets should be marked with appropriate caution signs, including, “No Smok-
ing” signs. Carefully dispose of paints and rags in the appropriate containers when
painting is finished. Never pour paints down a sink or drain. Use common sense
when storing or disposing of paint. Follow company procedures and those listed on
the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the paint. Consult the emergency
Eyes If the eyes have been splashed, they must be flushed with running
water for at least 15 min.
Inhalation If an unconscious victim is found and there is reason to believe
that the cause may be the inhalation of toxic vapors, call for help
immediately. Do not attempt a rescue. Only qualified individuals
who are wearing proper protective equipment and who have a
standby observer should attempt rescue. Move the victim to fresh
air and provide artificial resuscitation until medical help arrives.
Ingestion If paint is ingested, give water to dilute the paint, but do not induce
vomiting.
Since some paints are flammable, read the MSDS before working with them to
determine what extinguishing media and fire-fighting procedures are recommended.
Should a fire occur, seek help before taking any action.
Victims of paint emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help as
soon as possible, and perform first aid while waiting on emergency personnel. This
source or removing the victim’s clothing. Follow appropriate guidelines in admin-
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the paints handled in the work
• Be aware that, because static electricity can cause fire or explosion in
areas where paint solvent vapors are present, bonding and grounding of
paint containers are essential. When dispensing flammable materials from
one container to another, make sure the dispensing container is grounded
and that it is bonded to the receiving container.
• Provide adequate ventilation when using paints. As paint is applied and
dries, it can give off vapors that are potentially hazardous. If natural
ventilation is not adequate, mechanical ventilation may be necessary.
• Keep in mind that the most common physical hazards of paint are potential
fire and explosion. In general, paints that are classified as flammable
should be treated like any other flammable liquid.
• Because noise is also a physical hazard associated with painting opera-
tions, which create high noise level, use hearing protection.
• Wipe off splashes to the skin by a solvent-based paint with a dry cloth
and then wash with soap and water.
• Wash hands thoroughly before eating or smoking to prevent ingesting
hazardous ingredients.
MSDS.
paint in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
4.8 PESTICIDES
4.8.1 PESTICIDES INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling pesticides. One should always review the product
labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific pesticides in use. In
some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the pesticide manufacturer before
handling the pesticide.
4.8.2 PESTICIDES SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Rodenticide, Fungicide, Insecticide, Herbicide, Fumigant, Miticide, Repellent.
4.8.3 WHAT ARE PESTICIDES?

Pesticide is a general term used for chemicals that control or kill such pests as rats,
mice, insects, bacteria, and weeds. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Roden-
ticide Act (FIFRA) is the law that governs the use of pesticides. FIFRA requires
pesticide manufacturers to register each of their products with the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) as either a general-use or restricted-use pesticide.
Restricted-use pesticides can be applied only by certified applicators. In most cases,
anyone can apply general-use pesticides according to the label without being certified.
Pesticide liquids are mixtures of powdered or liquid active ingredients combined
with liquid carriers such as water or petroleum products. The common ways to apply
liquid sprays are with aerosol dispensers, handheld compressed air sprayers, back-
pack sprayers, or larger, motorized spray units. When liquid sprays are applied, a
residue of pesticide active ingredients remains on the treated surfaces and helps to
manage pests over a period of time.
Gases that kill pests are known as fumigants. The process of applying fumigants,
or fumigation, is much different from other forms of pesticide application and
requires application by a professional pest control operator.
Dusts formulations are finely ground, dry powders that contain toxic materials.
This formulation leaves visible residues on treated surfaces, which often limits its
use to areas such as warehouses, attics, crawl spaces, and wall voids.
Usually granules are combined with a food substance or attractant to encourage
target pests (rats, mice, etc.) to feed on them. Do not apply granules in areas where
children or pets may come in contact with them.
Poisoned bait may be used to manage specific types of insects. Most baits are
a combination of a pesticide and a food material. Baits are usually placed in a bait
station or broadcast over the soil around the outside of a structure.

All types of pesticides can be very dangerous if not used properly. Most pesticides
have severe consequences if misused. Pesticides can be harmful regardless of their
current state, i.e., liquid, solid, granule, fume, residue, etc. Although all pesticides
have specific benefits, they also have specific hazards and characteristics. The spe-
cific characteristics, dangers, and precautions should be thoroughly understood
before handling and before application.
Poisonous chemicals such as pesticides injure or kill people by interfering with
the normal functioning of internal body organs and systems. The nature and extent
of injury depend on the toxicity of the chemical as well as the dose (amount of
material) that enters the body. A person’s health and size may also influence the
severity of injury.
Pesticides that are applied in strict accordance with their label instructions and
with adherence to application rates, reentry intervals, protective equipment require-
ments, aeration periods, and other listed procedures generally do not leave unsafe
levels of pesticide residue.

Signal words are used to indicate what precautionary measures are needed for people
(or animals) who may be exposed.
• Danger — This word signals that the pesticide is highly toxic. The product
is very likely to cause acute illness from oral, dermal, or inhalation
exposure, or to cause severe eye or skin irritation.
• Posion/Skull And Crossbones — All highly toxic pesticides that are
likely to cause acute illness through oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure
also will carry the word poison printed in red and the skull-and-crossbones
symbol. Products that have the signal word danger because of skin and
eye irritation potential will not carry the word poison or the skull-and-
crossbones symbol.
• Warning — This word signals that the product is moderately likely to
cause acute illness from oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure or that the
product is likely to cause moderate skin or eye irritation.
• Caution — This word signals that the product is slightly toxic or relatively
nontoxic. The product has only slight potential to cause acute illness from
oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure. The skin or eye irritation it would
cause, if any, is likely to be slight.
Many pesticides can cause acute effects by more than one route, so study these
statements carefully. These precautionary statements indicate what parts of the body
will need the most protection.
People who live or work in the treated area must always be protected so they
are not exposed to harmful residues. Avoid using pesticides or application methods
that might injure nontarget animals or plants or damage property. Pesticide use
should not endanger the environment or cause contamination of groundwater, soils,
air, or human and animal foods. In addition, people applying pesticides must do so
in ways that avoid excessive exposure to any part of their own bodies.
Applying liquid sprays in certain areas may be extremely hazardous. For exam-
ple, electric outlets, motors, or exposed wiring pose a potential threat of electrical
shock to persons applying water-based pesticide sprays. Pilot lights and gas flames
from heaters and appliances may ignite flammable petroleum-based pesticides.
The ingredients of some pesticides are very potent and are capable of causing
poisoning at doses as small as a few drops. Regardless of the specific potential
hazard, anyone working with pesticides should avoid exposure by using suitable
protective clothing and application techniques.
Symptoms are abnormal conditions, feelings, or signs that indicate the presence
of an injury, disease, or disorder. When a person is exposed to a large-enough dose
of pesticide to cause injury or poisoning, some type of symptoms will usually appear.
These symptoms may show up immediately or after several days.
The effect of an exposure can be localized (such as eye or skin irritation) or
generalized when the pesticide is absorbed into the blood and distributed to other
parts of the body. Examples of chronic conditions usually associated with high or
prolonged levels of exposure to certain pesticides include, among others, infertility,
birth defects, and cancer.
The type of symptoms may vary between chemical classes of pesticides and
may also be different among pesticides within the same chemical class. Symptoms
may include a skin rash, headache, or irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat. Other
symptoms, which might be caused by higher levels of pesticide exposure, include
any of the following: blurred vision, dizziness, heavy sweating, weakness, nausea,
stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, extreme thirst, and blistered skin. Poisoning can
also result in apprehension, restlessness, anxiety, unusual behavior, shaking, con-
vulsions, or unconsciousness of the victim.
When using dusts, prevent their drifting into the airspace of rooms or work areas.
Apply dusts only according to the instructions on the pesticide label. Wear approved
respiratory protection to avoid inhaling dust particles.
Confined areas present special hazards to persons applying a pesticide. Confined
areas may be attics, crawl spaces beneath buildings, storage areas, closets, small
rooms, and other places that have poor ventilation. Hazards include inhaling the
pesticide being applied and coming in contact with treated surfaces.

The MSDS for each pesticide will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
Avoid pesticide exposure by wearing required or recommended PPE. Carefully
maintain, clean, and store PPE in order to keep it in good condition and to ensure
that it provides optimal protection. Prevent skin or eye contact with spray resides
or vapor. When making an application, always wear a long-sleeved shirt and full-
length pants, coveralls, or lightweight spray suit. Protect hands with waterproof
gloves and use a face shield or goggles to prevent spray or dust from contacting
eyes. Read the pesticide label carefully for the minimum protective clothing
requirements.
Whenever possible, increase ventilation in the treatment area by opening win-
dows or using a fan to bring in fresh air. To avoid breathing fumes, wear an approved
respirator for the pesticides being applied. Be sure it is in good working condition,
fits well, and forms a good seal around the face.
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific pesticide.
When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company and MSDS standards.

Special precautions necessary to prevent a hazardous situation during storage or
disposal are noted on the MSDS. These precautions may identify storage procedures
such as storing in a cool, dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing
pesticides separately. In addition, these precautions may include ventilation require-
ments, as well as special tools and any other pertinent precautions.
Never drain or wash application equipment where runoff will enter sewers, sinks,
sumps, or drain tile systems. Use common sense when storing or disposing of
pesticides. Follow company procedures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are
questions, ask the supervisor.
Residues from improper application or improper rinsing of equipment may also
result in contamination of surface water or groundwater.

learn the emergency procedure before working with pesticides. Consult the emer-
gency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances.
Victims of pesticide emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the pesticides handled in the work
• Always apply pesticides in strict accordance with label instructions. Never
use a pesticide in a building or other area unless people living or working
there can be protected from exposure. This often requires that inhabitants
leave the area before an application begins.
• Never apply a pesticide dissolved in oil or petroleum solvent in an
enclosed area if there is any source of spark or flame, such as functioning
electrical motors, wall switches, appliances, or pilot lights.
• Do not apply pesticides on or near animal food or water or dishes that
are used in feeding.
• Never make an outdoor application of a liquid spray when the wind is
blowing at more than 5 miles/hour.
• Do not apply a pesticide in outdoor locations where residues can be carried
into a well, stream, pond, or other water body.
• Do not use a water-based spray around electric appliances, outlets, or
switches.
• Use extreme caution when making pesticide applications in rooms where
elderly people or children sleep or spend long periods of time and, when-
ever possible, avoid treating these locations.
• Keep incompatible pesticides separate. Never mix or store them together.
MSDS.
sources, and fire extinguishers.
4.9 REACTIVES
4.9.1 REACTIVES INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling paints. One should always review the product labels
and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific reactives in use. In some
cases, it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of the reactive before
handling the reactive.
4.9.2 REACTIVES SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Nitric Acid, Petric Acid, Epoxy, Caustic.
4.9.3 WHAT ARE REACTIVES?

Reactives are “nervous” chemicals that can react violently, sometimes just by being
moved. Avoid taking chances! Each time employees work with reactives, they should
read the MSDS first. The information on this sheet and on container labels will also
help protect them.
It takes very little to cause reactives or chemicals near them to explode, burn,
or release dangerous vapors. Explosives, the most obvious reactives, can sometimes
explode in the presence of a tiny spark, even from friction. Oxidizers, such as nitric
acid, contain a large percentage of oxygen. They can cause other substances, like
flammables, to burn.
Unstable chemicals can explode under what seem like safe conditions, such as
heat or slight movements. Some chemicals, such as ether, become unstable over
time. These can be especially dangerous because the usual procedures are no longer
safe. Incompatible chemicals, such as acids and bases, seem stable on their own,
but react strongly when they are mixed together. Polymerizing chemicals, such as
epoxies, create their own chemical reaction. If this reaction happens too quickly, the
result can be fire or explosion.

“Handle with care” should always be the guide. Before handling a reactive, read the
MSDS. It will indicate what causes the chemical to react. Some examples: Unstable
chemicals can explode with the slightest shock. Explosives and oxidizers can explode
in the presence of the smallest spark, even friction. Incompatible chemicals are
unsafe when they are in contact with each other.

Reactives can react so suddenly and violently that one should always play it safe.
Avoid unnecessary risks. Reading the MSDS and following the list of procedures
are excellent protections.

The MSDS for each reactive will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific reactive. If
the job deals with many reactive materials or continual use of reactive materials,
fire-retardant clothing may be required. When a respirator is necessary, it must meet

company and MSDS standards.

Special precautions necessary to prevent a hazardous situation are noted on the
MSDS. The safe bet is to store all reactives away from other chemicals. Keep them
far from heat and electric sources. Keep oxidizers such as nitric or sulfuric acid
stored separately from flammables, paper, wood, or other materials that can burn.
Unstable chemicals can react violently to conditions such as movement or heat.
Store them in temperature-controlled areas, which do not vibrate or receive shocks.
Store incompatible chemicals such as acids and bases away from each other.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of reactives. Follow company
Always dispose of reactives in approved containers. Never pour them into a
drain, sewer, or throw them into the garbage or on the ground. Never smoke around
disposal sites or containers.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the reactive. Consult the
emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific substances
you use.
Emergencies involving reactives can be very serious. Explosions and fires can
spread quickly, starting from a tiny spark of static electricity or from a lighted match.
Take the time before beginning a task to read the appropriate MSDS.
Victims of reactive emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help as
source or removing the victim’s clothing. Follow appropriate guidelines in admin-

• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the reactives handled in the work
reactives can make the situation worse. An employee who has not received
training for this chemical can still help keep possible injury and damage
to a minimum by remaining calm.

MSDS.
reactive in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
4.10 REFRACTORIES
4.10.1 REFRACTORY INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling refractories. One should always review the product
labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific refractory material
in use. In some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of the
material before handling the refractory material.
4.10.2 REFRACTORY SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Fire brick, Shapes.
4.10.3 WHAT IS A REFRACTORY?

Refractories are nonmetallic materials capable of maintaining physical and chemical
stability at high temperatures.
Refractories in modern practice are primarily ceramic in nature, and are widely
used in a variety of industries. Wherever a process involves heat in excess of 700
or 800°F (roughly), one will find refractory materials in place, either as a lining or
forming the process vessel itself. Some common process vessels using refractories
are boiler combustion chambers, furnaces, forges, incinerators, many emission-
control scrubbers, rotary kilns, or dryers.

The most common refractories contain alumina and silica. Trace amounts of titanium
oxides, chromium, magnesia, ferric oxide, lime, carbon, and other materials also
occur in various kinds of refractory materials.
Refractories are primarily made with clay. These clays are then mixed and
blended to allow specific properties to be prevalent. These mixes are then formed
into a variety of products. Much of it is formed into special brick shapes, then fired
again to help stabilize the size of the brick. Castable refractories are bagged and
then installed much like cement: add water, pour (or gun), and fire-in-place.

The personal hazards involved with refractory material vary widely depending on
what type of refractory it is and what state of the refractory, i.e., brick, rubble,
powder, mud, blown, etc. The same refractory material can pose different health
risks at different times. For example, refractory brick poses little health risk when
being installed or while in use. But the same brick could pose serious health risk
when it is cut by a refractory saw and dust is generated. The refractory could also
become an environmental health risk if it is disposed of in a way that will allow
rain water to come in contact with it and then migrate toward a drinking water
source. It is important to follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for handling
a refractory material from cradle to grave; that is, from the time it is created, to the
time it is disposed of by an approved method.
Eyes Whenever a refractory material is being handled, cut, sawed,

ground, mixed, sprayed, or otherwise abraded or disrupted, eye
protection should be used. The applicable MSDS describes the
appropriate type of eye protection.
Skin Protective clothing should be worn to limit contact of loose
refractory material coming into contact with the skin. Refractory
material that has come in contact with the skin should be
promptly removed by the method described on the MSDS. In
some cases, this may be simple washing from the skin with soap
and water and in other cases it may require a specific solvent.
When solvents must be used, always rewash with water.
Inhalation In most cases, the most significant personal hazard dealing with
refractories is the hazard of inhalation of refractory dust generated
when sawed, ground, blown, cut, or otherwise abraded. At a min-
imum, a dust respirator should be worn when refractory material
is generating dust at any level. When suggested on the MSDS, a
canister respirator should be worn. In some cases, the manufacturer
will recommend using an air-supplied respirator. The manufac-
turer’s recommendations should always be closely followed.
Ingestion Ingestion is usually not applicable, but in heavy concentrations of
refractory dust ingestion of small amounts is possible. If ingestion
does occur, leave the area of exposure and follow first-aid proce-
dures recommended in the MSDS and consult a physician or
poison control.

The MSDS for each refractory material will also provide guidance for the appropriate
and specific substances involved. Handling refractory brick will be much different
from working with a powder–castable refractory material.
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific refractory
material. If the job deals with many refractory materials or continual use of refractory
materials, special respirators may be required because compounds in the refractory
material can be dangerous. When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company
and MSDS standards.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing refractories separately. In
Use common sense when storing or disposing of a refractory material. Follow
company procedures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the
supervisor.
Some refractory materials are considered hazardous waste because of the levels
of chromium, titanium oxides, or other compounds entrapped in the refractory
material. Do not be fooled by the apparent harmless look of waste refractory brick
or rubble. Waste refractory material can pose a threat of groundwater contamination
if disposed of improperly.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the refractory material. Consult
the emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the specific sub-
stances.
Victims of refractory emergencies should receive medical help as soon as pos-
sible. Perform first aid while waiting for emergency personnel. This may include
bringing the victim to an eyewash station, safety shower, or fresh air source or
removing the victim’s clothing. Follow appropriate guidelines in administering first-
aid procedures.

• Never mix, pour, stir, or otherwise work castable refractory materials
without the use of a respirator (dust mask). Some refractories will require
a cartridge respirator. Always consult the applicable MSDS.
• Never cut or saw shapes, bricks, or other molded refractories without the
use of a respirator (dust mask). Some refractories will require a cartridge
respirator. Always consult the applicable MSDS.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the refractory material handled in
the work area. Read the label on the container.

MSDS.
material in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
4.11 SOLVENTS
4.11.1 SOLVENTS INFORMATION SOURCES
safety information only. Its intent is to serve as an easy to understand reference for
the different aspects of handling solvents. One should always review the product
labels and MSDS for the specific solvents in use. In some cases, it may even be
necessary to consult the solvent manufacturer before handling the solvents.
4.11.2 SOLVENTS SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
Naphtha, Varsol, Mineral Spirits, Paint Thinner.
4.11.3 WHAT ARE SOLVENTS?

Solvents are substances, usually liquid, that dissolve other substances. Some familiar
uses include degreasing, spray painting, dry cleaning, and paint softening. Solvents
are found throughout industry and include such common chemicals as paint thinners,
degreasers, and industrial cleaners. Solvents can spill or leak, and the vapors can
catch fire or explode.

Every solvent is hazardous, depending on how it is used. Many organic solvents
will burn. They can cause fires and explosions if misused. Many of them are toxic.
Some are flammable, explosive, and toxic; however, all are useful and all can be
used and worked with safely.
When a solvent is heated, vapors are produced — how much vapor will depend
upon the temperature of the operation and the nature of the solvent. Some solvents
evaporate very rapidly; others are slower in evaporating. The larger the area of
contact between the solvent and air, the more vapor will be produced.
Know the solvent. Know if it is flammable or toxic or both. Solvents can be

toxic (poisonous) to the human body and can burn, catch fire, or cause explosions.
They can be especially dangerous because often they have no color or long-lasting
smell. Most solvents evaporate quickly and are called volatile. With volatile solvents,
there is the hazard that people can breathe in their vapors.
If a spark, flame, or static electricity is present, many solvents can explode. Their
upper and lower explosive limits, which indicate when an explosion is possible, are
listed on their MSDS. Some solvents have a flash point, or catch fire, at less than
100°F. They are called flammable, and are hazardous because their flash point may
be below normal room temperature. Solvents with a flash point above 100°F are
called combustible.
If too much of a toxic solvent is absorbed, irritated or damaged skin, eyes, lungs,
and other organs can result. Permissible exposure limits (PELs) for many solvents
have been set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and are listed
on the MSDS.
Eyes If a solvent splashes in the eyes, acute (short-term) symptoms can

include burning, watering, irritation, and redness. Overexposure
to solvent vapors or mists can eventually cause chronic (long-term)
symptoms, such as blurred vision, constant irritation, or permanent
vision damage. A person with solvent in the eye should seek the
nearest eyewash station. If no eyewash station is available, any
low-pressure, clean water source may be used. Contact lenses
should be removed because they can trap or absorb the solvent.
Flush the eye for 15-20 min, letting water run from the inside to
the outside of the eye. Keep the affected eye turned downward to
prevent the solvent from running into the other eye. Do not apply
neutralizers or ointments to the eye. Someone who has solvent in
the eye may need to be restrained to receive first aid.
Skin One-time exposure, such as splashing a solvent on the skin, can
cause dry, scaly skin, rashes, burning, or irritation. If a solvent
enters the bloodstream through the skin, one can experience acute
symptoms such as those listed below for inhalation and ingestion.
Long-term overexposure to solvents can cause contact dermatitis,
a chronic skin condition that may include blistering, redness, and
discomfort. If a solvent is on your skin, rinse (do not scrub) the
affected area for 15 to 20 min. Use a faucet, hose, or other available
clean water source. If the solvent is dry, brush it off before begin-
ning to rinse. Remove the contaminated clothing. Do not put the
clothing back on until it has been decontaminated. If possible,
after rinsing, cover the affected area with a sterile dressing. Do
not apply burn ointments or neutralizing solutions.
Inhalation If a person suddenly breathes in or swallows a solvent, acute

symptoms can include headache, nausea, vomiting, sore throat,
dizziness, fatigue, giddiness, rapid or irregular heartbeat, and dif-
ficulty breathing. Over time, some solvents, when inhaled, can
cause liver, kidney, nervous system damage, unconsciousness, or
even death. If solvent vapors are inhaled, the symptoms may
include headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, or difficulty breath-
ing. Seek fresh air immediately. Ask a co-worker to obtain medical
help. Artificial respiration may be necessary.
Ingestion If a solvent is swallowed, ask a co-worker to obtain medical
attention immediately and to call the local Poison Control Center
(dial 911). Do not eat or drink anything unless so instructed by
the solvent label or a medical professional.
Symptoms of solvent exposure may appear immediately, or they may not be

noticeable until some time later. Therefore, victims of a solvent emergency should
remain under medical observation until the doctor feels it is safe to release them.

The MSDS for each solvent will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
Eyes PPE should include safety glasses and, in some cases, chemical
safety goggles, which have indirect ventilation ports, or face
shield.
Skin The specific glove used for working with solvents is very impor-
tant. The wrong glove can deteriorate and become spongelike,
pulling the solvent next to the skin. Always make sure to wear the
proper gloves.
Check the MSDS for the appropriate apron requirements. If cloth-
ing becomes contaminated, remove it immediately. Decontami-
nate, wash, or dispose of it properly.
Inhalation When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company and MSDS
standards.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing solvents separately. In
Store all solvents in temperature-controlled environments, out of direct sunlight.
Dispense solvents from safety-approved nozzles and dispensers only. Store solvents
away from oxidizers (any substance that causes fire easily). Check storage containers
regularly to make sure the spout, cap, and container are in good working order and
do not leak. Immediately replace damaged container parts such as flame arrester
screens.
Know the location of spill control stations and materials, eyewash stations, and
safety showers.
Know whether contaminated clothing, PPE, rags, and materials should be decon-
taminated, cleaned, or disposed of, according to company policy. Always dispose
of flammable solvents into approved tightly covered safety containers, never into a
sewer, storm drain, or the garbage, or onto the ground.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of solvents. Follow company

learn the emergency procedure before working with solvents. Consult the emergency
Victims of emergencies with solvents can be seriously hurt. The more rapid
the response to a solvent emergency, the less likelihood there will be of serious
damage to people and property. Send for medical help as soon as possible, and
perform first aid while waiting for emergency personnel. This may include bringing
the victim to an eyewash station, safety shower, or fresh air source or removing
the victim’s clothing. Follow appropriate guidelines in administering first-aid pro-
cedures.
Handle an emergency only if it is small and if trained to do so. If it is a fire,
make sure to use the right kind of extinguisher. Evacuate the area as quickly as
possible while alerting others to the emergency. Then, notify the supervisor or the
appropriately trained persons immediately. Do not reenter the emergency area with-
out appropriate PPE and training.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the solvents handled in the work
solvents can make the situation worse. An employee who has not received
training for this solvent can still help keep possible injury and damage to
a minimum by remaining calm.
MSDS.
solvent in use — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
4.12 TOLUENE OR XYLENE

4.12.1 TOLUENE OR XYLENE INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling toluene or xylene. One should always review the
product labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific toluene or
xylene in use. In some cases, it may even be necessary to consult the toluene or
xylene manufacturer before handling the toluene or xylene.
4.12.2 TOLUENE OR XYLENE SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND

SIMILAR PRODUCTS
Toluol, Phenylmethane, Methylbenzene, Thiophene, Solvent.
4.12.3 WHAT ARE TOLUENE AND XYLENE?

Toluene and xylene are used as solvents. They are commonly found in paints,
varnishes, inks, adhesives, cleaning fluids, and in manufacturing processes. They are
very volatile and vaporize quickly. They are both colorless unless mixed with other
compounds such as paints or inks.

Both toluene and xylene are colorless liquids and they have strong recognizable
smells even at low levels. The thing to remember is that they can both vaporize at
room temperature. That means, they can travel through the air and they are very
volatile.

The following are recommended exposure levels for an 8-hour work shift and should
not be exceeded:
Xylene 100 ppm

Toluene 200 ppm
These chemicals can affect the body if they are inhaled, if they contact eyes or skin
directly, or if they are swallowed. If toluene or xylene is inhaled in excess of
recommended exposure levels, symptoms would probably be eye, nose, and throat
irritation, dizziness or confusion, and headache.
These chemicals are flammable. Extreme care must be taken to avoid anything
that may trigger a fire or explosion. Keep them away from strong oxidizers.

The MSDS for the toluene and xylene will also provide guidance for the appropriate
and the specific substances involved.
Emergency-response PPE should be kept in the immediate area in a designated
locker or cabinet and be clearly marked.
Eyes PPE should include safety glasses and, in some cases, chemical
safety goggles, which have indirect ventilation ports, or face
shields. If liquid splashes in the eyes, remove contacts, which can
absorb or trap toluene or xylene in the eye.
Skin Special gloves are required; check the MSDS for the proper gloves
to be worn when handling the specific toluene or xylene. A
chemical apron may also be required. If toluene or xylene gets
on clothing, keep gloves on while removing the clothes immedi-
ately. When the solvent is dried, the clothes should be laundered
before they are worn again. If the job deals with continual use of
toluene or xylene materials, fire-retardant clothing may be
required.
Inhalation When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company and MSDS
standards. Local ventilation such as an exhaust hood should be
used to lower the exposure level when possible. If the exposure
level is too high and it cannot be controlled for some reason, use
respirators that are approved by NIOSH.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing toluene and xylene sepa-
rately. In addition, these precautions may include ventilation requirements, as well
as special tools and any other pertinent precautions.
Toluene and xylene are flammable, so store them separately in the appropriate
location in tightly closed approved containers separate from flammable and/or com-
bustible liquids. Dispense them only from approved nozzles and dispensers. Store
large drums and containers below eye level whenever possible to avoid splashing
the face or eyes. Check storage containers regularly for leaks, and make sure that
caps and spouts are in good working order.
Do not smoke around toluene or xylene. Do not carry lighters, matches, or
sparking devices when you're handling them.
Know whether contaminated clothing, PPE, rags, and other materials should be
decontaminated, cleaned, or disposed of. Dispose of waste as outlined in the appro-
priate MSDS.
Use common sense when disposing of toluene or xylene. These are some of the
most dangerous chemicals. Follow company procedures and those listed on the
MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with toluene and xylene. Consult the
emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS for the substances.
Do not rush right in and start to clean up. Put on protective clothing and make
sure there are no sources of ignition around. Ventilate the area.
Handle a spill, leak, fire or other emergency only if it is small and if trained to
do so. Otherwise, the situation might become more dangerous. Evacuate the area as
quickly as possible and let others know about the emergency.
Eyes If toluene or xylene gets in the eyes, go directly to the nearest

eyewash station. If none is nearby, use any low-pressure clean
water source, such as a hose. Remove contact lenses, which can
absorb or trap the toluene or xylene. Flush the eyes for 15 to 20
min, letting the water run from the inside to the outside of the
eyes. Do not apply neutralizers or ointments, which have the
potential to make damage worse. Someone who has toluene or
xylene in the eyes may need to be restrained to receive first aid.
Immediately after flushing, transport the person to a medical pro-
fessional for further treatment.
Skin If toluene or xylene contacts the skin, rinse (do not scrub) the
affected area for 15 to 20 min. If there is no safety shower nearby,
use a faucet, hose, or any clean water source. Remove any con-
taminated clothing and, if necessary, dispose of it. Do not put
clothing back on until it has been decontaminated or cleaned. Do
not apply burn ointments or neutralizing solutions. If possible,
after rinsing, cover the affected area with a sterile dressing; then
transport the individual to a medical professional immediately.
Inhalation If toluene or xylene vapors are inhaled, symptoms can range from
slight throat irritation to serious difficulty breathing. Seek fresh
air immediately, and ask a coworker to obtain medical help right
away.
Ingestion If toluene or xylene is swallowed, ask a co-worker to obtain
medical assistance immediately and to call the local Poison Con-
trol Center (dial 911). Do not eat or drink anything unless so
instructed by the MSDS, the label of the toluene or xylene, or a
medical professional.
Toluene and xylene cause much of their damage quickly, but some symptoms
may not appear immediately. Victims of an emergency involving toluene or xylene
should stay under medical observation until a doctor releases them.
Victims of toluene or xylene emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical

• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the toluene and xylene handled in
the work area. Read the label on the container.
toluene and xylene can make the situation worse. An employee who has
not received training for this chemical can still help keep possible injury
and damage to a minimum by remaining calm.
MSDS.
4.13 WASTE
4.13.1 WASTE INFORMATION SOURCES
the different aspects of handling waste. One should always review the product labels
and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the specific waste in use. In some cases,
it may even be necessary to consult the manufacturer of specific wastes before
handling them.
4.13.2 WASTE SYNONYMS, COMMON NAMES, AND SIMILAR

PRODUCTS
All products become waste when they are no longer used for their intended purpose,
recycled, or treated as a product. Care must be given to retention of materials because
useful materials can transform into waste any time due to deterioration, change in
storage conditions or regulatory guidelines.
4.13.3 WHAT IS WASTE?

Waste is generally considered to be any material or product that is no longer used
or reused for its intended purpose or as another product.
Hazardous waste is any material not used for its intended purpose or reused that
is listed as hazardous by the EPA or states or that exhibits any of the following
characteristics:
Ignitability — Has a flash point below 140°F (60°C).

Toxicity — Contains listed substances above specified levels that may pose a
hazard to humans or the environment.
Reactivity — Spontaneously reacts in air or water.
Corrosivity — Has a pH ≤ 2 or ≥ 12.5.
Any container that previously held hazardous waste or material and is not empty
as defined in the contaminated container regulation shall be managed as hazardous
waste.
Hazardous waste minimization is important because it helps protect the envi-
ronment, while also reducing the great expense and administrative difficulties asso-
ciated with disposing of hazardous wastes: waste minimization does not cost — it
pays. Hazardous waste minimization means limiting inventories and the use of
hazardous materials to quantities as small as possible, which improves safety wher-
ever hazardous materials are stored and used.
Waste minimization begins with planning. Choose equipment and techniques
that (1) use the least hazardous material, (2) use the smallest quantities, (3) generate
the least amount, and (4) are practical and safe for any given task.

Common characteristics are difficult to define because almost anything can become
waste. A product that was once inventory can become waste because of expiration,
deterioration, damage, specification changes, overproduction, and many other factors.
Waste does not necessarily have to be hazardous to be considered waste. Non-
hazardous material can become waste and must be treated as a waste, not as a product
or other usable material.

Personal hazards depend on the material that has become waste; how much waste
exists, what kinds of exposures are present, what kind of containers or containment
is used and many other variables. To determine what personal hazards exist, one
must look at not only what hazards the original product may have presented, but
also what hazards are presented in its current condition. The hazards may have
increased or decreased. The original MSDS is a good place to start in the assessment
of the hazards involved with waste.

The MSDS for each waste will also provide guidance for the appropriate personal
specific substances involved. It will also vary depending on the condition of the
waste and of its container. Waste in properly labeled and closed drums will require
different PPE than the same waste that has spilled on the ground.
Waste may present special PPE hazards because the waste material is often not
marked, not contained, and/or has contaminated other material or equipment. Cau-
tion should always be used to wear more PPE than appears needed, not less.
Determine what PPE is needed before starting work.
the MSDS for the proper gloves to be worn when handling the specific waste. If the
job deals with many waste materials or continual use of waste materials, fire-
retardant clothing may be required because even the slightest of unstable conditions
can be extremely dangerous. When a respirator is necessary, it must meet company
and MSDS standards.

dry place, storing away from sources of heat, and storing waste separately. In
Always know the material constituting the waste. The identity of items being
disposed of must be known prior to disposal; analyzing an unknown material to
identify it is usually very expensive and time-consuming. Container labeling,
whether HMIS or NFPA, helps quickly communicate the hazards involved with
waste, and may save significant cost and burdens of identifying unknown chemicals.
Empty containers that previously held a hazardous material may be subject to
specific state or federal regulations. Waste chemicals and spent chemical solutions
can pose a threat to the environment if not properly managed.
Under the following criteria, a container is considered empty when (these guide-
lines pertain to determining emptiness with hazardous material, but also serve as
good guidelines for nonhazardous waste):
• A container that formerly held pourable hazardous material or waste: No

residual material or waste can be poured or drained from that container
when the container is held in any orientation (e.g., tilted or inverted).
Federal regulations declare a drum empty, if there is less than 1 in. of

liquid left in the drum.
• A container that formerly held nonpourable hazardous material or waste:
No material or waste remaining in or on the container can be feasibly
removed by physical methods commonly employed to remove materials
from the containers. A thin, uniform layer of dried material or powder is
considered acceptable in the container.
• A container that formerly held materials or wastes considered to be
extremely or acutely hazardous: The container has been triple-rinsed with
a solvent capable of removing the material. Triple rinsing currently
requires a treatment permit, conditional exemption, permit, or permit
waiver. The rinse may then be considered hazardous.
Detailed information about spills of specific chemicals can be found on the

specific MSDS and the Spill Reporting and Emergency Release Plan of the plant.
The employee must be trained in advance to handle cleanups. Some spills of waste
may trigger reporting requirements to government agencies.
Use common sense when storing or disposing of waste. Follow company pro-
cedures and those listed on the MSDS. If there are questions, ask the supervisor.

learn the emergency procedure before working with the waste or even before it
becomes waste. Consult the emergency and first-aid procedure section of the MSDS
for the specific substances in use.
Emergency response in dealing with waste material can be as simple as placing
waste material in a designated disposal bin or as complicated as regulatory permits,
self-contained body suits, and area evacuation. The level of response is naturally
dependent on the level of the hazard. The first step in emergency response for waste
is to assess the hazards and materials involved. Obtain accurate information on the
waste and conditions before attempting any emergency response. When in doubt,
evacuate the area until appropriate response information is obtained.
Victims of waste emergencies can be seriously hurt. Send for medical help as
source or removing clothing from the victim. Follow appropriate guidelines in
administering first-aid procedures.
• Consult the MSDS for the specifics on the waste handled in the work

• Share inventories of hazardous chemicals with other users.
• Reuse hazardous material whenever possible.
• Dispose of hazardous materials promptly.
MSDS.
• Know the location of the nearest eyewash stations, safety showers, fresh
air sources, and fire extinguishers. Use the right kind of extinguisher for
the specific waste — the wrong kind can spread the fire.
• Be calm. Someone who is not trained to handle emergencies involving
waste can make the situation worse. An employee who has not received
training for waste can still help keep possible injury and damage to a
minimum by remaining calm.
5 Helpful Audit Checklists

Audits of the various elements of a safety program are important. Long debates
ensue over just how important they are and how much value they add to the safety
of the workforce. When considering audits, the most important thing to remember
is to keep them in perspective. An audit is not an opportunity to find every item that
could possibly be out of compliance or even that might cause an accident. The
focuses of an audit should be threefold.
1. First, to find any serious areas of violation of law or policy and any item
that might cause immediate injury. This should be considered as “minimal
requirements.” Findings in this area represent fundamental flaws in the
safety system. Although these items are important to unearth and bring
to light, they are not where the ultimate benefit of audits will be achieved.
2. Second, audits should be used to track progress in areas that have been
defined as important to the safety system in a specific organization. This
may not have any meaning to any other organization. However, for this
specific organization, these are the keys to success. They are items that
have been identified as critical to its management and employees.
3. Third, and most important, audits should be used for measures of “constant
improvement.” Audits can be customized for just about any area that has
been determined to be an area of needed improvement, which is the area
where the most tremendous changes can be achieved. Audits in this area
start to be connected to goals and objectives established by the organiza-
tion. Used for this purpose, audits cease to be burdensome and dreaded
and start to become tools of success and achievement.
In any of these predetermined areas, “20 questions” can be developed that

determine whether essential milestones and objectives are being met. The term “20
questions” is used loosely. As will be seen from review of the audit checklists in
this area, the number of questions is not as important as the pertinence of the
questions. These questions, however many there are, should bring out real problems
or point to real solutions. They can be easily designed to steer an organization in
specific directions.
The following 20 questions audit checklists should be beneficial in themselves,
but also serve as a guide to develop meaningful audit checklists in any area where
constant improvement is desired.
187
INDEX OF “20 QUESTIONS” AUDIT CHECKLISTS
5.1 Bad Habits and Shortcuts

5.2 Computer Workstations
5.3 Confined Space Entry
5.4 Emergency Preparedness
5.5 Fire Protection
5.6 Hazardous Atmospheres
5.7 Hazardous Communications
5.8 Ladders
5.9 Machine Guarding
5.10 New Hire Employees
5.11 Noise and Hearing Protection
5.12 Personal Protective Equipment
5.13 Powered Platforms
5.14 Scaffolds
5.15 Walking Surfaces
Helpful Audit Checklists 189
5.1 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR BAD HABITS AND SHORT-

CUTS*
Additional Training
Audit Date Person Auditing Overall Condition? Needed?
1. Yes No Are all major tasks covered by Plant Standard Operating Procedures?
2. Yes No Has Job Safety Analysis/Job Hazard Analysis been done on major tasks
of each job? (Job Descriptions may be a good place to get a starter
list of specific tasks for each job.)
3. Yes No Have all previous accidents involving this job task been reviewed and
evaluated for bad habits and shortcuts?
4. Yes No Are employees pressured to maintain a faster-than-normal pace?
5. Yes No Are supervisors’ directions to employees for work always combined
with safety references?
6. Yes No Are all shortcuts observed addressed immediately?
7. Yes No Are shortcuts considered necessary to get the job done?
8. Yes No Are long-time employees given “exceptions” from safety rules and
standard operating procedures because “they know how to do it”?
9. Yes No Is cross-observation among supervisors, employees, departments, task,
and teams used to detect hazards, bad habits, and shortcuts?
10. Yes No Is a certain number of “mishaps” accepted as “the best way we know
how”?
11. Yes No Are concerns, solutions, and suggestions from employees discussed and
considered as ways to eliminate bad habits, shortcuts, and other habits?
12. Yes No Is the right tool always used for the job?
13. Yes No Are there jobs that have hazardous operations that have not had detailed
Job Safety Analysis, Job Hazard Analysis, or Ergonomic Reviews done
on them?
14. Yes No Do employees consider a specific job to be extra hazardous or extra
dangerous?
15. Yes No Are employees free to point out shortcuts that compromise safety and
not fear repercussions?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist.

5.2 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR COMPUTER

WORKSTATIONS
Any “no” response indicates a potential problem area, which should receive
further investigation.
1. Yes No Does the workstation ensure proper worker posture, such as:
Horizontal thighs?
Vertical lower legs?
Feet flat on floor or a footrest?
Neutral wrists?
2. Yes No Does the chair
Adjust easily?
Have a padded seat with a rounded front?
Have an adjustable backrest?
Provide lumbar support?
Have casters?
3. Yes No Are the height and tilt of the work surface on which the keyboard is
located adjustable?
4. Yes No Is the keyboard detachable?
5. Yes No Do keying actions require minimal force?
6. Yes No Is there an adjustable document holder?
7. Yes No Are armrests provided where needed?
8. Yes No Are glare and reflections avoided?
9. Yes No Does the monitor have brightness and contrast controls?
10. Yes No Do the operators judge the distance between eyes and work to be
satisfactory for their viewing needs?
11. Yes No Is there sufficient space for knees and feet?
12. Yes No Can the workstation be used for either right- or left-handed activity?
13. Yes No Are adequate rest breaks provided for task demands?
14. Yes No Are high stroke rates avoided by:
Job rotation?
Self-pacing?
Adjusting the job to the skill of the worker?
15. Yes No Are employees trained in:
Proper postures?
Proper work methods?
When and how to adjust their workstations?
How to seek assistance for their concerns?
5.3 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR CONFINED SPACE ENTRY*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Does every confined space have a specific safety checklist for entering
that confined space?
2. Yes No Prior to entering the space, is a written permit required?
3. Yes No For “nonpermit confined spaces” is the monitoring for a permit still
performed?
4. Yes No Is constant monitoring performed while the space is occupied?
5. Yes No Has emergency equipment been placed on the confined space site prior
to entry?
6. Yes No Have attendants been trained on all of their duties?
7. Yes No Is a specific list or accounting system in place to track everyone who
goes in and comes out?
8. Yes No Is the confined space clearly posted, such as “Do Not Enter without
Authorization”?
9. Yes No Have the individual checklists been updated within the last 12 months?
10. Yes No Does the attendant have means of easy communication with the
entrants?
11. Yes No Does the attendant have means of easy communication with emergency
response personnel?
12. Yes No Are the operation, production, and maintenance personnel who work
on the confined space area in good communication?
13. Yes No Have lockouts, blinds, disconnects, and other safeguards been double-
checked?
14. Yes No Has a pre-job safety meeting been held with all those who will be
involved?
15. Yes No Is a close watch kept on everything that could possibly change the
conditions of the confined space?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.146 for specific details and
more-detailed information.
5.4 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR EMERGENCY

PREPAREDNESS*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have all employees been trained on the proper evacuation method,
paths, and plans?
2. Yes No Are evacuation routes posted?
3. Yes No Is an emergency evacuation meeting place predetermined?
4. Yes No Is a list of employees working in any given area readily available in an
emergency?
5. Yes No Is there a comprehensive chemical inventory (both internal and external
response teams) kept up-to-date and readily available for emergency
personnel?
6. Yes No Do emergency response personnel have detailed plant maps, chemical
inventory, special hazards?
7. Yes No Have all exits been clearly identified?
8. Yes No Are exit stairways equipped with emergency lighting?
9. Yes No Are “nonexit” doorways clearly marked “Not an Exit”?
10. Yes No Has the alarm signal been tested recently?
11. Yes No Have evacuation drills been conducted recently?
12. Yes No Have bad weather take-cover areas been established and are they kept
stocked with emergency supplies?
13. Yes No Is emergency communication available with entities outside the plant
(NOAA weather radio, emergency radio channels, cell phone)?
14. Yes No In inclement weather is someone in the facility designated to monitor
weather reports?
15. Yes No Are first-aid supplies readily available?
16. Yes No Are first aid/CPR-qualified personnel available at all times?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.36,37,38 for specific
requirements and more-detailed information.
5.5 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR FIRE PROTECTION*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Are flammables and combustibles stored in appropriate cabinets?

2. Yes No Are flammables and combustibles properly identified?
3. Yes No Are “No Smoking” signs posted in all areas where flammables and
combustibles are used and stored?
4. Yes No Are oxygen and acetylene stored with required fire barrier between the
two?
5. Yes No Are fire extinguishers checked each month?
6. Yes No Are fire extinguishers checked each year in an “annual” inspection?
7. Yes No Have employees been trained on proper use of fire extinguishers within
the last 12 months?
8. Yes No Do all employees know the fire signal and how to evacuate?
9. Yes No Are spray cans kept in a designated area?
10. Yes No Are flammables and combustibles materials such as paints stored
separately from other flammable materials?
11. Yes No Has the fire water system been tested in the last 12 months?
12. Yes No Is fire response equipment checked on a monthly basis? Is it
documented?
13. Yes No Do employees fully understand how they are to respond to a fire?
14. Yes No Are all compressed gases stored outside?
15. Yes No Are Department of Transportation (DOT) testing numbers current on
all compressed gas cylinders and canisters?
5.6 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR HAZARDOUS

ATMOSPHERES*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have all employees been trained on all known exposures?

2. Yes No Are exposure levels monitored and conveyed to all employees?
3. Yes No Are methods in place to alert employees when permissible exposure
limits are exceeded?
4. Yes No Is monitoring conducted when new materials are brought into the
workplace?
5. Yes No Is an industrial hygienist consulted at the first indication of symptoms
of nausea, dizziness, light-headedness, and other telling symptoms?
6. Yes No Are employee complaints about strong odors, smells, fumes, other
irritations treated as a top priority?
7. Yes No Are confined spaces monitored and permitted prior to the entry of any
employee?
8. Yes No In confined space situations, is the attendant required to stay in constant
contact with entrants and has the attendant been trained on emergency
procedures?
9. Yes No Is welding, cleaning, or other operation that has potential for changing
the atmosphere being performed in a confined space?
10. Yes No Is an MSDS available for all solvents used in parts washers?
11. Yes No Are nonflammable solvents used wherever possible?
12. Yes No Are all exhaust fans in operating condition and used when needed?
13. Yes No Have ventilation systems been inspected in the last 12 months?
14. Yes No Have employees complained that ventilation systems are not adequate?
15. Yes No Is all welding done away from solvents and chemical cleaning areas?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklists. See 29 CFR 1910.94 for specific requirements
and more-detailed information.
5.7 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR HAZARDOUS

COMMUNICATIONS*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Is every chemical used in this area listed on the plant chemical
inventory?
2. Yes No Has every employee been trained on every chemical or group of
chemicals?
3. Yes No Is every container in this area properly labeled?
4. Yes No Do all labels have adequate information?
5. Yes No Are chemicals stored in their proper locations?
6. Yes No Are there chemical spills (even minor leaks) that have not been cleaned
up?
7. Yes No Have employees been trained on proper PPE for every chemical in this
area?
8. Yes No Can employees readily identify the hazards involved in using a chemical
or in a chemical release?
9. Yes No Are chemical stored only with chemicals in the same categories or
compatible categories?
10. Yes No Is there a regular program to relabel drums and containers that have
damaged or deteriorated labels?
11. Yes No Are used drums not allowed to accumulate around the plant?
12. Yes No Are used drums not allowed to collect water?
13. Yes No Is the chemical inventory updated on a regular basis?
14. Yes No Is the Hazardous Communication program evaluated for effectiveness?
15. Yes No Can every employee explain how the Hazardous Communication
program works?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.1200 for specific details
5.8 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR LADDERS*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Are ladders always inspected before each use?

2. Yes No Are ladders only used for the application for which they were designed?
3. Yes No Is the height of the ladder adequate for the task at hand?
4. Yes No Are ladders ever used as a brace, skid, lever, guy or gin pole, gangway,
platform, scaffold, plank, material hoist, or any other use that was not
intended?
5. Yes No Are stepladders ever used as a single ladder or when partially closed?
6. Yes No Are lean-to ladders tied off at the top to a stationary fixed position?
7. Yes No Is the 4-to-1 rule for properly setting up extension or straight ladders
always used? (The distance from the wall to the base of the ladder
should be one fourth the distance from the base of the ladder to where
it touches the wall)
8. Yes No Are extension ladders extended at least 1 ft, but no more than 3 ft above
the point of support at the top?
9. Yes No Do employees ever stand on the top of a stepladder, stand above the
third rung from the top of an extension ladder, or above the top two
steps of a folding stepladder?
10. Yes No Do employees climb the back sections of combination ladders when
used as stepladders?
11. Yes No Are ladders inspected and shoes inspected for grease, mud, or other
slippery material prior to using a ladder?
12. Yes No Do employees use both hands while climbing up and down ladders and
face the ladder?
13. Yes No Have the bottoms of rails been insulated with nonskid material?
14. Yes No Is there a comprehensive, documented ladder inspection program?
15. Yes No Are damaged ladders taken out of service and either repaired or
destroyed?

5.9 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR MACHINE GUARDING*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Are all rotating shafts, sprockets, pulleys, belts, and chains completely
enclosed?
2. Yes No Are all guards intact, free from wear, tightly secured, and free from
binding?
3. Yes No Are guards placed back on equipment prior to starting up the
equipment/tool?
4. Yes No Are controls that require both hands to operate utilized on equipment
that is applicable?
5. Yes No Are fail-safe guards inspected on a regular basis to ensure equipment
will not operate with the guard out of position?
6. Yes No Are remote shutdown switches used for automated equipment where
employees could become entangled?
7. Yes No Is there a comprehensive list of guards and guard equipment that can
be used for inspection, servicing, and maintenance?
8. Yes No Is all automated equipment equipped with prestart-up warning alarms?
9. Yes No Are there signs clearly notifying all employees that automated
equipment will start automatically?
10. Yes No Are “safety bars” that stop the equipment automatically when an
employee “trips” them used on all equipment that could entangle an
employee?
11. Yes No Are the tail stocks of all shafts, whether smooth or with key way or set
screw, covered by a guard?
12. Yes No Is work stopped until guards are replaced on all equipment after repairs?
13. Yes No Are lubrication ports extended through guards to a safe area where
possible?
14. Yes No Are bench grinders adjusted for tool rest setting and checked for wheel
condition on a regular basis?
15. Yes No Are all foot-petal controls protected from accidental engagement?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.211-.222 for specific details
5.10 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR NEW HIRE EMPLOYEES*

“New Employee” should be considered any employee who does not have recent
experience in the specific work area and specific task being performed.
Additional Training
1. Yes No Has the new employee been trained on the proper evacuation method,
paths, and plans?
2. Yes No Has the new employee had a personal walk-through of the area of
assignment?
3. Yes No Has an experienced employee in the work area been assigned to work
with the new employee?
4. Yes No Have all safety policies been reviewed and competency determined?
5. Yes No Have specific standard operating procedures (SOPs) been reviewed and
competency determined?
6. Yes No Have co-workers in the area been alerted that a new employee will be
working in that area?
7. Yes No Has the new employee been assigned a “safety buddy” to encourage
safety awareness and participation constantly?
8. Yes No Has a member of management personally emphasized the importance
of safety to the new employee?
9. Yes No Have previous accidents in the new employee’s work area been
reviewed with the new employee?
10. Yes No Has someone verified that the techniques and SOPs given the new
employee are correct and best-operation practices?
11. Yes No Are regularly scheduled follow-up meetings held with the new
employee to ensure safety remains a primary focus?
12. Yes No Has all OSHA-mandated training been performed for “initial
assignment” requirements?
13. Yes No Has the supervisor of the new employee spent regular time observing
the new employee perform the work?
14. Yes No Have hazards and concerns expressed by the new employee been
addressed thoroughly?
15. Yes No Is the new employee actively involved in safety-related activities, such
as safety meetings, safety audits, housekeeping audits, SOP reviews,
etc.?

5.11 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR NOISE AND HEARING

PROTECTION*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have all employees been trained on hearing conservation within the
last 12 months?
2. Yes No Have all employees exposed to greater than 85 dBa time-weighted
average had an audiogram within the last 12 months?
3. Yes No Have all employees with a standard threshold shift of 10 dBa or greater
in the 2000, 3000, or 4000 Hz. Range been notified of the threshold
shift?
4. Yes No Are all areas where people have to raise their voices to be heard
designated as “Hearing Protection Required” areas?
5. Yes No Are all employees required to wear hearing protection in designated
“Hearing Protection Required” areas?
6. Yes No Has noise level monitoring been conducted in all areas where new
equipment has been added or where equipment has been modified?
7. Yes No Are annual sound-level readings available for the area?
8. Yes No Have baffles, mufflers, or barriers been installed on noise sources where
practical?
9. Yes No Are sound levels considered for all new equipment installations?
10. Yes No Are ear plugs and/or other hearing protection readily available for all
employees?
11. Yes No Are “Hearing Protection Required” areas clearly posted?
12. Yes No Have all new employees exposed to 85 dBa or greater received a
baseline audiogram within 6 months of employment?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.95 for specific requirements
5.12 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR PERSONAL PROTECTIVE

EQUIPMENT*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Do employees perform tasks or work near someone who generates dust
or flying particles?
2. Yes No Do employees handle or work near someone handling hazardous
liquids, chemicals, irritants, or other potential hazards?
3. Yes No Are employees exposed to intense light (lasers, flames, molten
material)?
4. Yes No Are employees exposed to extreme temperatures or conditions (cold,
heat, wind, rain, etc.)?
5. Yes No Do employees work in areas where overhead work is performed, where
overhead traffic or movement occurs, or underneath equipment or other
activity?
6. Yes No Do employees have to squat or bend to go under anything?
7. Yes No Do employees work near electrical wiring or electrical components?
8. Yes No Do employees come in contact with material that might be sharp, have
burrs, or could cause bruises, cuts, scrapes, or scratches?
9. Yes No Do employees handle chemicals or other materials that might irritate
the skin or cause contamination?
10. Yes No Are employees in areas where tools, materials, or equipment might drop
on their feet, roll over their feet, or hit their feet?
11. Yes No Are employees exposed to splashing of any kind (water, chemicals, hot
material, sparks, etc.)?
12. Yes No Are employees exposed to noise loud enough that people have to raise
their voices to be heard?
13. Yes No Do employees work in areas that have known levels, or could have
levels of material that could asphyxiate, cause illness, explode, or
otherwise be hazardous?
14. Yes No Have employees been trained, fit-tested, and certified as able to wear
the appropriate respirator for the atmospheres they work in?
15. Yes No Is there a concise list of tasks that require special PPE available for
employees to use and have they been trained on it?
5.13 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR POWERED PLATFORMS*

Powered platforms include JLG, JIG lifts, man baskets, scissor lifts, and other
powered lifting devices and equipment.
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have all employees been trained on the proper operation of the
equipment?
2. Yes No Has “hands on training” been conducted and documented?
3. Yes No Are daily inspections and maintenance performed and documented?
4. Yes No Are the controls marked legibly?
5. Yes No Do all controls operate as they should?
6. Yes No Is the lift capacity known, clearly marked, and adhered to?
7. Yes No Is the swing radius barricaded off prior the beginning of work?
8. Yes No Is all work below the powered platform stopped during overhead work?
9. Yes No Is the work area of the lift clear of trash, debris, equipment, and other
items that could cause the operator to stumble or fall?
10. Yes No Is there some method of preventing falling from the work area of the
lift (such as bolts, tools, debris, etc.)?
11. Yes No Does the operator have good communications with those on the ground
and at the elevated work area?
12. Yes No When hand signals are required, has a single person been designated
to give the hand signals?
13. Yes No Will the work be done at less than the maximum capacity of the lift
(height, weight, reach)?
14. Yes No Has the lift been weight-tested within the last 12 months?
15. Yes No Is the lift moved from one location to the next with the personnel
lowered?
*This is not intended to be a comprehensive checklist. See 29 CFR 1910.66 and 26 CFR Subparts
L and M for specific requirements and more-detailed information.
5.14 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR SCAFFOLDS*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have there been recent near misses or accidents involving scaffolding?
2. Yes No Has a qualified scaffold builder erected the scaffold?
3. Yes No Are all planks or scaffold boards less than 1 in. apart?
4. Yes No Are platforms at least 18 in. apart?
5. Yes No Are “open-side” platforms less than 14 in. from the work surface?
6. Yes No Is fall protection used around “open faces” farther than 14 in. from
work surfaces?
7. Yes No Are all platforms either “cleated” or extend over support by at least 6
in.?
8. Yes No Are scaffold boards used for platforms, not common lumber?
9. Yes No Are scaffolds built using components from the same manufacturer and
system design?
10. Yes No Does the scaffold conform to the 4:1 base-to-height ratio requirement?
11. Yes No Has the scaffold been erected on firm footing?
12. Yes No Is the scaffold plumb?
13. Yes No Have ladders been positioned so as not to tip the scaffold?
14. Yes No Are toe boards, mid-rail, and top rail in place on the top level?
15. Yes No Are casters pinned into the scaffold?
5.15 AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR WALKING SURFACES*
Additional Training
1. Yes No Have there been recent near misses or accidents?

2. Yes No Are the aisle ways in this area cluttered, poorly maintained, or filled
with material?
3. Yes No Have all deficiencies from the last audit of this area been corrected? If
not, which deficiencies remain unresolved?
4. Yes No Are aisle ways clearly marked?
5. Yes No Have previous jobs left tools, equipment, debris, etc. in the walkway?
6. Yes No Has training been conducted on how the walkways should be
maintained? Is additional training or reminders warranted?
7. Yes No Are any walkways too narrow for easy passage?
8. Yes No Would quick evacuation be hampered by walkways, aisles, or working
surfaces?
9. Yes No Are platforms clearly posted with load limits? Have employees been
trained on these limits?
10. Yes No Do aisles, walkways, stairs, work platforms in this area have adequate
light?
11. Yes No Are all light fixtures in this area operable?
12. Yes No Is there oil or grease on any of the walking surfaces?
13. Yes No Are there caution cones or caution tape available to barricade unsafe
walkways?
14. Yes No Are all exits clearly marked?
15. Yes No Are all exits maintained in good condition, free from obstacles, and
accessible to all employees?
6 Safety Manuals
Safety manuals come in all shapes, sizes, and styles. A small fledgling organization
may have only some copied papers, hardly readable because they have been copied
so many times. The “manual” may include only a smattering of safety thoughts or
rules and only be thought of or reviewed when new employees are given a copy to
start their tenure with the company.
On the other end of the spectrum is the multivolume, multimedia safety manual
that is too cumbersome and specific for anyone to ever do more than wipe the dust
off and thumb through it in amazement. Just its sheer volume and size will ward
off any serious attempts to find much good in it. Many are written from strictly an
effort to comply with regulations and often by a person who is not a safety profes-
sional or who does not understand much about safety at all.
Somewhere in between lies the perfect safety manual for an organization. A 20-
page conglomeration of “safety concerns” in a modern industrial setting will do
little but encourage lawsuits and mock the safety system itself. In the same way, a
400-page standard operating procedure for a small, nonhazardous industry is overkill
in most cases.
So, how does one determine what type of safety manual is right for an organi-
zation? First, the needs of the organization must be determined. Are there hazardous
chemicals? Do federal, state, and local regulations apply? What required training is
involved? Is there specialized regulation that deals specifically with the company?
All these questions, and many others, must be addressed before anyone can really
know what will be best for a specific organization.
There are many “canned” safety manuals on the market. For small and nonspe-
cialized situations, some of these may offer a good option or, at least, a place to
start. Many safety and health consultants will develop a customized safety manual
for an organization that will meet its needs much better than a canned program.
Many organizations choose to develop their own safety manual. Figure 6.1 is a
table of contents for the safety manual of a “typical industry.” Several things are
worth pointing out in this figure. First, this table of contents may include items an
organization is not interested in at all, and it may not include items that an organi-
zation needs as a priority. Be careful to use it only as a guide to topics a safety
manual should include.
Figure 6.1 also shows some “deleted” sections. For example, Standard Operating
Procedure 22.100 is shown to have been deleted from the previous revision. This is
important to illustrate that once an item is included in a safety manual it may not
always remain a valuable part. Notice the revision numbers as well. Revision num-
bers help to ensure that everyone is working off of the same copy. It also represents
that a safety manual is a “living document.” The worse thing that can happen is to
205
develop a safety manual and then place it on a shelf for the next 5 or 10 years to
gather dust. A good safety manual should reflect changes that arise from policy
changes, process changes, and from corrections of errors and shortcomings reported
by readers of the manual.
Regardless of how thorough and complete a manual is at its conception, it will
need continual updating and revision to keep it a viable tool for all concerned to
use and rely on.
Figure 6.2 represents how a typical policy in a safety manual might appear.
Again, use this only as a guide to help build ideas.
Safety Manuals 207
XYZ COMPANY, INC. —

SAFETY STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SSOP Revision
Number Date Number
22.05 Safety Standard Operating Procedures Distribution List .............. 12/31/98 11
22.095 Safety Vision................................................................................... 12/31/98 3
22.098 Developing Safety Standard Operating Procedures
and Document Control ................................................................... 12/31/98 4
22.100 Strategic Safety Team..................................................................... 12/3/98 Deleted
22.101 Safety Task Teams.......................................................................... 12/31/98 3
22.200 Housekeeping ................................................................................. 02/02/99 3
22.201 Lockout/Tagout/Blinding Policy .................................................... 12/31/98 3
22.202 Personal Protective Equipment ...................................................... 12/31/98 5
22.203 Respiratory Protection .................................................................... 01/15/99 0
22.204 Action Plan ..................................................................................... 12/31/99 3
22.205 OSHA Vehicle Seat Belt Use and Speed Limit............................. 12/31/98 3
22.206 Outside Contractor Hazard Control Program ................................ 12/31/98 3
22.206 Portable Electrical Equipment Inspection Program....................... 12/31/98 3
22.209 Hoisting Equipment Inspection Program....................................... 12/31/98 4
22.245 Confined Space Entry..................................................................... 12/31/98 4
22.250 Fire Protection Program ................................................................. 12/31/98 3
22.260 Emergency Action Plan .................................................................. 12/31/98 3
22.265 Hazard Communication Plan ......................................................... 12/31/98 4
22.270 Hazard Material Plan...................................................................... 12/31/98 1
22.280 Noise Control and Hearing Conservation...................................... 12/31/98 3
22.300 Asbestos Abatement ....................................................................... 12/31/98 3
22.400 First-Aid and Medical Services Training....................................... 12/31/98 5
22.450 Safety Meeting Program ................................................................ 10/01/98 3 Deleted
22.470 Material Handling Vehicles ............................................................ 12/31/98 3
22.600 Safety Award Program.................................................................... 02/02/99 4
22.700 Accident Investigation Program ..................................................... 12/31/98 4
22.750 General Duty Policy ....................................................................... 12/31/98 3
22.800 Job Safety Analysis and Workplace Ergonomics Review ............. 12/31/98 1
22.900 Safety and Human Factors Checklist............................................. 12/31/98 1
22.950 Internal Safety Audit ...................................................................... 12/31/98 1
FIGURE 6.1 Table of contents for a typical industrial safety manual.

ABC, INC. —
SAFETY STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE 12.0 —
LOCKOUT/TAGOUT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Spirit of Safety Statement ...........................................................................................
II. Purpose ...............................................................................................................
III. General/Objectives .............................................................................................
IV. Definitions ..........................................................................................................
V. Procedures and Responsibilities ........................................................................
A. Issuing Lockout Equipment ...................................................................
B. Lockout/Tagout/Blinding, Standard Situations......................................
C. Supervisor/Leadperson Lockout, Nonstandard Situations ....................
D. Work on Cord and Plug-Connected Equipment....................................
E. Removing Lockout Devices prior to Completion of Work...................
F. Restoring Machine or Equipment to Normal Operation.......................
G. Removing Lockout Locks When Employee Cannot Be Locates .........
H. Multiple Lockout Procedures.................................................................
K. Special Lockout Procedures...................................................................
L. Contractor Lockout Situations ...............................................................
M. Removing Equipment from Service ......................................................
N. Procedure for ABC management to Lock Out Equipment
as Authorized Person .............................................................................
VI. Training Requirements.......................................................................................
A. Initial Training of Employees ................................................................
B. Retraining of Employees .......................................................................
VII. Record Keeping Requirements ..........................................................................
VIII. Audit/Inspection Requirements..........................................................................
Exhibits
1 Employee Personal Lockout Lock.........................................................
2 Multiple, Lockout Hasp .........................................................................
3 Danger — Out of Service Tags and Tape .............................................
4 Audit Checklist ......................................................................................
5 Multiple Lockout Tag.............................................................................
FIGURE 6.2 Typical policy within a safety manual.

Safety Manuals 209
SAFETY STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE

LOCKOUT/TAGOUT
SUMMARY PAGE
SPIRIT OF SAFETY STATEMENT
Always make sure equipment and systems are locked out before performing service
or maintenance activities.
Equipment and systems refer to any piece of machinery or equipment and the supply
of any energy source to that machinery or equipment. Such energy sources include
electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pheumatic, chemical, thermal, gravity, or other.
HAZARDS AND DANGERS THAT CAN EXIST
• Equipment starting while persons are exposed to moving parts

• Electrical shock
• Explosion
• Asphyxiation
• Heat or chemical burns
• High-pressure gas or air
• Falling or dropping load, material, or equipment
REMEMBER!!
Every employee will be issued lockout locks if applicable.
✓ Each lock has only one key.

✓ Anyone working on a piece of machinery or equipment must put his or
her lock on the machinery or equipment unless it has been locked with a
group lock by an Authorized Employee.
✓ The equipment will remain locked out until repairs have been completed,
the area has been cleared of all personnel, and the equipment is ready to
be restarted.
✓ A nonlocation employee or contract employee will perform work only
under an ABC Group Authorized Employee’s Lock. The nonlocation
employee may add his or her lock. ABC Management or its designee may
give special authorization for contractors or nonlocation employees to
lock equipment out on their own.
✓ If there is anything you are not sure about, ask your supervisor.
I. POLICY
It is the policy of ABC to ensure the safety of employees by providing
written procedures to control hazardous energy (lockout/tagout) of equip-
ment and systems. Further, it is the policy of ABC to abide by federal
laws in the area of lockout/tagout.
II. PURPOSE
A. To establish procedures for ensuring that equipment and systems shall
be locked out, and/or tagged out, and/or blinded before performing
service or maintenance where the unexpected energization, start-up, or
release of stored energy could cause injury or equipment damage.
B. To establish training requirements to ensure employees have the skills
and knowledge necessary to comply with these procedures and to meet
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) requirements.
C. To establish a record-keeping system that meets OSHA requirements.
D. To establish Procedures Inspection Requirements that meet OSHA
requirements and that ensure established procedures are followed.
III. GENERAL/OBJECTIVES
A. ABC Management or its designee shall implement and audit the Safety
Lockout Program.
B. ABC Management or its designee shall investigate methods to convert
nonlockable equipment or processes to a condition where they are
capable of being locked out.
IV. DEFINITIONS
Affected employee. An employee whose job requires him or her to ser-
vice or perform maintenance on a piece of equipment or to work in an
area that requires lockout or tagout.
Authorized employee. An employee who locks out or tags out a machine,
equipment, or area, when servicing or performing maintenance.
Group authorized employee. A person who locks out or tags out a
machine or equipment (an enegy source) for a nonstandard lockout situ-
ation.
“Capable of being locked out.” An energy-isolating device will be con-
sidered to be capable of being locked out if it is designed with a hasp or
other attachment or integral device to which, or through which, a lock
can be affixed, or if it has a locking mechanism built into it. Other energy-
isolating devices will be considered to be capable of being locked out if
lockout can be achieved without dismantling, rebuilding, or displacing
the device or permanently altering its energy control capability.
Energized. Connected to an energy source or containing residual or
stored energy.
Energy isolating device. A mechanical device that physically prevents
the transmission or release of energy.
Energy source. Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneu-
matic, chemical, thermal, or other energy.
Hot tap repair. Service or maintenance activities that involve welding
on a piece of equipment (pipelines, vessels, or tanks) under pressure to
Safety Manuals 211
install a connection or to add sections of pipeline without interruption of

service.
V. PROCEDURES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
A. Procedures for Issuing Lockout Equipment
1. ABC Management or its designee shall:
a. Issue personal safety lockout locks to all affected employees, and
issue multiple lockout locks to individual supervisors or lead
persons who require more personal locks.
b. Establish an identification system for locks and coordinate its
implementation. Locks must be durable; of a standard color,
shape, or size; and print and format must be standardized (Exhibit
1). Lockout locks may not be used for any use other than lockout
procedures.
c. Issue multiple safety lockout locks and hasps and identify such
locks as group lockout equipment
d. Ensure no more than one key exists for each lockout lock. Estab-
lish a system to control the single key for group locks.
e. Ensure all locks have specific user identification or issue number
with lock-holder log identifying the lock owner/user.
B. Procedures for Lockout/Tagout, Standard Situations
Note: ABC Management or its designee shall develop equipment
and/or machinery checklists for each piece of equipment, machinery
and each process that requires deenergizing prior to performing main-
tenance or repairs and does not have a single isolatable energy source.
1. Supervisor:
a. Ensures authorized employee knows type and magnitude of energy
that machine or equipment utilizes.
b. Ensures authorized employee understands the hazards involved.
2. Authorized employee:
a. Confirms identity of machine or equipment to be worked on.
b. Makes sure affected employees have been notified that lock-
out/tagout is in progress and the reason for lockout/tagout.
c. If machine or equipment is operating, shuts it down by normal
stopping procedure (stop button, toggle switch, etc.).
d. Surveys to identify all isolating devices to be certain which switches,
valves, or other energy-isolating devices apply to the equipment to
be locked out, tagged out, or blinded. More than one energy sources
(electrical, mechanical, or other) may be involved.
e. Makes sure all energy sources have been locked out, tagged out, or
blinded.
3. Affected Employees:
Install their own personal safety padlock and hasp. The only exception
is the nonstandard Lockout Procedure described in Section V.C below.
4. Authorized Employee:
a. Makes sure all stored energy has been released or restrained by
methods such as repositioning, blocking, bleeding down, etc.
b. After making sure no personnel are exposed, operates push-

button or normal operating controls to make certain the equip-
ment will not operate.
Caution: Return operating controls to “neutral” or “off”
position after the test.
c. Complete work.
d. Assures all tools are removed and guards replaced.
e. Assures the area is cleared and no one is exposed.
f. Notifies everyone in the area that work is complete.
5. Affected employees: Remove their locks.
6. Authorized employee: removes lockout locks, tags, blinds.
C. Procedures for Nonstandard Lockout Situations
A “Nonstandard” situation arises when the standard “one-person, one-
lock, one-key” principle is not practical. Examples of such situations
are a major shutdown where several locks shall be required at several
locations; where a job shall run for an extended period of time; or
several people are involved in the job and applying individual locks is
not practical.
1. ABC Management or its designee shall:
a. Determine who may act as group-authorized employee in a non-
standard lockout situation.
b. Provide names of group-authorized employees to ABC Manage-
ment.
2. Group Authorized Employee:
a. When more than one group or department is involved, acts as
employee in charge of lockout.
b. Assumes responsibility for all employees working under protec-
tion of group lockout lock(s).
c. Ascertains hazard exposure status of individual group members.
d. Maintains exclusive control of key to multiple lockout locks.
Passes key and authorization to next authorized employee at the
end of the shift or at any time the authorized employee must
surrender control of the lockout situation.
e. Locks out and/or tags out and/or blinds machine, equipment o
process, following Standard Lockout Procedure outlined in Sec-
tion V.B.
3. Affected employees:
Confirm that adequate protection has been provided and install their
own safety lockout locks if they so desire.
4. Group authorized employee:
a. Makes sure all stored energy has been released or restrained by
methods such as repositioning, blocking, bleeding down, etc.
b. After making sure no personnel are exposed, operates push-
button or normal operating controls to make certain the equip-
ment will not operate.
Safety Manuals 213
Caution: Return operating controls to “neutral” or “off”

position after the test.
c. Ensures work is completed.
d. Assures all tools are removed and guards replaced.
e. Assures the area is cleared and no one is exposed.
f. Notifies everyone in the area that work is complete.
5. Affected employees: Remove their locks.
6. Group authorized employee: Removes lockout locks, tags, blinds.
D. Procedures for Working on Cord and Plug-Connected Equipment
Exposure to the hazards of unexpected energization or start-up of cord
and plug-connected equipment can be controlled by unplugging equip-
ment from energy source.
1. Authorized employee keeps cord or plug under his or her exclusive
control. If authorized employee leaves area, cannot see plug, or
otherwise loses exclusive control of plug, the equipment must be
locked out! Tag switch with a “Do Not Operate” tag or use a device
specifically made for locking out cord or plug.
E. Procedures for Removing Lockout Devices Prior to Completion of
Work:
1. At the end of the employee’s portion of the work, or if called off
the job for another job, or at the end of the shift, the authorized
employee removes personal safety padlock and takes it with him or
her, after assuring that the equipment is safe for others to be around.
2. If continued lockout is necessary, the authorized employee makes
sure another employee’s lockout lock, a group lockout lock, or other
device, such as a “Danger: Out-of-Service” tag, is installed.
3. If a “Danger: Out-of-Service” tag is installed, the authorized
employee:
a. Secures the tag with a plastic tie wrap that has a pull rating of
50 lb. No other means of securing the tag is acceptable.
b. After securing the tag, informs the supervisor or lead person who
shall then install his or her lock.
F. Procedures for Restoring Machine or Equipment to Normal Operation:
1. After servicing and/or maintenance is complete and equipment is
ready for normal operation, the authorized employee:
a. Checks the area around the machine or equipment to ensure no
one is exposed.
b. Make sure all tools have been removed from machine or equip-
ment, guards have been reinstalled, and employees are in the
clear, then removes all lockout/tagout devices and blinds.
c. Operates energy-isolating devices to restore energy to the
machine or equipment.
G. Procedures for Removing Lockout Locks when Employe Cannot Be
Located:
Note 1: If employee forgets to remove lock at the completion of
work, the employee shall be called back to work to remove the lock
personally. The employee’s supervisor shall instruct employee in

proper application of safety lockout procedure.
Note 2: A safety lock must never be cut unless a situation exists where
the lock cannot be removed without cutting (key lost, key slot plugged,
lock damaged, etc.). If it becomes necessary to cut a lock for any
reason, the procedures below shall be followed.
Note 3: OSHA requires a reasonable attempt be made to call the
employee back to work. The employee must be informed that the lock
was removed before the employee resumes work.
1. Supervisor:
a. Determines the need to remove an employee’s lockout lock.
b. Assures safety of personnel or equipment shall not be jeopardized
by removing the lock.
c. Obtains permission from the policy controller, ABC Manage-
ment, or management’s designee to remove the lock.
2. ABC Management or its designee grants permission to remove the
lockout lock.
3. Supervisor:
a. Removes lock by any means necessary (bolt cutters, etc.). Do
not use the employee’s key to remove the lock under any cir-
cumstance.
b. Submits a report to ABC Management explaining situation and
actions taken.
c. Immediately upon return of employee to work, and prior to
employee doing work on system, notifies employee of lock
removal.
d. Reinstructs employee in proper application of lockout proce-
dures.
Warning! Unauthorized removal of a safety lockout lock can
endanger the lives of others. Anyone who removes another
employe’s locks without proper authorization shall be disci-
plined in accordance with the work rules outlined in HR
practice and procedures.
H. Multiple Lockout Procedures — Procedures and Responsibilities:
1. Multiple Lockout is required when a breaker for a piece of equip-
ment is marked with a “Multiple Lockout Required” sign on the
front of the breaker box (Exhibit 5).
2. The checklists shall be filled out by the authorized or group autho-
rized employee, signed, and all safety measures followed before any
work is allowed to start.
3. All contractor work will be handled in the same manner. The group
authorized employee will ensure all steps are complete and the
checklist is filled out before allowing contractors to proceed with
their assigned task.
Safety Manuals 215
4. ABC Management or its designee will ensure that all applicable

employees are trained in Multiple Lockout Procedures and retrained
as deemed necessary.
I. Special Lockout Procedures:
Some equipment, such as automatic computer-operated equipment,
requires special procedures to secure it in a nonoperable state. Special
job-safe procedures shall be written and followed for such work.
1. ABC Management of its designee ensures special job-safe proce-
dures exist for each type of hot work to be performed.
2. Authorized employees perform work and lockout and/or tagout
and/or blind according to special job-safe procedures.
J. Procedures for contractor Lockout Situations:
1. Group lockout authorized employee:
Installs lockouts in the presence of contractor supervisor and main-
tains keys to all safety locks.
2. Affected contract employees may install their own personal lockout
locks and hasps.
3. Group lockout authorized employee:
a. Instructs contractor supervisor to check locks prior to start of
each shift and at each worker turnover to ensure the equipment
or process is secured adequately.
b. Removes lockouts and reactivates equipment at completion of
work. Removal and reactivation shall be performed only by the
group lockout authorized employee.
c. Provides lockout protection for outside service people.
K. Procedures for Removing Equipment from Service:
1. Authorized employee:
Attaches “Danger — Out of Service” tag (Exhibit 3) to main
ABConnect or source of power for that piece of equipment and
identifies equipment on the tag. Nylon tie wraps should be used to
attach the tag. Wire wraps are not permitted.
L. Procedure for ABC Management to Lockout Equipment as Authorized
Person:
1. The ABC Management may lockout equipment as an authorized
person when special or otherwise hazardous or potentially hazard-
ous situations arise. Any lockout initiated by ABC Management
may be transferred as a group lock would be to a designee of ABC
Management (such as the shop manager, safety coordinator, or other
specifically designated persons). When ABC Management initiates
a lockout, a tag identifying the designated person(s) that can remove
the lock shall be attached to the lockout.
VI. TRAINING REQUIREMENTS
A. Initial Training of Employees
1. ABC Management or its designee:
a. Provides training to authorized employees in the recognition of
applicable hazardous energy sources, the type and magnitude of
the energy present at the location, and the methods and means
necessary for energy isolation and control.
b. Provides instruction to authorized employees regarding the pur-
pose and use of these procedures.
c. Provides instruction about procedures to all other employees
whose work operations are or may be in an area where procedures
are being utilized.
d. After lockout and initial test, makes sure affected employees
know they are prohibited from attempting to restart or reenergize
machines or equipment that are locked out or tagged out.
e. When tagouts are used, makes sure employees are trained in the
following limitations of tags:
i. Tags are warning devices attached to energy-isolating
devices and do not provide the physical restraint on those
devices that is provided by a lock.
ii. A tag shall only be removed according to lock removal
procedure and it is never to be bypassed, ignored, or oth-
erwise defeated.
iii. Tags must be legible and understandable by all authorized
employees, affected employees, and all other employees
whose work operations are or may be in the area.
iv. Tags must be attached with nylon tie wraps (50-lb pull
minimum strength). Wire wraps are not allowed. Tags must
be able to withstand the environmental conditions of the
location.
v. Tags may cause a false sense of security, and the use of
tags must be understood by all employees.
f. Ensures training and testing of all group authorized employees.
B. Retraining of Employees
1. ABC Management or its designee:
a. Ensures retraining of all authorized and affected employees
whenever there is a change in their job assignments, a change in
machines, equipment, or processes, which present a new hazard,
or when there is a change in energy control procedures.
b. Ensures retraining whenever periodic inspection (see Section
VIII) reveals a need or when there is reason to believe there are
deviations form these procedures or inadequacies in the
employee’s knowledge of energy control procedures.
c. Ensures retraining has reestablished employee proficiency and
introduces new or revised control methods and procedures, as
necessary.
d. Ensures policy is reviewed at least annually.
VII. RECORD KEEPING REQUIREMENTS
ABC Management or its designee maintains all records associated with
this policy.
Safety Manuals 217
VIII. AUDIT/INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

A. ABC Management of its designee shall:
1. Conduct periodic (no less than annually) audits of this policy to:
a. Ensure requirements of this policy are being met.
b. Evaluate condition of employee training.
c. Determine the necessity of policy and/or procedure revisions.
d. Document and maintain the audit in writing.
2. Implement changes to policy to increase effectiveness and useful-
ness of policy.
B. ABC Management or its designee shall ensure an annual audit of this
policy to ensure compliance and to correct any deviations or inadequa-
cies observed. The audit checklist (Exhibit 4) may be used for the
annual audit. It may also be used for periodic audits if desired. Any
deviations or deficiencies noted during periodic inspections o annual
audits should be documented in writing.
L1407CH06frame Page 218 Tuesday, June 19, 2001 10:23 AM

Safety Manuals 219


Safety Manuals 221
EXHIBIT 4
AUDIT CHECKLIST FOR
LOCKOUT/TAGOUT POLICY
Additional Training
1. Yes No Is the latest revision of this policy in use?

2. Yes No If audited, was the audit documented in writing?
3. Yes No Have all deficiencies been corrected? If not, which deficiencies remain
unresolved?
4. Yes No Have all policy suggestions and corrections been forwarded to ABC
Management?
5. Yes No Has documentation been completed for any violations in compliance
to this policy?
6. Yes No Is all training documentation accurately entered into the training matrix?
7. Yes No Are all employees observed performing their task in compliance with
this policy? Based on ________ observations.
8. Yes No Have employee complaints been addressed and documented?
9. Yes No Have spot checks been done on an adequate sampling of training files
to document compliance?
10. Yes No Have additional training needs been met?
11. Yes No Is training of employees evident?
12. Yes No Have old revisions been removed from circulation?
13. Yes No Are all locking devices properly marked as required by this policy?
14. Yes No Are locking mechanisms adequate to prevent “slide by” while lock is
installed?
15. Yes No Have any inadequate locking mechanisms been identified and posted?
16. Yes No Have any inadequate locking mechanisms been assigned for corrective
action?

7 Accident Investigations
Accident investigations are invaluable to reduce losses from accidents that have
occurred and to prevent future accidents of the same or related nature. Typical
accident investigations provide data for statistical analysis of the event. The illus-
trations in Figures 7.1 and 7.2 show typical ways that accident investigations are
categorized for future use in industry. Accident investigation can provide additional
information that can ultimately be used to reduce injuries and further losses.
Accident investigation should be done when there is a loss-time accident, when
an OSHA-recordable accident occurs, and when there is injury requiring medical or
first-aid attention, near misses, or property or equipment damage. Accident investi-
gations should be conducted when:
• Any injury or illness results in loss or restricted work days by an employee.

• There are significant environmental releases.
• There is loss or damage to equipment, property, or product.
• Delay occurs as a result of the accident.
• There are any undesired consequences or incidences.
• There are near misses to employees, equipment, or processes.
When conducting investigations, some of the pitfalls an organization can easily

fall into can determine the success and productivity of the investigation. Investigation
should not be punitive in nature. The employees must understand the investigation
system and know that it will not be used in a punitive way. The investigation cannot
be viewed by employees as an effort to place blame or find fault. The investigation
can never be “altered” to protect management or a supervisor’s turf. In other words,
if the investigation is viewed as trying to cover up something or hide the errors of
a department or manager, the system will lose its credibility. If the investigation fails
to identify accurately the true cause of the accident, the investigation will be of no
value or benefit. When more serious or underlying causes are ignored in favor of
surface findings, the accident investigation is diminished in value. It is important
not to stop the process before a thorough investigation has been completed.
Another area that often diminishes the long-term value of accident investigations
is failure to abate fully the problem identified in the investigation. When the real
problem or cause is identified but no corrective action is taken, future investigations
are disabled from the start. When positive steps are taken based on information
obtained through an accident investigation, it lends credibility to the whole process.
Aggressive and persistent investigation of all serious and potentially serious inci-
dences is critical to improve safety performance consistently.
223
Industry ABC
LTA 8.8 0.53
REC 7.8 12.63
Total 16.5 13.16
FIGURE 7.1 SIC Code 3331: Primary Nonferrous Metals.
10% Eye
Back 15%
9% Head
Hearing 4%
Foot 8%
Other 2%
4% 25%
Hand CTS
Arm 12%
11%
Leg
FIGURE 7.2 Injury by body part.

Accident Investigations 225
Accident investigation should begin with clear goals understood by everyone

involved. Some goals that should be considered before establishing an investigation
effort consist of the following items.
• Share the findings with all concerned.

• Identify related problems, not just the surface causes.
• Focus on preventing future injury and property damage.
• Limit business interruptions and losses.
• Limit unfavorable impact on the public.
• Identify weaknesses in the system (production, maintenance, safety, etc.).
Accident investigation should work to develop a climate of openness, trust, and

respect. A follow-up system on abatement items, system failures, and other items
that are uncovered can add extra value to the accident investigation. These are simple
and straightforward, but if left to fall through the cracks, they can take the value out
of the investigation time, effort, and expense.
Communication of results back to employees is one of the most important aspects
of a first-rate investigation. Without the communication of results, employees feel
left out or, even worse, that something is being hidden. The communication must
be presented to employees in a timely and fair way. Short of this, employees will
not buy into any solution.
The atmosphere of the accident investigation interview is very important. The
atmosphere must be nonconfrontational and must put the person being interviewed
at ease. Remember that it is not an interrogation. Do not make accusations. It is
better if the interview is conducted with a third person present. It always helps if
there is someone to substantiate the story. When there are at least three people in
the meeting, all involved are less likely to change their story. Investigators should
remember that they are seeking help from the people they are interviewing; thus, it
is important to be friendly. Most importantly, do not lead the witness. Let the witness
tell the story, even if the story already is well known.
One might ask, “ Why do all the work that a thorough investigation demands?
I already know what caused the accident.” This is a common fallacy. Even in
situations where the suspected causes are known, there is much more to gain by a
thorough investigation. Quality can be improved, losses can be limited, future inci-
dents can be avoided. More importantly, the investigation can be used to improve
lines of communications, improve follow-up on critical items, and, most of all,
heighten the awareness level of every accident.
Some items that an organization might need to consider prior to performing
accident investigations include:
• What training will be needed?

• Who will be involved in the investigations?
• How many investigations will likely be done. Will several teams be
needed, rather than just a small group?
• Will there be a 24-hour response time? If so, how will it be implemented?
• Will the investigators have the authority to do what is necessary to prevent

recurrence?
• Will reports be submitted in a timely manner? Who will prepare the
reports?
• Will help need to be provided to the investigators to produce the investi-
gation report?
Some minimal physical tools are needed to conduct a typical accident investigation.
That does not necessarily mean that this equipment is mandatory, but its availability
does make it easier and helps with the overall professionalism and expertise avail-
able.
Clipboard, paper, pencils, and pens — Basics, but they need to already be
assembled when the need for them arises.
Chalk — A valuable tool for marking items for short-term references and for
pictures.
Barrier tape — Essential for securing the area against additional accidents as
well as protecting the scene from contamination.
Latex examination gloves — Often used to prevent contaminating any samples
taken.
Cassette recorder — Much easier to use for note-taking, and to make certain
no points are missed.
Tape measure — Provides identification of the exact location of evidence.
Identification tags — Essential because samples often get confused once back
in the office or when they have been moved.
Plastic bags, bottles, microscope slides — This may seem a little deeper than
the investigation team is intended to go, but they are inexpensive and can
easily be added to the investigation kit. If needed, they are invaluable for
isolating and protecting small samples that are easily lost or damaged.
Compass — Provides exact references for later reference.
Adhesive tape — Good for collecting samples and marking material.
Digital camera — Has evolved to become an invaluable part of the investiga-
tion kit. The investment will be well worth the results. A picture really is
worth a thousand words.
Laser pointer — A useful tool for pointing out high or out-of-reach items. The
pointer can pin-point the exact position referred to.
Video camera — Another valuable tool. Be careful in performing any “rein-
actments” of the accident. More investigators have been injured in this way
than one would think.
This kit may seem excessive, but remember two important points. First, this is
all in aid of digging to the bottom of a situation and preventing it from ever happening
again. Second, the information collected may very well end up in court. In today’s
tort-friendly environment, facts with professional documentation are always wel-
come in the witness box.
Accident Investigations 227
Some time should be given to discussing the difference between an eyewitness

and a participant. While they may sound like the same thing, they are not. Keep in
mind that an eyewitness is someone who actually saw the event happen — someone
who saw not the aftermath of the event or who wishes to have seen the event, but
someone who was actually there and looking. Participants actually played a part in
the event. Granted they may have seen it take place as well, but if they participated,
they should be kept in the participant category. An eyewitness may be less biased
than the person who was actually involved.
Another subtle difference that should be considered is the difference between a
witness and a resource. Resources should be used because they know what the
witness is relating from the standpoint of experience. Witnesses do not make good
resources because their view may be tainted by what they saw; whereas the resource
is uninvolved and can give an unbiased viewpoint. A resource may be a person in
a similar job, an outside expert, or someone present but not involved as a participant
or an eyewitness.
A word about “hostile witnesses.” A hostile witness does not necessarily mean
the person is angry or guilty. It merely means that the person may have reason not
to provide all the information wanted or needed. Examples of hostile witnesses
include someone hiding something, such as drinking or drugs; someone involved in
horseplay; someone with at least a portion of fault; someone who has made an
operational error; someone who has missed some job function. All of these can be
hostile witnesses.
Dealing with hostile witnesses is not difficult, it is just necessary to know where
they are coming from. Ask leading but not intimidating questions. Verify the infor-
mation given. Focus on the goal; preventing future accidents. The old adage, “why,
why, why, why,” will be very helpful in accident investigation.
Corrective action may be the single most important link between the accident
and building support for future accident investigations. There absolutely must be a
solid corrective action plan as well as feedback to the employees informing them
what was done to correct the situation. It builds credibility for future occurrences.
Although corrective action is an essential part, it must also be remembered that the
decision to not abate the hazard is sometimes a valid decision. Even though valid,
if not successfully communicated to employees, again, credibility for the entire
program is lost.
Accident reports are cumbersome and often are the proverbial bottleneck. They
do not have to be that way. Employees must be given some basic tools to work with.
They do not have to be English majors to write a successful accident report. Bulleted
points are often sufficient and are easily used to convey information. The reports
are important. They give management something to “sell,” and they give employees
something to “buy.” They offer the regulatory agencies something to “accept.” But
most of all, they offer a road map to constant improvement.
8 Reference Materials
8.1 ESSENTIAL REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY
PRACTITIONERS
Accident Facts, National Safety Council, 2000
(Order Information: National Safety Council 630.285.1121).
Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry, Administration and Programs,
11th ed., National Safety Council, 1997
Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry, Engineering and Technology, 11th ed.,
National Safety Council, 1997
Code of Federal Regulation 29 — General Industry, Government Institutes, 2000
(Order Information: NFPA 301.921.2323).
Code of Federal Regulation 26 — Construction Industry, Government Institutes, 2000
Fire Protection Handbook, 17th ed., National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 4th ed., National Safety Council
National Electric Code — 1996, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 16th ed., F.A. Davis, Philadelphia, 1985
(Order Information: F.A. Davis 215.568.2270).
The Occupational Environment — Its Evaluation and Control, DiNardi, S.R., Ed., American
Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, Virginia, 1997
(Order Information: American Industrial Hygiene Association 703.849.8888).
1999 TLVs and BEIs, Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
and Biological Exposure Indices, ACGIH
(Order Information: ACGIH 513.742.2020).
2000 Emergency Response Guidebook, J.J. Keller & Associates, Neenah, Wisconsin
(Order Information: 800-327-6868).
8.2 ESSENTIAL REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR THE

CERTIFIED INDUSTRIAL HYGIENIST
The Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) is a designation offered by the American
Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH). It is a rigorous examination by any standard.
Applicants must meet educational requirements and work experience requirements
before they can be approved to sit for the examination. The following reference
229
material has been suggested as useful information in preparing for the examination
and will reflect the type of information with which a CIH candidate should be
familiar. These references are listed here as a quick reference source of good infor-
mation dealing with a wide array of industrial hygiene-related subject matter.
A reader choosing to pursue the CIH designation should contact the ABIH and
request updated information on prerequisites and other qualification criteria.
Alden, J.L. and Kane, J.M., Design of Industrial Ventilation Systems, 5th ed., Industrial Press,
New York, 1982.
Bioerosols: Assessment and Control, ACGIH, Cincinnati, OH, 1999.
Burgess, W.A., Recognition of Health Hazards in Industry: A Review of Materials and
Processes, 2nd ed., Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1995.
Cember, H., Introduction to Health Physics, 2nd ed., Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY, 1983.
Chaffin, D.B. and Anderson, G.B., Occupational Biomechanics, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1991.
Checkoway, H., Pearce, N.E., and Crawford-Brown, D.J., Research Methods in Occupational
Epidemiology, Oxford University Press, New York, 1989.
Clayton, G.D. and Clayton, F.E., Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Eds., John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1991–1994.
Cralley, L.V. and Cralley, L.J., Eds., In-Plant Practices for Job-Related Health Hazards
Control, John Wiley & Sons, New York, Vol. I, Production Prices, 1989. Vol. II,
Engineering Aspects, 1989.
DiNardi, S.R., Ed., The Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation and Control, AIHA Press,
Fairfax, VA, 1997.
Eastman Kodak Company Staff, Ergonomic Design for People at Work, Van Nostrand Rein-
hold; New York, Vol. I, 1983, Vol. II (Subtitled The Design of Jobs), 1986.
Finkel, A.J., Ed. Hamilton and Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 4th revised ed., PSG Publishing,
Littleton, MA, 1991.
Gammage, R.B. and Berven, B.A., Indoor Air and Human Health, 2nd ed., CRC/Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1996.
Garrett, J.T., Cralley, L.J., and Cralley, L.V., eds., Industrial Hygiene Management, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988.
Hathaway, G., Proctor, N.H., and Hughes, J.P., Proctor and Hughes’ Chemical Hazards of
the Workplace, 4th ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1996.
Hemeon, W.C.L. and Burton, D.J., Plant and Process Ventilation, 3rd ed., Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, FL, 1998.
Klaassen, C.D., Amdur, M.O., and Doul, J., eds., Casarette and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic
Science of Poisons, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
Konz, S.A., Work Design: Industrial Ergonomics, 4th ed., Holcomb Hathaway, Scottsdale,
AZ, 1995.
Levine, S.P. and Martin, W.F., Eds., Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites, 2nd ed.,
Butterworth, Stoneham, MA, 1994.
Lillienfeld, D.E. and Lillienfeld, A.M., Foundations of Epidemiology, 3rd ed., Oxford Uni-
versity Press, New York, 1994.
McDermott, H.J., Handbook of Ventilation for Contaminant Control, 2nd ed., Butterworth,
Stoneham, MA, 1985.
Reference Materials 231
NIOSH, OSHA, U.S. Coast Guard, and EPA, Occupational Safety and Health Guidance
Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities, NIOSH, Cincinnati, OH, 1985.
Perkins, J.L., Modern Industrial Hygiene, Vol. I, Recognition and Evaluation of Chemical
Agents, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1997.
Plog, B.A., Niland, J., and Quinlan, P.J., Eds., Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 4th ed.,
National Safety Council, Chicago, 1996.
Practitioner's Approach to Indoor Air Quality Investigations, AIHA Press Fairfax, VA, 1989.
Shapiro, J., Radiation Protection: A Guide for Scientists and Physicians, 3rd ed., Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989.
Sliney, D.H. and Wolbarsht, M.L., Safety with Lasers and Other Optical Sources: A Compre-
hensive Handbook, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 1980.
Toca, F.M. and Woodhull, D., Management of People and Programs in Industrial Hygiene.
AIHA Press, Fairfax, VA, 1996.
Wadden, R.A. and Scheff, P.A., Engineering Control of Workplace Hazards, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1987.
Walsh, P.J., Dudney, C.S., and Copenhaver, E.L., Indoor Air Quality, 2nd ed., CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 1993.
8.3 ESSENTIAL REFERENCE MATERIAL FOR THE

CERTIFIED SAFETY PROFESSIONAL
The Certified Safety Professional (CSP) is a designation offered by the Board of
Certified Safety Professionals (BCSP). It is a rigorous examination by any standard.
Applicants must meet educational requirements and work experience requirements
before they can be approved to sit for the examination. The following reference
material has been suggested as useful information in preparing for the examination
and reflects the type of information with which a CSP candidate should be familiar.
These references are listed here as a quick reference source of good information
dealing with a wide array of safety-related subject information.
A reader choosing to pursue the CSP designation should contact the BCSP and
request updated information on prerequisites and other qualification criteria.
Brauer, R.L., Safety and Health for Engineers, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990.
Cote, A.E., Ed., Fire Protection Handbook, 17th ed., National Fire Protection Association,
Quincy, MA, 1991.
Crowl, D.A. and Louvar, J.F., Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1990.
Ellis, J.N., Introduction to Fall Protection, 2nd ed., American Society of Engineers, Des
Plaines, IL, 1998.
Frein, J.P., Ed., Handbook of Construction Management and Organization, 2nd ed., Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1980.
Griffin, R.D., Principles of Hazardous Materials Management, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea,
MI, 1988.
Grimaldi, J.V. and Simonds, R.H., Safety Management, 2nd ed., American Society of Engi-
neers, Des Plaines, IL, 1989.
Hammerr, W., Product Safety Management and Engineering, 2nd ed., Society of Engineers,
Des Plaines, IL, 1993.
National Safety Council Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry, Administra-
tion and Programs, 10th ed., National Safety Council, Itasca, IL, 1992.
National Safety Council Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry, Engineering
and Technology, 10th ed., National Safety Council, Itasca, IL, 1992.
Plog, B.A., Ed., Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene, 3rd ed., National Safety Council, Itasca,
IL,1988.
Pulat, M. and Alexander, D.C., Industrial Ergonomics, Institute of Industrial Engineers,
Norcross, GA, 1991.
Roland, H.E. and Moriarty, B., Systems Safety Engineering and Management, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1990.
Rossnagel, W.E., Higgings, L.R., and MacDonald, J.A., Handbook of Rigging, 4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
Sanders, M.S. and McCormick, E.J., Human Factors in Engineering and Design, 4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
Slote, L., Ed., Handbook of Occupational Safety and Health, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1987.
Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1988.
Spiegel, M.R., Statistic, Schaum's Outline Series, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988.
Tapley, B., Ed., Esshbach's Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals, 4th ed., John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1990.
Thaamhain, H.J., Engineering Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.
8.4 METRIC SYSTEM

Mass and Weight
Abreviation Number of
Unit or Symbol Grams Approx. U.S. Equivalent
metric ton t 1,000,000.0000 1.102 short tons
kilogram kg 1,000.0000 2.2046 pounds
hectogram hg 100.0000 3.527 ounces
dekagram dag 10.0000 0.353 ounce
gram g 1.0000 0.035 ounce
decigram dg 0.1000 1.543 grains
centigram cg 0.0100 0.154 grain
milligram mg 0.0010 0.015 grain
Length
Unit or Symbol Meters Approx. U.S. Equivalent
kilometer km 1,000.0000 0.62 mile
hectometer hm 100.0000 109.36 yards
dekameter dam 10.0000 32.81 feet
meter m 1.0000 39.37 inches
decimeter dm 0.1000 3.94 inches
centimeter cm 0.0100 0.39 inch
millimeter mm 0.0010 0.039 inch
Area
Unit or Symbol Square Meters Approx. U.S. Equivalent
square km2 1,000,000.0000 0.3861 square mile
kilometer
hectare ha 10,000.0000 2.47 square yards
are a 100.0000 119.60 square yards
square cm2 0.0001 0.155 square inch
centimeter
Volume
Unit or Symbol Cubic Meters Approx. U.S. Equivalent
cubic cm3, cc 0.0000 0.061 cubic inch
centimeter
cubic dm3 0.0010 61.023 cubic inches
decimeter
cubic meter m3 1.0000 1.307 cubic yards
Capacity
Abreviation Number of Approx. U.S. Equivalent
Unit or Symbol Liters Cubic Dry Liquid
kiloliter kl 1,000.0000 1.31 cubic
yards
hectoliter hl 100.0000 3.53 cubic 2.84 bushels
yards
8.4 (CONT.)
Capacity
Abreviation Number of Approx. U.S. Equivalent
Unit or Symbol Liters Cubic Dry Liquid
dekaliter dal 10.0000 0.35 cubic 1.14 pecks 2.64 gallons
yards
liter l 1.0000 61.02 cubic 0.908 quarts 1.057 quarts
inches
cubic dm3 1.0000 61.02 cubic 0.908 quarts 1.057 quarts
decimeter inches
deciliter dl 0.1000 6.1 cubic 0.18 pint 0.21 pint
inches
centiliter cl 0.0100 0.61 cubic 0.338 fluid
inches ounce
milliliter ml 0.0010 0.061 cubic 0.27 fluid
inches dram
8.5 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Abreviation or Equivalent in Other
Unit Symbol Units of Same System Metric Equivalent
Weight
Avoirdupois
ton (short) 20 short hundredweight, 0.907 metric ton
2000 pounds
ton (long) 20 long hundredweight, 1.016 tons
2240 pounds
hundredweight cwt
hundredweight 100 pounds, 0.05 short ton 45.359 kilograms
(short)
hundredweight 112 pounds, 0.05 long ton 50.802 kilograms
(long)
pound lb or lb avdp or # 16 ounces, 7000 grains 0.454 kilogram
ounce oz or oz avdp 16 drams, 437.5 grains 28.350 grams
dram dr or dr avdp 27.344 grains, 0.0625 1.772 grams
ounce
grain gr 0.037 dram, 0.02286 0.0648 gram
ounce
Troy
pound lb t 12 ouces, 240 0.373 kilogram
pennyweight, 5760 grains
ounce oz t 20 pennyweight, 480 31.103 grams
grains
pennyweight dwt or pwt 24 grains, 0.05 ounce 1.555 grams
grain gr 0.042 pennyweight, 0.0648 gram
0.002083 ounce
Apothecaries’
pound lb ap 12 ounces, 5760 grains 0.373 kilogram
ounce oz ap 8 drams, 480 grains 31.103 grams
dram dr ap 3 scruples, 60 grams 3.888 grams
scruple s ap 20 grains, 0.33 dram 1.296 grams
grain gr 0.05 scruple, 0.002083 0.0648 gram
ounce, 0.0166 dram
Capacity
U.S. Liquid Measurement

gallon gal 4 quarts (231 cubic 3.785 liters
inches)
quart qt 2 pints (57.75 cubic 0.946 liter
inches)
pint pt 4 gills (28.875 cubic 0.473 liter
inches)
8.5 (CONT.)
gill gi 4 fluid ounces (7.219 118.294 milliliters
cubic inches)
fluid ounce fl oz 8 fluid drams (1.805 cubic 29.573 milliliters
inches)
fluid dram fl dr 60 minims (0.226 cubic 3.697 milliliters
inches)
minim min 1/10 fluid dram (0.003760 0.061610 milliliter
cubic inch)
U.S. Dry Measure

bushel bu 4 pecks (2150.42 cubic 35.239 liters
inches)
peck pk 8 quarts (537.605 cubic 8.810 liters
inches)
quart qt 2 pints (67.201 cubic 1.101 liters
inches)
pint pt 1/2 quart (33.600 cubic 0.551 liter
inches)
British Imperial Liquid and Dry Measure

bushel bu 4 pecks (2219.36 cubic 0.036 cubic meter
inches)
peck pk 2 gallons (554.84 cubic 0.0091 cubic meter
inches)
gallon gal 4 quarts (277.420 cubic 4.546 liters
inches)
quart qt 2 pints (69.355 cubic 1.136 liters
inches)
pint pt 4 gills ( 34.678 cubic 568.26 cubic centimeters
inches)
gill gi 5 fluid drams (8.669 cubic 142.066 cubic centimeters
inches)
fluid ounce fl oz 8 fluid drams (1.7339 28.4112 cubic
cubic inches) centimeters
fluid dram fl dr 60 minims (0.216734 3.5516 cubic
cubic inches) centimeters
minim min 1/60 fluid dram (0.003612 0.059194 cubic
cubic inch) centimeter
Length
mile mi 5280 feet, 320 rods, 1760 1,609 kilometers
yards
rod rd 5.50 yards, 16.5 feet 5.029 meters
yard yd 3 feet, 36 inches 0.9144 meter
foot ft or ' 12 inches, 0.333 yard 30.48 centimeters
inch in or '' 0.083 foot, 0.028 yard 2.54 centimeters
8.5 (CONT.)
Area
square mile mi2 640 acres, 102,400 square 2.590 square kilometers
rods
acre 484 square yards, 43,560 0.405 hectare, 4047
square feet square meters
square rod rd2 30.25 square yards, 25.293 square meters
0.00625 acre
square yard yd2 1296 square inches, 9 0.836 square meter
square feet
square foot ft2 144 square inches, 0.11 0.093 square meter
sqare yard
square inch in2 0.0069 square foot, 6.452 square
0.00077 square foot centimeters
Volume
cubic yard yd3 27 cubic feet, 46,656 0.765 cubic meter
cubic inches
cubic foot ft3 1728 cubic inches, 0.0370 0.028 cubic meter
cubic yard
cubic inch in3 0.00058 cubic foot, 16.387 cubic centimeters
0.000021 cubic yard
8.6 APPROXIMATE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND DENSITIES

Avg. Avg.
Specific density, Specific density,
Substance Gravity lb/ft3 Substance Gravity lb/ft3
Metals, Alloys, Ores Timber, air-dried

Aluminum, cast- 2.55–2.80 165 Apple 0.66–0.74 44
hammered
Aluminum bronze 7.7 481 Ash, black 0.55 34
Brass, cast-rolled 8.4–8.7 534 Ash, white 0.64–0.71 42
Bronze, 7.9 to 14% Sn 7.4–8.9 509 Birch, sweet, yellow 0.71–0.72 44
Bronze, phosphor 8.88 554 Cedar, white, red 0.35 22
Copper, cast-rolled 8.8–8.95 556 Cherry, wild red 0.43 27
Copper ore, pyrites 4.1–4.3 262 Chestnut 0.48 30
German silver 8.58 536 Cypress 0.45–0.48 29
Gold, cast-hammered 19.25– 1205 Fir, Douglas 0.48–0.55 32
19.35
Gold coin (U.S.) 17.18– 1073 Fir, balsam 0.40 25
17.2
Iridium 21.78– 1383 Elm, white 0.56 35
22.42
Iron, gray cast 7.03–7.13 442 Hemlock 0.45–0.50 29
Iron, cast, pig 7.2 450 Hickory 0.74–0.80 48
Iron, wrought 7.6–7.9 485 Locust 0.67–0.77 45
Iron, spiegel-eisen 7.5 468 Mahogany 0.56–0.85 44
Iron, ferrosilicon 6.7–7.3 437 Maple, sugar 0.68 43
Iron ore, hematite 5.2 325 Maple, white 0.53 33
Iron ore, limonite 3.6–4.0 237 Oak, chestnut 0.74 46
Iron ore, magnetite 4.9–5.2 315 Oak, live 0.87 54
Iron slag 2.5–3.0 172 Oak, red, black 0.64–0.71 42
Lead 11.34 710 Oak, white 0.77 48
Lead ore, galena 7.3–7.6 465 Pine, Oregon 0.51 32
Manganese 7.42 475 Pine, red 0.48 30
Manganese ore, 3.7–4.6 259 Pine, white 0.43 27
pyrolusite
Mercury 13.546 847 Pine, Southern 0.61–0.67 38–42
Monel metal, rolled 8.97 555 Pine, Norway 0.55 34
Nickel 8.9 537 Poplar 0.43 27
Platinum, cast- 21.5 1330 Redwood, California 0.42 26
hammered
Silver, cast-hammered 10.4–10.6 656 Spruce, white, red 0.45 28
Steel, cold-drawn 7.83 489 Teak, African 0.99 62
Steel, machine 7.80 487 Teak, Indian 0.66–0.88 48
Steel, tool 7.70–7.73 481 Walnut, black 0.59 37
Tin, cast-hammered 7.2–7.5 459 Willow 0.42–0.50 28
Tin ore, cassiterite 6.4–7.0 418
8.6 (CONT.)
Avg. Avg.
Specific density, Specific density,
Substance Gravity lb/ft3 Substance Gravity lb/ft3
Tungsten 19.22 1200
Various Liquids
Zinc, cast-rolled 6.9–7.2 440 Alcohol, ethyl (100%) 0.789 49
Zinc, ore, blende 3.9–4.2 253 Alcohol, methyl 0.796 50
(100%)
Acid, muriatic (HCI), 1.20 75
Various 40%
Acid, nitric, 91% 1.50 94
Cereals, oats, bulk 0.41 26 Acid, sulfuric, 87% 1.80 112
Cereals, barley, bulk 0.62 39 Chloroform 1.500 95
Cereals, corn, rye, bulk 0.73 45 Ether 0.736 46
Cereals, wheat, bulk 0.77 48 Lye, soda, 66% 1.70 106
Cork 0.22–0.26 15 Oils, vegetable 0.91–0.94 58
Cotton, flax, hemp 1.47–1.50 93 Oils, mineral, 0.88–0.94 57
lubricants
Fats 0.90–0.97 58 Turpentine 0.861–0.867 54
Flour, loose 0.40–0.50 28 Water, 4°C, max. 1.0 62.428
density
Flour, pressed 0.70–0.80 47 Water, 100°C 0.9584 59.83
Glass, common 2.40–2.80 162 Water, ice 0.88–0.92 56
Glass, plate or crown 2.45–2.72 161 Water, snow, fresh 0.125 8
fallen
Glass, crystal 2.90–3.00 184 Water, seawater 1.02–1.03 64
Glass, flint 3.2–4.7 247
Hay and straw, bales 0.32 20 Ashlar Masonry
Leather 0.86–1.02 59 Granite, syenite, gneiss 2.4–2.7 159
Paper 0.70–1.15 58 Limestone 2.1–2.8 153
Potatoes, piled 0.67 44 Marble 2.4–2.8 162
Rubber, Caoutchouc 0.92–0.96 59 Sandstone 2.0–2.6 143
Rubber goods 1.0–2.0 94 Bluestone 2.3–2.6 153
Salt, granulated, piled 0.77 48
Saltpeter 2.11 132 Rubble Masonry
Starch 1.53 96 Granite, syenite, gneiss 2.3–2.6 153
Sulfur 1.93–2.07 125
Wool 1.32 82
Note: At room temperature with reference to water at 39.
8.7 C.E. LAPPLE’S PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

CHART
(From C.E. Lapple, Stanford Res. Inst. J., 5, 94, 1961. With permission).
8.8 PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1A 2A 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
Period
1 2
1 H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reference Materials
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
actinides Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
241
8.9 ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF ELEMENTS AND

ATOMIC NUMBERS
Symbol Element Atomic Number
Ac Actinium 89
Al Aluminum 13
Am Americium 95
Sb Antimony 51
Ar Argon 18
As Arsenic 33
At Astatine 85
Ba Barium 56
Bk Berkelium 97
Be Beryllium 4
Bi Bismuth 83
B Boron 5
Br Bromine 35
Cd Cadmium 48
Ca Calcium 20
Cf Californium 98
C Carbon 6
Ce Cerium 58
Cs Cesium 55
Cl Cholorine 17
Cr Chromium 24
Co Cobalt 27
Cu Copper 29
Cm Curium 96
Dy Dysprosium 66
Es Einsteinium 99
Er Erbium 8
Eu Europium 63
Fm Fermum 100
F Fluorine 9
Fr Francium 87
Gd Gadolinium 64
Ga Gallium 31
Ge Germanium 32
Au Gold 79
Hf Hafnium 72
Ha Hahnium 105
Hs Hassium 108
Hi Helium 2
Ho Holmium 67
H Hydrogen 1
In Indium 49
I Iodine 53
Ir Iridium 77
Fe Iron 26
Kr Krpton 36
8.9 (CONT.)
La Lanthanum 57
Lr Lawrencium 103
Pb Lead 82
Li Lithium 3
Lu Lutetium 71
Mg Magnesium 12
Mn Manganesse 25
Mt Meitnerium 109
Md Mendelevium 101
Hg Mercury 80
Mo Molybdenum 42
Ns Neilsborium 107
Nd Neodymium 60
Ne Neon 10
Np Neptunium 93
Ni Nickel 28
Nb Niobium 41
N Nitrogen 7
No Nobelium 102
Os Osmian 76
O Oxygen 8
Pd Palladium 46
P Phosphorus 15
Pt Platinum 78
Pu Plutonium 94
Po Polonium 84
K Potassium 19
Pr Praseodymium 59
Pm Promethium 61
Pa Protactinium 91
Ra Radium 88
Rn Radon 86
Re Rhenium 75
Rh Rhodium 45
Rb Rubidium 37
Ru Ruthenium 44
Rf Rutherfordium 104
Sm Samarium 62
Sc Scandium 21
Sg Seaborgium 106
Se Selenium 34
Si Silicon 14
Ag Silver 47
Na Sodium 11
Sr Strontium 38
S Sulfur 16
Ta Tantalum 73
8.9 (CONT.)
Tc Technetium 43
Te Tellurium 52
Tb Terbium 65
Tl Thalium 81
Th Thorium 90
Tm Thulium 69
Sn Tin 50
Ti Titanium 22
W Tungsten 74
U Uranium 92
V Vadum 23
Xi Xenon 54
Yb Ytterbium 70
Y Yttrium 39
Zn Zinc 30
Zr Zirconium 40
8.10 WIRE ROPE DEFORMATION / INSPECTION

All wire ropes will wear out eventually and gradually lose work capability throughout
their service life. That is the reason periodic inspections are critical. Applicable
industry standards such as ASME B30.2 for overhead and gantry cranes or federal
regulations such as OSHA refer to specific inspection criteria for varied applications.
Regular inspection of wire rope and equipment should be performed. There are
three purposes for inspection:
1. It reveals the condition of the rope and indicates the need for replacement.
2. It can indicate if the most suitable type of rope is being used.
3. It makes possible the discovery and correction of faults in equipment or
operation that can cause costly accelerated rope wear.
All wire ropes should be thoroughly inspected at regular intervals. The longer
the rope has been in service or the more severe the service, the more thoroughly
and frequently it should be inspected. Be sure to maintain records of each inspection.
Inspections should be carried out by a person who has learned through special
training or practical experience what to look for and who knows how to judge the
importance of any abnormal conditions that may be discovered. It is the inspector’s
responsibility to obtain and follow the proper inspection criteria for each application
inspected.
Figure 8.1(a) illustrates what happens when a wire breaks under tensile load
exceeding its strength. It is typically recognized by “the cup and cone” appearance
at the point of failure. The necking down of the wire at the point of failure to form
the cup and cone indicates failure has occurred while the wire retained its ductility.
Figure 8.1(b) illustrates a wire with a distinct fracture break. It is recognized
by the square end perpendicular to the wire. This break was produced by a torsion
machine that is used to measure the ductility. This break is similar to wire failures
in the field caused by fatigue.
FIGURE 8.1 (a) “Cup and cone” break. (b) Distinct fracture break. (Courtesy of the Wire
Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph, MO.)
FIGURE 8.2 Fracture breaks in individual wires. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation
of America, St. Joseph, MO.)
FIGURE 8.3 Fatigue failure. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph,
MO.)
FIGURE 8.4 Strand nicking. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph,
MO.)
Figure 8.2 illustrates wire rope that has been subjected to repeated bending over
sheaves under normal loads. This results in fatigue breaks in individual wires —
these breaks are square and usually in the crown of the strands.
An example of fatigue failure of a wire rope subjected to heavy loads over small
sheaves is shown in Figure 8.3. The breaks in the valleys of the strands are caused
by “strand nicking.” There may be crown breaks as well.
Figure 8.4 illustrates a single strand removed from a wire rope subjected to
strand nicking. This condition is a result of adjacent strands rubbing against one
another. Although this is normal in the operation of a rope, the nicking can be
accentuated by high loads, small sheaves, or loss of core support. The ultimate result
is individual wire breaks in the valleys of the strands.
A birdcage is caused by sudden release of tension and the resulting rebound of
rope. These strands and wires will not return to their original positions. The rope
should be replaced immediately (see Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.6 shows a typical failure of a rotary drill line with a poor cutoff practice.
These wires have been subjected to continued peening, causing fatigue-type failures.
A predetermined, regularly scheduled cutoff practice can help eliminate this type of
problem.
FIGURE 8.5 (a) Birdcage. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph, MO.)
FIGURE 8.6 Peening. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph, MO.)
FIGURE 8.7 Localized wear. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph,
MO.)
FIGURE 8.8 High strand. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph,
MO.)
Figure 8.7 illustrates localized wear over an equalized sheave. The danger here
is that the wear is invisible during the operation of the rope, and that is the reason
it is necessary to inspect this portion of an operating rope regularly. The rope should
be pulled off the sheave during inspection and bent to check for broken wires.
Shown in Figure 8.8 is a wire rope with a high strand — a condition in which
one or more strands are worn before adjoining strands. This is caused by improper
socketing or seizing, kinks, or dog-legs. On top, is shown a close-up view of the
concentration of wear. The bottom image shows how it recurs every sixth strand in
a rope.
FIGURE 8.9 Kinked wire rope. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America,
St. Joseph, MO.)
FIGURE 8.10 Curled rope. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America, St. Joseph,
MO.)
FIGURE 8.11 Drum crushing. (Courtesy of the Wire Rope Corporation of America,
St. Joseph, MO.)
A kinked wire rope is shown in Figure 8.9. The damage is caused by pulling
down a loop in a slack line during handling, installation, or operation. Note the
distortion of the strands and individual wires. This rope must be replaced.
Figure 8.10 illustrates a wire rope that has jumped a sheave. The rope curled as
it went over the edge of the sheave. Two types of breaks are evident here: tensile
“cup and cone” breaks and shear breaks that appear to have been cut on an angle.
Drum crushing, caused by small drums, high loads, and multiple winding con-
ditions, is shown in Figure 8.11.
8.11 INTERNET SITES

Hundreds, if not thousands, of safety-related Internet sites exist. It is futile to try to
list them individually here. However, there are two specific areas of information that
are expecially useful. The first is an outstanding book dedicated to these Internet
addresses: Safety and Health on the Internet, by Ralph B. Stuart, III, which discusses
Internet use in detail and provides many addresses.
The second area of information of particular usefulness is the addresses of the
major regulatory agencies. These should prove beneficial for speed of research.
http://www.open.gov.uk — Health and Safety Executive (United Kingdom)

http://turva.me.tut.fi/cis
— International Occupational Safety and Health
Information Center
http://www.msha.gov — Mine Safety and Health Administration
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh — National Institute of Occupational Health and
Safety
http://www.osha.gov — Occupational Safety and Health Administration
http://www.epa.gov — Environmental Protection Agency
9 Glossary: Terms of
Interest to Environ-
mental, Safety, Health,
and Industrial Hygiene
Practitioners
Every environmental, safety, health, or industrial hygiene practitioner should have
a vocabulary of words, symbols, and acronyms to communicate with other profes-
sionals in similar or related fields. Many of these terms may have different meanings
in different settings or in different fields of work. The definitions provided here are
intended to provide a quick, sometimes abbreviated meaning, which would most
generally help the safety practitioner understand the meaning and context of a term.
The following is a comprehensive list of words, symbols, and acronyms the
typical environmental, safety, health, or industrial hygiene practitioner should typi-
cally know.
A-, an- (prefix). Absent, lacking, deficient, without.

AAIH. American Academy of Industrial Hygiene (an association of certified
industrial hygienists, CIH).
AAOHN. American Association of Occupational Health Nurses.
Abrasive blasting. A process for cleaning surfaces by means of such materials
as sand, alumina, or steel grit in a stream of high-pressure air.
Absorption. The condensation of gases, liquids, or dissolved substances on the
surfaces of solids.
Absorption coefficient. See Sound absorption coefficient.
AC. See Alternating current.
Accelerator. A device for imparting very high velocity to charged particles
such as electrons or protons. Also, a chemical additive that increases the
speed of a chemical reaction.
Access door. A sliding or hinged door in a duct or fan housing used for clean-
out, inspection, and/or maintenance.
Accident. An unplanned, undesired event, not necessarily resulting in injury,
but damaging to property and/or interrupting the activity in process.
251
Accident causes. Hazards and those factors that, individually or in combination,

directly cause accidents.
Accident prevention. The application of countermeasures designed to reduce
accidents.
Accident rate. Accident experience in relation to a base unit of measurement
(e.g., accidents per hours worked, accidents per days worked, accidents
per 100 employees).
Acclimation, Acclimatization. The physiological process of becoming accus-
tomed to environmental conditions (e.g., a hot environment).
Accommodation. The ability of the eye to adjust focus for various distances.
Accuracy. The agreement of a reading or measurement with the true value. For
example, suppose the actual sound pressure level in a space is 80 dB and
there are three measurements of 81, 81, and 81. For these measurements,
the accuracy is pretty good (only 1 db off), but the precision is very good
(no variation between measurements).
Accuracy (instrument). Often used incorrectly as precision. Accuracy is the
agreement of a reading or observation obtained from an instrument or a
technique with a true value.
acfm. Actual cubic feet per minute of gas or air flowing at existing temperature
and pressure (See also scfm).
ACH, AC/H,N. Air changes per hour. The number of times air is theoretically
replaced in a space during an hour.
ACGIH. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
An association whose membership is open to anyone who is engaged
in the practice of industrial hygiene or occupational and environmental
health and safety. The association supports and produces the TLV List,
the Industrial Ventilation Manual, bioaerosol documents, and other
activities.
Acid. A proton donor.
Acid pickling. A bath treatment to remove scale and other impurities from
metal surfaces before plating or other surface treatment. Sulfuric acid is
commonly used.
ACM. Asbestos-containing materials.
Acne. See Oil dermatitis.
Acoustic, acoustical. Containing, producing, arising from, actuated by, related
to, or associated with sound.
Acoustics. The study, science, or application of principles associated with
sound.
Acoustic trauma. Hearing loss caused by sudden loud noise in one ear or by
a sudden blow to the head. In most cases, hearing loss is temporary,
although there may be some permanent loss.
Acro (prefix). Topmost; outer end. An extremity of the body. Acro-osteolysis
is degeneration of the terminal or distal end of bone tissue.
Acrylic. A family of synthetic resins made by polymerizing esters of acrylic
acids.
Glossary 253
Action level. A term used by OSHA and NIOSHA to express the level of
intoxicant that requires medical surveillance, usually one half of the per-
missible exposure limit.
Activated charcoal. An amorphous form of carbon formed by burning wood,
nutshells, animal bones, and other carbonaceous materials. Charcoal
becomes activated by heating it with steam to 800 to 900°C. During this
treatment, an aporous, submicroscopic internal structure is formed that
gives it an extensive internal surface area. Activated charcoal is commonly
used as a gas or vapor absorbent in air-purifying respirators and as a solid
sorbent in air sampling.
Activation. Making a substance artificially radioactive in an accelerator or by
bombarding it with protons or neutrons in a reactor.
Activity. Often used as a shortened form of radioactivity; refers to the radiating
power of a radioactive substance. Activity may be given in terms of atoms
disintegrating per second.
Acuity. Pertaining to the sensitivity of receptors used in hearing or vision.
Acute. Health effects that show up a short time after exposure. An acute expo-
sure runs a comparatively short course.
ADA. Americans with Disabilities Act. A 1991 federal law prohibiting discrim-
ination against people with disabilities in most public activities, including
the workplace.
Additives. An inclusive name for a wide range of chemical substances that are
added in low percentage to stabilize certain end products, such as antiox-
idants in rubber.
Aden- (prefix). Pertaining to a gland. Adenoma is a tumor of glandlike tissue.
Adenoma. An epithelial tumor, usually benign, with a glandlike structure (the
cells lining glandlike depressions or cavities in the stroma).
Adhesion. The ability of one substance to stick to another. There are two types
of adhesion: mechanical, which depends on the penetration of the surface,
and molecular or polar adhesion, in which adhesion to a smooth surface
is obtained because of polar groups such as carboxyl groups.
Administrative controls, administrative method. A method of controlling
emissions and / or exposures by controlling some aspect of the basic job
procedure. (e.g., job rotation, training, work procedures, time periods
worked, work cycle).
Adsorption. Condensation of gases and vapors on the surface of solids.
AEC. Atomic Energy Commission. Now called the Nuclear Regulatory Com-
mission in the U.S. Department of Energy.
Aerobe. Microorganisms that require the presence of oxygen.
Aerodynamic diameter. The diameter of a unit density sphere having the same
settling velocity as the particle in question of a given shape and density.
Compares the settling velocity of a small particle to the equivalent diam-
eter of a sphere with a density of 62.4lb/ft3 (unit density).
Aerodynamic forces. The forces exerted on a particle in suspension by either
the movement of air or gases around the particle or the resistance of the
gas or air to movement of the particle through the medium.
Aerosols. Liquid droplets of solid particles dispersed in air that are of fine-
enough particle size (0.01 to 100 µm) to remain so dispersed for a period
of time.
Affirmative action. Positive action taken to assure nondiscriminatory treatment
of all groups in employment regardless of sex, religion, age, handicap, or
national origin.
Agency, agent. The principal object, such as a tool, machine, or material,
involved in an accident that inflicts injury, illness, or property damage.
Agglomeration. Term that implies consolidation of solid particles into larger
shapes by means of agitation alone, that is, without application of mechan-
ical pressure in molds, between rolls, or through dies. Industrial agglom-
eration is usually implemented in balling devices such as rotating disks,
drums, or cones, but it can occur in a simple mixer. Agglomeration has
also been used to describe the entire field of particulate consolidation.
Agricultural Hazards. Noise, ammonia exposure, vibration, pesticide expo-
sure, trauma histoplasmosis (from bird droppings), poisonous plants, sun-
light, fatigue.
AHU. Air-handling unit. Refers to ventilation equipment in HVAC systems.
AIDS. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
AIHA. American Industrial Hygiene Association.
Air. The mixture of gases that surrounds Earth; its major components are as
follows: 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and
0.93% argon. Water vapor (humidity) varies. See also standard air.
Air bone gap. The difference in decibels between the hearing levels for a
particular frequency as determined by air conduction and bone conduc-
tion.
Airborne microorganisms. Biologically active contaminants suspended in air
either as free-floating particles surrounded by a film of organic or inor-
ganic material, or attached to the surface of other suspended particulates.
Air cleaner. A device designed to remove atmospheric airborne impurities,
such as dusts, gases, vapors, fumes, and smokes. Examples include filters,
scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, cyclones, and afterburners.
Air conditioning. The process of treating air to control its temperature, humid-
ity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet requirements of the conditioned
space.
Air conduction. The process by which sound is conducted to the inner ear
through air in the outer ear canal.
Air density. Also weight density. The weight of air in pounds per cubic foot.
Dry, standard air at temperature = 70°F, barometric pressure = 29.92 in.
Hg has a density of 0.075 lb/ft3.
Air filter. An air-cleaning device to remove light particulate matter from normal
atmospheric air.
Air hammer. A percussion-type pneumatic tool fitted with a handle at one end
of the shank and a tool chuck at the other, into which a variety of tools
may be inserted.
Glossary 255
Air horsepower (ahp). The theoretical horsepower required to drive a fan if

there are no losses in the fan, that is, if it is 100% efficient.
Air line regulator. A respirator that is connected to a compressed breathing
air source by hose.
Air monitoring. Sampling for the measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere.
Air mover. Any device that is capable of causing air to be moved from one
space to another. Such devices are generally used to exhaust, force, or
draw gases through specific assemblies.
Air-powered tools. Tools that use air under pressure to drive various rotating,
percussion attachments. Pneumatic.
Air-purifying respirator. Device that uses filters or sorbents to remove harmful
substances from the air.
Air quality criteria. The amounts of pollution and lengths of exposure at which
specific adverse effects to health and welfare take place.
Air-regulating valve. An adjustable valve used to regulate airflow to the face
piece, helmet, or hood of an air line respirator.
Air, standard. See Standard air.
Air-supplied respirator. Device that provides a supply of breathable air from
a clean source outside the work area.
Albumin. A protein material found in animal and vegetable fluids, character-
ized by solubility in water.
Albuminuria. The presence of albumin or other protein substance, such as
serum globulin, in the urine.
-algia (suffix). Pain. A prefix such as a neur- indicates where the pain is located
(neuralgia = pain in a nerve, for example).
Algorithm. A precisely stated procedure or set of instructions that can be
applied stepwise to solve a problem.
Aliphatic. Derived from the Greek word for oil. Pertaining to an open change
carbon compound. Usually applied to petroleum products derived from a
paraffin base and having a straight or branched chain, saturated or unsat-
urated molecular structure. Substances such as methane or ethane, are
typical aliphatic hydrocarbons. See also Aromatic.
Alkali. A compound that has the ability to neutralize an acid and form salt.
Sodium hydroxide, known as caustic soda or lye, is an example. Used in
soap manufacture and other applications. Turns litmus paper blue. See
also Base.
Alkaline earths. Usually considered to be the oxides of alkaline earth metals:
barium, calcium, strontium, beryllium, and radium. Some authorities also
include magnesium oxide.
Alkyd. A synthetic resin that is the condensed product of a polybasic acid, such
as phthalic, apolyhydric alcohol, glycerin, or an oil fatty acid.
Alkylation. The process of introducing one or more alkyl radicals by addition
or substitution into an organic compound.
Allergy. An abnormal response of a hypersensitive person to chemical or phys-
ical stimuli. Allergic manifestations of major importance occur in about
10% of the population.
Alloy. A mixture of metals (and sometimes a nonmetal), as in brass, tin, or

copper.
Alpha-emitter. A radioactive substance that gives off alpha particles (two neu-
trons and two protons).
Alpha particle. A small, positively charged particle made up of two (alpha-
ray, alpha-radiation) neutrons and two protons and of very high velocity,
thrown off by many radioactive materials, including uranium and radium.
Alternating current (AC). Electric current that reverses direction. Ordinary
house current in the United States reverses direction 60 times per second.
Aluminosis. A form of pneumoconiosis due to the presence of aluminum-
bearing dust in the lungs, especially that of alum, bauxite, or clay.
Alveoli. Tiny air sacs of the lungs, formed at the ends of bronchioles; through
the thin walls of the alveoli, the blood takes in oxygen and gives up carbon
dioxide in respiration.
Alveolus. A general term used in anatomical nomenclature to designate a small
sac-like dilation.
Amalgamation. The process of alloying metals with mercury. This is the pro-
cess used in extracting gold and silver from their ores.
Ambient. The existing, unaltered environment.
Ambient air. Air found naturally in the environment under consideration.
Ambient noise. The all-encompassing noise associated with a given environ-
ment; usually a composite of sounds from many sources.
AMCA. Air Moving and Control Association. A fan-manufacturing association
that sets certification criteria and testing methods for fan performance.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. See ACGIH.
Amorphous. Noncrystalline.
Ampere. The standard unit for measuring the strength of an electrical current.
Anaerobe. A microorganism that grows without oxygen. Facultative anaerobes
are able to grow without oxygen; obligate anaerobes grow only in the
absence of oxygen.
Anaerobic bacteria. Any bacteria that can survive in a partial or complete
absence of air, in a nonoxygen atmosphere.
Anaphylaxis. Hypersensitivity resulting from sensitization following prior con-
tact with a chemical or compound.
Andro- (prefix). Man, male. An androgen is an agent that produces masculin-
izing effects.
Anechoic room. Room whose boundaries effectively absorb all the sound (free-
field room) incident therein, thereby affording essentially free-field con-
ditions.
Anemia. Deficiency in the hemoglobin and erythrocyte content of the blood.
Term refers to a number of pathological states that may be attributed to
a large variety of causes and appear in many different forms.
Anemometer. A device that measures velocity of air. Common types include
the swing vane, and the hot wire anemometer.
Anesthesia. Loss of sensation; in particular, the temporary loss of feeling
induced by certain chemical agents.
Glossary 257
Angi-, angio- (prefix). Blood or lymph vessel. Angitis is the inflammation of

a blood vessel.
Angle of abduction. Angle between the longitudinal axis of a limb and a
sagittal plane.
Angstrom. A unit of measure of wavelength equal to 10–10 m or 0.1 nanometer.
Anneal. To treat by heat with subsequent cooling for drawing the temper of
metals, that is, to soften and render them less brittle. See also Temper.
Anode. The positive electrode.
Anorexia. Lack or loss of the appetite for food.
ANSI. American National Standards. A voluntary membership organization
(run with private funding) that develops consensus standards nationally
for a wide variety of devices and procedures.
Antagonist. A muscle opposing the action of another muscle. An active antag-
onist is essential for control and stability of action by a prime mover.
Antagonistic interaction. Interaction of two chemicals in which the resultant
toxic effect is lower than the individual action of the chemicals.
Anthracosilicosis. A complex form of pneumoconiosis; a chronic disease
caused by breathing air containing dust that has free silica as one of its
components and that is generated in various processes of mining and
preparing anthracite (hard) coal and, to a lesser degree, bituminous (soft)
coal.
Anthracosis. A disease in the lungs caused by prolonged inhalation of dust
that contains particles of carbon and coal.
Anthrax. A highly infectious bacterial infection communicated from infected
animals and animal products.
Anthropometric evaluation. A study of human body and its modes of action
to improve design of tools and machines to correspond with human
capabilities.
Anthropometry. The branch of anthropology having to do with measurement
of the human body to determine differences in individuals or groups of
individuals.
Anti- (prefix). Against. An antibiotic is “against life” in the sense that it is a
drug directed against the life of disease-causing germs.
Antibody. Any of the body globulins that combine specifically with antigens
to neutralize toxins, agglutinate bacteria or cells, and precipitate soluble
antigens. It is found naturally in the body or produced by the body in
response to the introduction into its tissues of a foreign substance.
Antigen. A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates antibody
production.
Antioxidant. A compound that retards deterioration by oxidation. Antioxidants
for human food and animal feeds, sometimes referred to as freshness
preservers, retard rancidity of fats and lessen loss of fat-soluble vitamins
(A, D, E, K). Antioxidants are also added to rubber, motor lubricants, and
other materials to inhibit deterioration.
Antiparticle. A particle that interacts with its counterpart of the same mass but
opposite electric charge and magnetic properties (e.g., proton and anti-
proton), with complete annihilation of both and production of an equiv-

alent amount of radiation energy. The positron and its antiparticle, the
electron, annihilate each other upon interaction and produce gamma (γ)
rays.
Antiseptic. A substance that prevents or inhibits the growth of microorganisms;
a substance used to kill microorganisms on biological surfaces, such as
skin.
Aplastic anemia. A condition in which the bone marrow fails to produce an
adequate number of red blood corpuscles.. .
Approved. Tested and listed as satisfactory by an authority having jurisdiction,
such as U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), NIOSH-
MSHA, or the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Aqueous humor. Fluid in the anterior chamber of the eye.
Arc welding. A form of electrical welding using either uncoated or coated rods.
Arc-welding electrode. A component of the welding circuit through which
current is conducted between the electrode holder and the arc.
Argyria. A slate-gray or bluish discoloration of the skin and deep tissues caused
by the deposit of insoluble albuminate of silver, occurring after the medic-
inal administration for a long period of a soluble silver salt; formerly
fairly common after the use of insufflations of silver-containing materials
into the nose and sinuses. Also seen with occupational exposure to silver-
containing chemicals.
Aromatic. Term applied to a group of hydrocarbons and their derivatives char-
acterized by the presence of the benzene nucleus (molecular ring struc-
ture). See also Aliphatic.
Aromatic Compound. A ringed hydrocarbon (e.g., benzene-derived com-
pounds).
Arrestance. The ability of a filter to remove a coarse dust particle.
Arthr- (prefix). Joint. Arthropathy is a disease affecting a joint.
Artificial abrasive. Materials such as carborundum or emery substituted for a
natural abrasive such as sandstone.
Artificial radioactivity. That produced by bombardment of a target element
with nuclear particles. Iodine-131 is an artificially produced radioactive
substance.
Asbestos. A hydrated magnesium silicate in fibrous form.
Asbestosis. A disease of the lung caused by inhalation of fine airborne asbestos
fibers. Typically has a very long latency period.
Asepsis. Clean and free of microorganisms.
Aseptic technique. A procedure or operation that prevents the introduction of
septic material.
ASHRAE. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers.
Aspect ratio. Length-to-width ratio.
Asphyxia. Suffocation from lack of oxygen. Chemical asphyxia is produced
by a substance such as carbon monoxide that combines with hemoglobin
to reduce the capacity of the blood to transport oxygen. Simple asphyxia
Glossary 259
is the result of exposure to a substance, such as methane, that displaces

oxygen.
Asphyxiant. A gas whose primary or most acute health effect is asphyxiation.
There are two classes of asphyxiant: simple asphyxiant, such as nitrogen
or methane, which acts by replacing oxygen; and chemical asphyxiant,
such as carbon monoxide, which causes asphyxiation by preventing oxy-
gen uptake at the cellular level.
Assigned Protection. The level of respiratory protection expected from a factor
(APF) respirator that is properly functioning, has been properly fitted, and
is worn by a worker trained in its use. APFs can be used to help provide
an estimate of the maximum concentrations of a contaminant in which a
particular respirator can be used.
ASTM. American Society for Testing and Materials. Voluntary membership
organization with members from a broad spectrum of individuals, agen-
cies, and industries concerned with materials.
Asthma. Constriction of the bronchial tubes in response to irritation, allergy,
or other stimulus.
Ataxia. Lack of muscular coordination caused by any of several nervous system
diseases.
Atmosphere-supplied respirator. A respirator that provides breathing air from
a source independent of the surrounding atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure. The pressure exerted in all directions by the atmo-
sphere. At sea level, mean atmospheric pressure is 29.92 in. Hg; 14.7 psi,
or 407 in. wg.
Atom. All materials are made of atoms. The elements, such as iron, lead, and
sulfur, differ from each other because their atomic structures are different.
The word atom comes from the Greek word meaning indivisible. It is
now known that an atom can be split and consists of an inner core (nucleus)
surrounded by electrons that rotate around the nucleus. As a chemical
unit, it remains unchanged during any chemical reaction, yet may undergo
nuclear transmutations to other atoms, as in atomic fission.
Atomic energy. Energy released in nuclear reactions. Of particular interest is
the energy released when a neutron splits the nucleus of an atom into
smaller pieces (fission) or when two nuclei are joined together under
millions of degrees of heat (fusion). Atomic energy is a popular misnomer;
it is more correctly called nuclear energy.
Atomic hydrogen welding. A shielded gas-electric welding process using
hydrogen as the reducing atmosphere.
Atomic number. The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. All
elements have different atomic numbers. The atomic number of hydrogen
is 1, that of oxygen 8, iron 26, lead 82, uranium 92. The atomic number
is also called charge number and is usually denoted by Z.
Atomic power. The name given to the production of thermal power in a nuclear
reactor or power facility.
Atomic waste. The radioactive ash produced by the splitting of uranium fuel,
as in a nuclear reactor. It may include products that have been made
radioactive in such a device.
Atomic weight. The atomic weight is approximately the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of an atom. This sum is also
called mass number. The atomic weight of oxygen is approximately 16,
with most oxygen atoms containing 8 neutrons and 8 protons. Aluminum
is 27; it contains 14 neutrons and 13 protons.
Atom smasher. Accelerator that speeds up atomic and subatomic particles so
that they can be used as projectiles literally to blast apart the nuclei of
other atoms.
Atrophy. Arrested development or wasting away of cells and tissue.
Attenuate. To reduce in amount. Usually refers to noise or ionizing radiation.
Attenuation. The reduction of intensity at a designated first location as com-
pared with the intensity at a second location, which is farther from the
source.
Attenuation block. A block or stack, having dimensions 20 by 20 by 3.8 cm,
of Type 1100 aluminum alloy or aluminum alloy having equivalent atten-
uation.
Audible range. The frequency range across which normal ears hear: at approx-
imately 20,000 Hz, the term ultrasonic is used; below 20 Hz, the term
subsonic is used.
Audible sound. Sound containing frequency components lying between 20 and
20,000 Hz.
Audiogram. A record of hearing loss or hearing level measured at several
different frequencies — usually 500 to 6000 Hz. The audiogram may be
presented graphically or numerically. Hearing level is shown as a function
of frequency.
Audiologist. A person with graduate training in the specialized problems of
hearing and deafness.
Audiometer. A signal generator or instrument for measuring objectively the
sensitivity of hearing. Pure-tone audiometers are standard instruments for
industrial use for audiometric testing.
Audiometric technician. A person who is trained and qualified to administer
audiometric examinations.
Audiometric zero. The threshold of hearing: 0.0002 microbars of sound pres-
sure. See also decibel.
Auditory. Pertaining to or involving the sense or organs of hearing.
Aural insert. Usually called earplugs or inserts. A pliable material is inserted
into the ear canal to reduce the amount of noise reaching the inner ear.
Auricle. Part of the ear that projects from the head; medically, the pinna. Also,
one of the two upper chambers of the heart.
Autoclave. An apparatus using pressurized steam for sterilization.
Autoignition temperature. The lowest temperature at which a flammable
gas–air or vapor–air mixture ignites from its own heat source or a con-
tacted heated surface without necessity of spark or flame. Vapor and gases
Glossary 261
spontaneously ignite at a lower temperature in oxygen that in air, and

their autoignition temperature may be influenced by the presence of cat-
alytic substances.
Avogadro’s number. The number of molecules in a gram-mole of a material;
6.022 × 1023. One gram mole of a gas or vapor occupies about 24.1 liters
at 70°F. and 29.92 in. Hg; one pound mole occupies 387 ft3 at the same
conditions.
Axial-flow fan. A propeller-type fan useful for moving large volumes of air
against little resistance.
Axis of rotation. The true line about which angular motion takes place at any
instant. Not necessarily identical with anatomical axis of symmetry of a
limb, or necessarily fixed. Thus, the forearm rotates about an axis that
extends obliquely from the lateral side of the elbow to a point between
the little finger and ring finger. The elbow joint has a fixed axis maintained
by circular joint surfaces, but the knee has a moving axis as its cam-
shaped surfaces articulate. Axis of rotation of tools should be aligned with
true limb axis of rotation. System of rotation of tools should be aligned
with true limb axis of rotation. Systems of predetermined motion times
often specify such an axis incorrectly.
Axis of thrust. The line along which thrust can be transmitted safely. In the
forearm, it coincides with the longitudinal axis of the radius. Tools should
be designed to align with this axis.
Babbitt. An alloy of tin, antimony, copper, and lead used as a bearing metal.
Babbitting. The process of applying babbitt to a bearing.
Bacillus. A rod-shaped bacterium.
Background noise. Noise coming from sources other than the particular noise
source being monitored.
Background radiation. The radiation coming from sources other than the
radioactive material to be measured. This background is primarily a result
of cosmic rays that constantly bombard Earth from outer space.
Bacteria. Microscopic organisms living in soil, water, organic matter, or the
bodies of plants and animals characterized by lack of a distinct nucleus
and lack of ability to photosynthesize. Singular: bacterium.
Bactericide. Any agent that destroys bacteria.
Bacteriophage. Viruses that infect bacteria and lyse the bacterial cell.
Bacteriostat. An agent that stops the growth and multiplication of bacteria but
does not necessarily kill them. Usually growth resumes when the bacte-
riostat is removed.
Bagasse. Sugarcane pulp residues.
Bagassosis. Respiratory disorder believed to be caused by breathing fungi found
in bagasse.
Bag house. Many different trade meanings. Commonly connotes the housing
containing bag filters for recovery of fumes of arsenic, lead, sulfur, and
other materials from the flues of smelters.
Balancing. Creating appropriate flows in ductwork by means of careful design,
or through the use of dampers.
Balancing by dampers. Method for designing local exhaust system ducts using
adjustable dampers to distribute airflow after installation.
Balancing by static. Method for designing local exhaust system ducts by select-
ing the duct diameters that generate static pressure to distribute airflow
without dampers.
Ball mill. A grinding device using balls usually made of steel or stone in a
revolving container.
Banbury mixer. A mixing machine that permits control over the temperature
of the batch; commonly used in the rubber industry.
Band-pass filter. A wave filter that has a single transmission band extending
from a lower cutoff frequency greater than zero to a finite upper cutoff
frequency.
Band-pressure level. Level of a sound for a specified frequency band that is
the sound-pressure level for the sound contained within the restricted
band. The reference pressure must be specified.
Bandwidth. When applied to a band-pass filter, bandwidth is determined by
the interval of transmitted waves between the low and high cutoff fre-
quencies.
Baritosis. An inert pneumoconiosis produced by the inhalation of insoluble
barium compounds.
Barotrauma. An injury to the ear caused by a sudden alteration in barometric
(atmospheric) pressure; aerotitis.
Barrier cream. A lotion-type material that is often used to provide some
minimal protection from irritant materials.
Barrier guard. Physical protection for operators and other individuals from
hazard points on machinery and equipment (e.g., Fixed barrier guard,
interlocked barrier guard, adjustable barrier guard).
Basal metabolism. A measure of the amount of energy required by the body
at rest.
Base. A compound that reacts with an acid to form a salt; another term for
alkali. It turns litmus paper blue.
Basilar. Of, relating to, or situated at the base.
Bauxite. Impure mixture of aluminum oxides and hydroxides; the principal
source of aluminum.
Bauxite pneumoconiosis. Shaver’s disease. Found in workers exposed to fumes
containing aluminum oxide and minute silica particles arising from smelt-
ing bauxite in the manufacture of corundum.
Beam axis. A line from the source through the centers of the X-ray fields.
Beam divergence. Angle of beam spread measured in mrad (1 mrad = 3.4 min
of arc).
Beam-limiting device. A device that provides a means to restrict the dimen-
sions of an X-ray field.
Beat elbow. Bursitis of the elbow; occurs from use of heavy vibrating tools.
Beat knee. Bursitis of the knee joints caused by friction or vibration; common
in mining.
Glossary 263
Becquerel (Bq). One disintegration per second; a measure of the rate of radio-
active disintegration. There are 37 billion Bqs per curie.
Beehive kiln. An oven shaped like a large beehive usually used for calcining
ceramics.
BEI. See Biological exposure indices.
Bel. A unit of sound level based on a logarithmic scale. A decibel is 1/10th of
a Bel.
Belding–Hatch index. Estimate of the body heat stress of a standard man for
various degrees of activity; also relates to sweating capacity. See also Heat
stress index.
Benign. Not malignant. A benign tumor is one that does not metastasize or
invade tissue. A benign tumor may still be lethal because of pressure on
vital organs.
Benzene, CH. A major organic intermediate and solvent derived from coal or
petroleum. The simplest member of the aromatic series of hydrocarbons.
Beryl. A silicate of beryllium and aluminum.
Berylliosis. Chronic beryllium intoxication.
Beta decay. The process whereby some radioactive emitters give off a beta
particle (electron). Also called beta disintegration.
Beta particle. A small electrically charged particle thrown off by many (beta-
radiation) radioactive materials; identical to the electron. Beta particles
emerge from radioactive material at high speeds.
Betatron. A large, doughnut-shaped accelerator in which electrons (beta par-
ticles) are whirled through a changing magnetic field, gaining speed with
each trip and emerging with high energies. Energies of the order of 100
million electron volts have been achieved. The betatron produces artificial
beta radiation.
bhp. The actual horsepower required to move air through a ventilation system
against a fixed total pressure plus the losses in the fan. Bhp = ahp × 1/eff,
where eff is the fan mechanical efficiency.
Biceps brachii muscle. The large muscle in the front of the upper arm. Supi-
nates the forearm.
Bicipital tuberosity. A protuberance on the medial surface of the radius to
which the biceps brachii attaches.
Billet. A piece of semifinished iron or steel, nearly square in section, made by
rolling and cutting an ingot.
Binder. The nonvolatile portion of a coating vehicle that is the film-forming
ingredient used to bind paint pigment particles together.
Binding energy. The energy that holds the neutrons and protons of an atomic
nucleus together. Represents the difference between the mass of an atom
and the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons that make up its
nucleus.
Bioaerosol. Suspensions in air of viruses, bacteria, fungi, pollen, and their
nonviable components.
Biodegradable. Capable of being broken down into innocuous products by the
action of living things.
Bioengineering. Designing equipment, machines, and other structures to fit the

characteristics of people.
Biohazard. “Biological hazard.” Hazards associated with exposure to microor-
ganisms or their products (e.g., bacteria, rickettsia, virus, fungi). Most
work with these organisms is performed in biosafety cabinets.
Biohazard area. Any area (a complete operating complex, a single facility, a
room within a facility, and so on) in which work has been or is being
performed with biohazardous agents or materials.
Biohazard control. Any set of equipment and procedures used to prevent or
minimize the exposure of humans and their environment to biohazardous
agents or materials.
Biological Exposure Indices (BEI). Advisory biological limit values adopted
by the ACGIH for some substances. Indices are based on urine, blood, or
expired air samples. A BEI may be a value for the substance itself or it
may refer to a level of metabolite. BEIs represent the value of the bio-
logical determinant that is most likely to be the value of the determinant
obtained from a worker exposed at the 8-hour TLV-TWA for the substance
in question.
Biological half-life. The time required to reduce the amount of an exogenous
substances in the body by half.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD). Quantity of oxygen required for the bio-
logical and chemical oxidation of waterborne substances under test con-
ditions.
Biomechanics. The study of a human body as a system operating under two
sets of laws: the laws of Newtonian mechanics and the biological laws of
life.
Biopsy. Careful removal of small sections of tissue from the body for further
examination, usually under the microscope.
Black light. Ultraviolet (UV) light (0.3 to 0.4 µm) responsible for pigmentation
of the skin following exposure to the UV light.
Black liquor. A liquor composed of alkaline and organic matter resulting from
digestion of wood pulp and cooking acid during the manufacture of paper.
Blast gate. A sliding, sheet-metal valve used in ducts to create additional
pressure loss in the duct and to restrict flow.
Bleaching bath. Chemical solution used to bleach colors from a garment pre-
paratory to dyeing it; a solution of chlorine or sodium hypochlorite is
commonly used.
Bleph- (prefix). Pertaining to the eyelid.
Blind spot. Normal defect in the visual field due to the position at which the
optic nerve enters the eye.
Bloodborne pathogen program. A 1992 OSHA standard mandates exposure
control plans and the use of universal precautions for places of employ-
ment where there is risk of employee exposure to blood or other potentially
infectious material. Hepatitis B and HIV are the most-often-discussed
pathogens, but the program is not limited to these two areas.
Glossary 265
Blood count. A count of the number of corpuscles per cubic millimeter of

blood. Separate counts may be made for red and white corpuscles.
BLS. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Body burden. The amount of noxious material in the body at a given time.
The body burden of a radionuclide that, if maintained at a maximum
permissible constant level, would produce the maximum permissible dose
equivalent in the critical organ.
Boiler codes. Standards prescribing requirements for the design, construction,
testing, and installation of boilers and unfired pressure vessels.
Boiling point. The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals
atmospheric pressure.
Bombardment. Shooting neutrons, alpha particles, and other high-energy par-
ticles at atomic nuclei, usually in an attempt to split the nucleus or to
form a new element.
Bone conduction test. A special test conducted by placing an oscillator on the
mastoid process to determine the nerve-carrying capacity of the cochlea
and the eighth cranial (auditory) nerve.
Bone marrow. A soft tissue that constitutes the central filling of many bones
and that produces blood corpuscles.
Bone seeker. Any element or radioactive species that lodges in the bone when
introduced into the body.
Brachialis. Short, strong muscles originating at the lower end of the humerus
and inserting into the ulna. Powerful flexor of forearm; employed when
lifting.
Brady- (prefix). Slow. Bradycardia is slow heartbeat.
Bradycardia. Abnormal slowness of the heartbeat, as evidenced by slowing of
the pulse rate to 50 beats per minute or less.
Brake horsepower. The horsepower required to drive a unit; it includes the
energy losses in the unit and can be determined only by actual test. It
does not include drive losses between the motor and unit.
Branch. In a junction of two ducts, the branch is the duct with the lowest
volume flow rate. The branch usually enters the main at some angle less
than 90°.
Branch of greatest resistance. The path from hood to fan that causes the largest
potential static pressure loss; usually used when design is performed with
blast gates or dampers as the balancing approach.
Brass. An alloy of copper and zinc that may contain a small amount of lead.
Brattice. A partition constructed in underground passageways to control ven-
tilation in mines.
Braze. To solder with any relatively infusible alloy.
Brazing furnace. Used for heating metals to be joined by brazing. Requires a
high temperature.
Breathing tube. A tube through which air or oxygen flows to a face piece,
helmet, or hood.
Breathing zone (BZ). Imaginary globe of 2- to 4-ft radius surrounding the head
within which a person breathes.
Breathing zone sample. An air sample collected in the breathing zone of

workers to assess their exposure to airborne contaminants.
Bremsstrahlung. Secondary X radiation produced when a beta particle is
slowed down or stopped by a high-density surface.
Briquette. Coal or ore dust pressed into oval or brick-shaped blocks.
Broach. A cutting tool for cutting nonround holes.
Bronch-, broncho- (prefix). Pertaining to the air tubes of the lung.
Bronchial tubes. Branches or subdivisions of the trachea (windpipe). A bron-
chiole is a branch of a bronchus, which is a branch of the windpipe.
Bronchiectasis. A chronic dilation of the bronchi or bronchioles marked by
fetid breath and paroxysmal coughing; with the expectoration of mucopu-
rulent matter. It may affect the tube uniformly, or may occur in irregular
pockets, or the dilated tubes may have terminal bulbous enlargements.
Bronchiole. The slenderest of the many tubes that carry air into and out of the
lungs. Branch of the bronchus that connects to the trachea.
Bronchiolitis. See Bronchopneumonia.
Bronchitis. Inflammation of the bronchi or bronchial tubes.
Bronchoalveolitis. Bronchopneumonia.
Bronchopneumonia. A name given to an inflammation of the lungs that usually
begins in the terminal bronchioles. These become clogged with a mucopu-
rulent exudate forming consolidated patches in adjacent lobules. The
disease is essentially secondary in character, following infections of the
upper respiratory tract, specific infectious fevers, and debilitating diseases.
Bronzing. Act or art of imparting a bronze appearance with powders, painting,
or chemical processes.
Brownian motion. The irregular (random) movement or particles suspended
in a fluid as a result of bombardment by atoms and molecules.
Brucella. A genus of short, rod-shaped to coccoid, encapsulated, Gram-nega-
tive, parasitic, pathogenic bacteria.
Brucellosis. A group of diseases caused by an organism of the Brucella genus.
Undulant fever. One source is unpasteurized milk from cows suffering
from Bang’s disease (infectious abortion).
Bubble chamber. A chamber containing a liquefied gas such as liquid hydro-
gen, under conditions such that a charged particle passing through the
liquid forms bubbles that make its path visible.
Bubble tube. A device used to calibrate air-sampling pumps.
Buffer. Any substance in a fluid that tends to resist the change in pH when acid
or alkali is added.
Building code. An assembly of regulations that set forth the standards to which
buildings must be constructed.
Bulk density. Mass of powdered or granulated solid material per unit of volume.
Bulk facility. That portion of a property where flammable or combustible
liquids are received by tank vessel, pipeline, tank car, or tank vehicle, and
are sorted or blended in bulk for the purpose of distributing such liquids.
Glossary 267
Bump cap. A hard-shell cap, without interior suspension systems, designed to

protect the wearer’s head in situations where the employee might bump
into something.
Burns. Result of the application of too much heat to the skin. First-degree burns
show redness of the unbroken skin; second degree, skin blisters and some
breaking of the skin; third degree, skin blisters and destruction of the skin
and underlying tissues, which can include charring and blackening.
Burn-up. The extent to which the nuclear fuel in a fuel element has been
consumed by fission, as in a nuclear reactor.
Burr. The thin, rough edges of a machined piece of metal.
Bursa. A synovial lined sac that facilitates the motion of tendons; usually near
a joint.
Bursitis. Inflammation of a bursa.
Byssinosis. Disease occurring in those who experience prolonged exposure to
heavy air concentrations of cotton or flax dust.
Calcination. The heat treatment of solid material to bring about thermal decom-
position, to lose moisture or other volatile material, or to oxidize or reduce.
Calendar. An assembly of rollers for producing a desired finish on paper,
rubber, artificial leather, plastic, or other sheet material.
Calorimeter. A device for measuring the total amount of energy absorbed from
a source of electromagnetic radiation.
Cancer. A cellular tumor the natural course of which is fatal and that is usually
associated with formation of secondary tumors.
Capitulum of humerus. A smooth, hemispherical protuberance at the distal
end of the humerus articulating with the head of the radius. Irritation
caused by pressure between the capitulum and head of the radius may be
a cause of tennis elbow.
Capture velocity. Air velocity at any point in front of the hood necessary to
overcome opposing air currents and to capture the contaminated air by
causing it to flow into the exhaust hood.
Carbohydrate. An abundant class of organic compounds, serving as food
reserves or structural elements for plants and animals. Compounded pri-
marily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they constitute about two thirds
of the average daily adult caloric intake. Sugar, starches, and plant com-
ponents (cellulose) are all carbohydrates.
Carbon black. Essentially a pure carbon, produced around the world under
controlled conditions. There are several processes: furnace black, thermal
black, acetylene, and others. Widely used in tires and plastics.
Carbon monoxide. A colorless, odorless toxic gas produced by any process
that involves the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances.
It is emitted through the exhaust of gasoline-powered vehicles.
Carbonizing. The immersion in sulfuric acid of semiprocessed felt to remove
any vegetable matter present.
Carborundum. A trade name for silicon carbide widely used as an abrasive.
Carboy. A large glass bottle, usually protected by a crate.
Carboxyhemoglobin. The reversible combination of carbon monoxide with

hemoglobin.
Carcinogen. A substance or agent that can cause a growth of abnormal tissue
or tumors in humans or animals.
Carcinogenic. Cancer producing.
Carcinoma. Malignant tumors derived from epithelial tissues, that is, the outer
skin, the membranes lining the body cavities, and certain glands.
Cardi-, cardio- (prefix). Denoting the heart.
Cardiac. Pertaining to (1) the heart; (2) cordial or restorative medicine; (3) a
person with a heart disorder.
Carding. The process of combing or untangling wool, cotton, and so on.
Carding machine. A textile industry machine that prepares wool, cotton, or
their fibers for spinning.
Cardiovascular. Relating to the heart and to the blood vessels or circulation.
Carp- (prefix). The wrist.
Carpal tunnel. A passage in the wrist through which the median nerve and
many tendons pass to the hand from the forearm.
Carpal tunnel syndrome. A common affliction caused by the compression of
the median nerve in the carpal tunnel. Often associated with tingling, pain,
or numbness in the thumb and first three fingers — may be job related.
Carrier. A person in apparent good health who harbors a pathogenic microor-
ganism.
Carrier gas. A mixture of gases that contains and moves a contaminant mate-
rial. Components of the carrier gas are not considered to cause air pollution
or react with the contaminant material.
Case-hardening. A process of surface-hardening metals by raising the carbon
or nitrogen content of the outer surface.
Cask (or coffin). A thick-walled container (usually lead) used for transporting
radioactive materials.
CAS number. Identifies a particular chemical by the Chemical Abstract Ser-
vice, a service of the American Chemical Society that indexes and com-
piles abstracts of worldwide chemical literature called Chemical
Abstracts.
Casting. Pouring a molten material into a mold and permitting it to solidify to
a desired shape.
Catalyst. A substance that changes the speed of a chemical reaction but that
undergoes no permanent change itself. In respirator use, a substance that
converts a toxic gas (or vapor) into a less toxic gas (or vapor). Usually
catalysts greatly increase the reaction rate, as in conversion of petroleum
to gasoline by cracking. In paint manufacture, catalysts that hasten film-
forming sometimes become part of the final product. In most uses, how-
ever, they do not, and can often be reused.
Cataract. Opacity in the lens of the eye that may obscure vision.
Cathode. The negative electrode.
Catwalk. A narrow suspended footway usually used for inspection or mainte-
nance purposes.
Glossary 269
Caulking. The process or material used to fill seams of boats, cracks in tile, etc.
Causal factor (of an accident). One or a combination of simultaneous or
sequential circumstances directly or indirectly contributing to an accident.
Modified to identify several kinds of causes such as direct, early, mediated,
proximate, distal, etc.
Caustic. Something that strongly irritates, burns, corrodes, or destroys living
tissue. See also Alkali.
Ceiling limit (C). An airborne concentration of a toxic substance in the work
environment that should never be exceeded.
-cele (suffix). Swelling or herniation of a part, as in rectocele (prolapse of the
rectum).
Cell. The structural unit of tissues. There are many types: nerve cells, muscle
cells, blood cells, connective tissues cells, fat cells, and others. Each has
a special form to serve a particular function.
Cellulose. A carbohydrate that makes up the structural material of vegetable
tissues and fibers. Its purest forms are chemical cotton and chemical pulp;
it is the basis of rayon, acetate, and cellophane.
Celsius. The Celsius temperature scale is a designation of the scale previously
known as the centigrade scale.
Cement, Portland. Portland cement commonly consists of hydraulic calcium
silicate to which the addition of certain material in limited amounts is
permitted. Ordinarily, the mixture consists of calcareous materials such
as limestone, chalk, shells, marl, clay, shale, blast furnace slag, and so
on. In some specifications, iron ore and limestone are added. The mixture
is fused by calcining at temperatures usually up to 1000°C.
Centrifugal fan. Wheel-type fan useful where static pressure is medium to
high.
Centrifuge. An apparatus that uses centrifugal force to separate or remove
particulate matter suspended in a liquid.
Cephal- (prefix). Pertaining to the head. Encephal-, “within the head,” pertains
to the brain.
Ceramic. A term applied to pottery, brick, and tile products molded from clay
and subsequently calcined.
CERCLA. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Lia-
bility Act.
Cerumen. Earwax.
Cervi- (prefix). Neck.
CEU. Continuing education units, needed by individuals for some educational
and certification programs such as Certified Safety Professional and Cer-
tified Industrial Hygienist.
CFR. Code of Federal Regulations (e.g., 29 CFR is General Industry, 26 CFR
is Construction Industry). The rules promulgated under U.S. law, pub-
lished in the Federal Register, and actually enforced are incorporated in
this code at the end of a calendar year.
Chain reaction. When a fissionable nucleus is split by a neutron it releases
energy and one or more neutrons. These neutrons split other fissionable
nuclei releasing more energy and more neutrons, making the reaction self-
sustaining for as long as there are sufficient fissionable nuclei present.
Charged particles. A particle that possesses at least a unit electrical charge
and that does not disintegrate upon a loss of charge. Charged particles are
characterized by particle size, number, and. sign of unit charges and
mobility. See also Ion.
CHCM. Certified Hazard Control Manager, issued by the Board of Certified
Hazard Control Management.
Chelating agent or chelate. Derived from the Greek kelos, for claw. Any
compound that inactivates a metallic ion with the formation of an inner
ring structure in the molecule, the metal ion becoming a member of the
ring. The original ion, thus chelated, is effectively out of action.
Chemical burns. Generally similar to those caused by heat. After emergency
first aid, their treatment is the same as that for thermal burns. In certain
instances, such as with hydrofluoric acid, special treatment is required.
Chemical cartridge. The type of absorption unit used with a respirator for
removal of low concentrations of specific vapors and gases.
Chemical engineering. That branch of engineering concerned with the devel-
opment and application of manufacturing processes in which chemical or
certain physical changes of materials are involved. These processes may
usually be resolved into a coordinated series of unit physical operations
and unit chemical processes. The work of the chemical engineer is con-
cerned primarily with the design, construction, and operation of equipment
and facilities in which these unit operations and processes are applied.
Chemical hygiene plan. Required by OSHA to protect laboratory employees
from hazardous chemicals.
Chemical reaction. A change in the arrangement of atoms or molecules to
yield substances of different composition and properties. Common types
of reactions are combination, decomposition, double decomposition,
replacement, and double replacement.
Chemotherapy. Use of chemicals of particular molecular structure in the treat-
ment of specific disorders on the assumption that known structures exhibit
an affinity for certain parts of malignant cells or infectious organisms,
and thereby tend to destroy or inactivate them.
CHEMTREC. Chemical Transportation Emergency Center. Operates a 24-
hour emergency help line linking chemical emergency experts to emer-
gency sites.
Chert. A microcrystaline form of silica. An impure form of flint used in abra-
sives.
Cheyne–Stokes. The peculiar kind of breathing usually observed with the res-
piration of unconscious or sleeping individuals who seen to stop breathing
altogether for 540 seconds, then start up again with gradually increasing
intensity, stop breathing once more, and then repeat the performance.
Common in healthy infants.
Glossary 271
Chimney effect. Also called stack affect. Hot air has a lower density than cooler
ambient air, resulting in the buoyant rising of hot air in a stack or chimney,
and/or the development of negative static pressure at the base of the stack.
Chloracne. Skin dermatitis caused by chlorinated naphthalenes and polyphe-
nyls acting on sebaceous glands in the skin.
Chol-, chole- (prefix). Relating to bile. Cholesterol is a substance found in bile.
Chon-, chondro- (prefix). Cartilage.
Chromatograph. An instrument that separates and analyzes mixtures of chem-
ical substances.
Chromosome. Important rod-shaped constituent of all cells. Chromosomes
contain the genes and are made up of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA).
Chronic. Long acting, persistent, prolonged; as opposed to acute. Safety is
usually concerned with acute effects, health with chronic effects.
CIH. Certified Industrial Hygienist.
Cilia. Tiny, hair-like whips in the bronchi and other respiratory passages that
aid in the removal of dust trapped on these moist surfaces.
Ciliary. Pertaining to the cilium (pl. cilia), a minute, vibratile hairlike process
attached to the free surface of a cell.
Circuit. A complete path over which electrical current may flow.
Circuit breaker. A device that automatically interrupts the flow of an electrical
current when the current exceeds a specified level (i.e., 20 amps).
Citation. A written charge issued by regulatory representatives alleging specific
conditions or actions that violate maritime, construction, environmental,
mining, or general industry laws and standards.
Clays. A great variety of aluminum silicate–bearing rocks that are plastic when
wet and hard when dry. Used in pottery, stoneware, tile, bricks, cements,
fillers, and abrasives. Kaolin is one type of clay. Some clay deposits may
include appreciable quartz. Commercial grades of clays may contain up
to 20% quartz.
Clean Air Act. U.S. law enacted to regulate/reduce air pollution. Administered
by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Clean room. A room in which parts or all of the space are maintained at low
particulate loadings.
Clean Water Act. U.S. law enacted to regulate/reduce water pollution. Admin-
istered by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Clo. A unit of clothing; used in heat and cold stress assessments (e.g., one Clo
is a typical business suit, long underwear adds 0.7 Clo, etc.).
Clostridium botulinum. Human pathogenic bacteria that produce an exotoxin,
botulinin, which causes botulism.
Cloud chamber. A glass-domed chamber filled with moist vapor. When certain
types of atomic particles pass through the chamber, they leave a cloudlike
track much like the vapor trail of a jet plane. This permits scientists to
see these particles and study their motion. The cloud chamber and bubble
chamber serve the same purpose.
CNS. Central nervous system.
Coagulase. An enzyme produced by pathogenic staphylococci; causes coagu-

lation of blood plasma.
Coalesce. To unite into a whole; to fuse; to grow together.
Coated welding rods (electrodes). The coatings of welding rods vary. For the
welding of iron and most steel, the rods contain manganese, titanium, and
a silicate.
Coccidioidomycosis. A fungal disease (also known as valley fever or San
Joaquin Vally fever) that can affect agricultural, horticultural, construction
workers, and any workers who disturb soil containing spores. Although
most often a respiratory disease, in rare cases it can be systemic and fatal.
It is transmitted by inhalation of dust containing spores of Coccidioides
immitis.
Coccus. A spherical bacterium. Plural cocci.
Cochlea. The auditory part of the internal ear, shaped like a snail shell. It
contains the basilar membrane on which the end organs of the auditory
nerve are distributed.
Code of Federal Regulations. The rules promulgated under U.S. law, pub-
lished in the Federal Register, and actually enforced are incorporated in
this code (CFR) at the end of a calendar year.
Coefficient of discharge. A factor used in figuring flow through an orifice. The
coefficient takes into account that a fluid flowing through an orifice con-
tracts to a cross-sectional area that is smaller than that of the orifice, and
there is some dissipation of energy caused by turbulence.
Coefficient of entry (Ce). The actual rate of flow caused by a given hood static
pressure compared with the theoretical flow that would result if the static
pressure could be converted to velocity pressure with 100% efficiency; it
is the ratio of actual to theoretical flow.
Coefficient of variation. The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean value
of a population of observations.
Coffin. A thick-walled container (usually lead) used for transporting radioactive
materials.
Cohesion. Molecular forces of attraction between particles of like composi-
tions.
Coils. Heating and cooling heat exchanger that either adds heat or takes heat
from the air in an HVAC system.
Colic. A severe cramping, gripping pain in or around the abdomen.
Collagen. An albuminoid, the main supportive protein of skin, tendon, bone,
cartilage, and connective tissue.
Collection efficiency. The percentage of a specific substance removed and
retained from air by an air-cleaning or sampling device. A measure of
cleaner or sampler performance.
Collimated beam. A beam of light with parallel waves.
Colloid. Generally a liquid mixture or suspension in which the particles of
suspended liquid or solid are very finely divided. Colloids do not appre-
ciably settle out of suspension.
Glossary 273
Colloid mill. A machine that grinds materials into a very fine state of suspen-
sion, often simultaneously placing this suspension in a liquid.
Colorimetry (colorimetric). The term applied to all chemical analysis tech-
niques involving reactions in which a color is developed when a particular
contaminant is present in the sample and reacts with the collection
medium. The resultant color intensity is measured to determine the con-
taminant concentration.
Coma. A level of unconsciousness from which a patient cannot be aroused.
Combustible. Able to catch fire and burn.
Combustible gas indicator (CGI). A device that measures flammable gases
or vapors at concentrations of 10 to 1000 times the TLV. The CGI quan-
tifies combustible gases. Operation consists of drawing air across a plat-
inum filament. The combustible gas or vapor oxidizes or burns on the
filament, which raises the temperature and changes its electrical resistance.
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure gas concentrations.
Combustible liquids. Those liquids having a flash point at or above 100°F
(37.8°C).
Comedones. Blackheads. Blackened, oily masses of dead epithelial matter
clogging the openings of oil glands and hair follicles.
Comfort ventilation. Airflow intended to maintain the comfort of room occu-
pants (heat, humidity, and odor).
Comfort zone. The range of effective temperatures over which the majority of
adults feels comfortable.
Common name. Any designation or identification such as code name, code
number, trade name, brand name, or a generic name used to identify
something other than by its proper name.
Communicable. Pertaining to disease whose causative agent is readily trans-
ferred from one person to another.
Compaction. The consolidation of solid particles between rolls or by tamp,
piston, screw, or other means of applying mechanical pressure.
Competent person. One who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards in the surroundings or working conditions that are unsanitary,
hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has the authorization to
take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them (29 CFR 1926.32).
Complex sounds. Music, speech, and almost all noise consists of a collection
of frequencies, i.e., is complex. Speech frequencies are usually found
between 250 and 3000 Hz. Hearing loss in this range is considered more
critical because of the resulting disability.
Compound. A substance composed of two or more elements joined according
to the laws of chemical combination. Each compound had its own char-
acteristic properties different from those of its constituent elements.
Compressed gas cylinder. A cylinder containing vapor or gas under higher-
than-atmospheric pressure, sometimes to the point where it is liquefied.
Compressible flow. Flow of high-pressure gas or air that undergoes a pressure
drop resulting in significant reduction of its density.
Compton effect. The glancing collision of a gamma ray with an electron. The
gamma ray gives up part of its energy to the electron.
Concentration. The amount of a given substance in a stated unit of measure.
Common methods of stating concentration are percent by weight or by
volume, weight per unit volume, normality, and so on.
Conchae. See Turbinates.
Condensate. The liquid resulting from the process of condensation. In sampling
the term is generally applied to the material that is removed from a gas
sample by means of cooling.
Condensation. Act or process of reducing from one form to another reducing
form such as steam to water.
Condensoid. A dispersoid consisting of liquid or solid particles formed by the
process of condensation. The dispersoid is commonly referred to as a
condensation aerosol.
Conductive hearing loss. Type of hearing loss; not caused by noise exposure,
but by any disorder in the middle or external ear that prevents sound from
reaching the inner ear.
Confined space. Any enclosed area not designed for human occupancy that
has a limited means of entry and egress and in which existing ventilation
is not sufficient to ensure that the space is free of hazardous atmosphere,
oxygen deficiency, or other known or potential hazard. Examples are
storage tanks, boilers, sewers, and tank cars. A permit-required confined
space, as defined by OSHA standard, is one that requires a permit process
and implementation of a comprehensive confined space entry program
prior to entry.
Congenital. Pertaining to a problem that originates before birth.
Conjunctiva. The delicate mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and covers
the exposed surface of the eyeball.
Conjunctivitis. Inflammation of the conjunctiva, the sensitive mucous mem-
brane lining the eyelid.
Consensus standard. A standard developed through a consensus process or
general opinion among representatives of various interested or affected
organizations and individuals.
Contact dermatitis. Dermatitis caused by contact with a substance — gaseous,
liquid, or solid. May be caused by primary irritation or allergy.
Controlled areas. A specified area in which exposure to radiation or radioactive
material is controlled and that is under the supervision of a person who
knows appropriate radiation protection practices, including pertinent reg-
ulations, and who is responsible for applying them.
Control rod. A rod (containing an element such as boron) used to control the
power of a nuclear power reactor. The control rod absorbs neutrons that
would normally split the fuel nuclei. Pushing the rod in reduces the release
of atomic power; pulling out the rod increases the release.
Convection. Motion in fluids resulting from differences in density and the
action of gravity.
Glossary 275
Converter. A nuclear reactor that uses one kind of fuel and produces another.
For example, a reactor charged with uranium isotopes might consume
uranium-235 and produce plutonium from uranium-238. A breeder reactor
produces more atomic fuel than it consumes; a converter does not.
Coolants. Transfer agents used in a flow system to convey heat from its source.
Copolymers. Mixed polymers or heteropolymers. Products of the polymeriza-
tion of two or more substances at the same time.
Core. (1) The heart of a nuclear reactor where the nuclei of the fuel fission
(split) and release energy. The core is usually surrounded by a reflecting
material that bounces stray neutrons back to the fuel. It usually consists
of fuel elements and a moderator. (2) A shaped, hard-baked cake of sand
with suitable compounds that is placed within a mold, forming a cavity
in the casting when it solidifies. (3) The vital centers of the body — heart,
viscera, brain — as opposed to the shell, the limbs and integument.
Corium. The deeper skin layer containing the fine endings of the nerves and
the finest divisions of the blood vessels, capillaries. Also called the derma.
Cornea. Transparent membrane covering the anterior portion of the eye.
Corpuscle. A red or white blood cell.
Corrected effective temperature (CET). An index of thermal stress similar
to the effective temperature index except that globe temperature is used
instead of dry-bulb temperature.
Corrective lens. A lens ground to the wearer’s individual prescription to
improve vision.
Corrosion. Physical change, usually deterioration or destruction, brought about
through chemical or electrochemical action, as contrasted to erosion,
caused by mechanical action.
Corrosive. A substance that causes visible destruction or permanent changes
in human skin tissue at the site of contact.
Corundum. An impure form of aluminum oxide.
Cosmic rays. High-energy rays that bombard the earth from outer space. Some
penetrate to the earth’s surface and others may go deep into the ground.
Although each ray is energetic, the number bombarding the planet is so
small that the total energy reaching the earth is about the same as that
from starlight.
Costo- (prefix). Pertaining to the ribs.
Cottrell. An electrostatic precipitator used to separate small particles from an
exhaust airstream.
Cottrell precipitator. A device for dust collection using high-voltage elec-
trodes.
Coulometry. Measurement of the number of electrons that are transferred
across an electrode solution interface when a reaction in the solution is
created and carried to completion. The reaction is usually caused by a
contaminant in a sample gas that is drawn through or onto the surface of
the solution. The number of electrons transferred in terms of coulombs is
an indication of the contaminant concentrations.
Count. A click in a Geiger counter or the numerical value for the activity of a
radioactive specimen.
Counter. A device for counting. See Geiger counter; Scintillation counter.
Count median size. The size of the particle in a sample of particulate matter
containing equal numbers of particles larger and smaller than the stated
size.
Covered electrode. A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a core of
bare electrode or metal-cored electrode to which a covering (sufficient to
precede a slag layer on the weld metal) has been applied. The covering
may contain materials providing such functions as shielding from the
atmosphere, deoxidation, and arc stabilization and can serve as a source
of metallic additions to the weld.
CPR. Cardiopulmonary resucitation.
Cps. Cycles per second, now called hertz.
CPSC. Consumer Product Safety Commission. U.S. agency with responsibility
for regulating hazardous materials when they appear in consumer goods.
Cracking. Process used almost exclusively in the petroleum industry. Thermal
or catalytic decomposition of organic compounds, usually for the manu-
facture of gasoline. Petroleum constituents are also cracked for the pur-
pose of manufacturing chemicals.
Cramps. Painful muscular contractions that may affect almost any voluntary
or involuntary muscle.
Cranio- (prefix). Skull. As in craniotomy, incision through a skull bone.
Cristobalite. A crystalline form of free silica, extremely hard and inert chem-
ically, and very resistant to heat. Quartz in refractory bricks and amor-
phous silica in diatomaceous earth are altered to cristobalite when exposed
to high temperatures (calcined).
Critical pressure. The pressure under which a substance may exist as a gas in
equilibrium with the liquid at the critical temperature.
Critical temperature. The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied
by pressure alone.
Crucible. A heat-resistant barrel-shaped pot used to hold metal during melting
in a furnace or in other applications.
Crude petroleum. Hydrocarbon mixtures that have a flash point below 150°F
(65.6°C) and that have not been processed in a refinery.
Cry-, cryo- (prefix). Very cold.
Cryogenics. The field of science dealing with the behavior of matter at very
low temperatures.
CSP. Certified Safety Professional, a designation from the Board of Certified
Safety Professionals.
CTD. See Cumulative trauma disorder.
Cubic centimeter (cm3). A volumetric measurement that is equal to 1 milliliter
(ml).
Cubic meter (m3). A measure of volume in the metric system.
Culture (biology). A population of microorganisms or tissue cells grown in a
medium.
Glossary 277
Culture medium. Any substance or preparation suitable for the growth of

cultures and cultivation of microorganisms. Selective medium, a medium
composed of nutrients designed to allow growth of a particular type of
microorganism; broth medium, a liquid medium; agar medium, solid
culture medium.
Cumulative trauma disorder (CTD). A disorder of a musculoskeletal or ner-
vous system component caused or aggravated by repeated and/or forceful
movements of the same system.
Curie. A measure of the rate at which a radioactive material decays. The
radioactivity of 1 gram of radium is a curie. It is named for Pierre and
Marie Curie, pioneers in radioactivity and discoverers of the elements
radium, radon, and plutonium; 1 curie corresponds to 37 billion disinte-
grations per second.
Current. Flow of electrons in an electrical circuit measured in amperes (amps).
Cutaneous. Pertaining to or affecting the skin.
Cuticle. The superficial scarfskin or upper strata of skin.
Cutie-pie. A portable instrument equipped with a direct-reading meter used to
determine the level of ionizing radiation in an area.
Cutting fluids (oils). As used in industry today, an oil or an oil–water emulsion
used to cool and lubricate a cutting tool. Cutting oils are usually light or
heavy petroleum fractions.
CW laser. Continuous wave laser.
Cyan- (prefix). Blue.
Cyanosis. Blue appearance of the skin, especially on the face and extremities,
indicating a lack of sufficient oxygen in the arterial blood.
Cyclone. A centrifugal force device used to separate particles from an air-
stream; a sampling instrument used to collect respirable particles.
Cyclone separator. A dust-collecting device that has the ability to separate
particles by size. Typically used to collect respirable dust samples.
Cyclotron. A particle accelerator. In this atomic “merry-go-round,” atomic
particles are whirled around in a spiral between the ends of a huge magnet,
gaining speed with each rotation in preparation for their assault on the
target material.
Cyst- (prefix). Pertaining to a bladder or sac, normal or abnormal, filled with
gas, liquid, or semisolid material. The term appears in many words con-
cerning the urinary bladder (cystocele, cystitis).
Cyto- (prefix). Cell.
Cytoplasm. Cell plasma (protoplasm) that does not include the nucleus of the
cell.
Cytotoxin. A substance developed in the blood serum, having a toxic effect on
cells.
Damage risk criterion. The suggested baseline of noise tolerance, which, if
not exceeded, should result in no hearing loss due to noise. A damage
risk criterion may include in its statement a specification of such factors
as time of exposure, noise level, frequency, amount of hearing loss con-
sidered significant, percentage of the population to be protected, and

method of measuring the noise.
Damp. A harmful gas or mixture of gases occurring in coal mining.
Dampers. A form of gate or vale in a duct.
Dangerous to life or health, immediately (IDLH). Used to describe very
hazardous atmospheres where employee exposure can cause serious injury
or death within a short time or serious delayed effects.
Daughter. As used in radioactivity, this refers to the product nucleus or atom
resulting from decay of the precursor or parent.
dBA. Sound level in decibels read on the A scale of a sound-level meter. The
A scale discriminates against very low frequencies (as does the human
ear) and is therefore better for measuring general sound levels. See also
Decibel.
dBC. Sound level in decibels read on the C scale of a sound-level meter. The
C scale discriminates very little against very low frequencies. See also
Decibel.
DC. See Direct current.
Decay. When a radioactive atom disintegrates, it is said to decay. What remains
is a different element. An atom of polonium decays to form lead, ejecting
an alpha particle in the process.
Decibel (dB). A unit used to express sound power level, Lo. Sound power is
the total acoustic output of a sound source in watts. The decibel is defined
as a ratio: Lo = 10 log W/Wo, where W is the sound power of the source
and Wo is a small reference sound power.
Decipol. (From “pollution.”) A unit of perceived outdoor air quality. For exam-
ple, air on mountains or at sea has a decipol = 0.01. In cities with moderate
air pollution, air quality in decipols = 0.05 to 0.3. Acceptable air quality
indoors = 1.4 decipols (for 80% satisfaction.) See also olf.
Decomposition. The breakdown of a chemical or substance into different parts
or simpler compounds. Decomposition can occur because of heat, chem-
ical reaction, decay, etc.
Decontaminate. To make safe by eliminating poisonous or otherwise harmful
substances, such as noxious chemicals or radioactive material.
Degree-days. A term used to estimate the required heating or cooling for a
location; one heating degree-day is the difference between the actual
temperature and the target temperature. For example, if the outside tem-
perature is 40° and the inside temperature is desired to be 70°, then there
are 30 degree-days. The number of degree-days are added over an entire
heating season (e.g., the total heating degree-days for Chicago is 7468
when using daily mean outdoor winter temperatures and an indoor tem-
perature of 70°F).
Deltoid muscle. The muscle of the shoulder responsible for abducting the arm
sideways and for swinging the arm at the shoulder. Overuse of the deltoid
muscle may cause fatigue and pain in the shoulder.
Glossary 279
Density. The ratio of mass to volume. Also, weight density. The ratio of the
mass of material to its volume (e.g., air at standard conditions has a weight
density of 0.075 lb/ft3, and water has a density of 62.4 lb/ft3, or 8.32 lb/gal).
Density correction (d). A factor to “correct” air density at any temperature
and pressure to equivalent conditions at standard conditions (e.g., for
ventilation: 70°F, 29.92 in. Hg, dry air), and vice versa. For example,
Actual air density = (0.075 lb/ft3) · d.

530 BP
where d= ⋅
460 + T 29.92 in. HG
T = temperature in °F, BP = barometric pressure in in. Hg.
Dent-, dento- (prefix). Pertaining to a tooth or teeth, from Latin.
Derma- (prefix). The corium or true skin.
Dermatitis. Inflammation of the skin from any cause.
Dermatology. Branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment,
including surgery and prevention, of the skin, hair, and nails.
Dermatophytosis. Athlete’s foot.
Dermatosis. A broader term than dermatitis, it includes any cutaneous abnor-
mality. Thus it encompasses folliculitis, acne, pigmentary changes, and
nodule sand tumors.
Desiccant. Material that absorbs moisture.
Deuterium. Heavy hydrogen. It is called heavy hydrogen because it weighs
twice as much as ordinary hydrogen.
Deuteron. The nucleus of an atom of heavy hydrogen containing one proton
and one neutron. Deuterons are often used for the bombardment of other
nuclei.
Diagnostic X-ray system. An X-ray system designed for irradiation of any part
of the human body for the purpose of diagnosis or visualization.
Diaphragm. (1) The musculomembranous partition separating the abdominal
and thoracic cavities. (2) Any separating membrane or structure. (3) A
disk with one or more openings, or with an adjustable opening, mounted
in relation to a lens, by which part of the light may be excluded from the
area.
Diatomaceous earth. A soft, gritty amorphous silica composed of minute sil-
iceous skeletons of small aquatic plants. Used in filtration and decolori-
zation of liquids, insulation, filler in dynamite, wax, textiles, plastics,
paint, and rubber. Calcined and flux-calcined diatomaceous earth contains
appreciable amounts of cristobalite, and dust levels should be controlled
the same as for cristobalite.
Die. A hard metal or plastic form used to shape material to a particular contour
or section.
Differential pressure. The difference in static pressure between two locations.
Diffuser. An outlet designed to distribute air in varying directions and planes.
Diffuse sound field. One in which the time average of the mean-square sound
pressure is everywhere the same and the flow of energy in all directions
is equally probable.
Diffusion, molecular. A process of spontaneous intermixing of different sub-
stances attributable to molecular motion and tending to produce unifor-
mity of concentration.
Diffusion rate. A measure of the tendency of one gas or vapor to disperse into
or mix with another gas or vapor. This rate depends on the density of the
vapor or gas as compared with that of air.
Dike. A barrier constructed to control or confine solid or liquid substances and
prevent or control their movement.
Dilution. The process of increasing the proportion of solvent or diluent (liquid)
to solute or particulate matter (solid).
Dilution ventilation. See General ventilation.
Diopters. A measure of the power of a lens or prism, equal to the reciprocal
of its focal length in meters.
Direct current (DC). Electricity flowing in one direction only.
Direct-reading instrumentation. Instruments that give an immediate indica-
tion of the concentration of aerosols, gases, or vapors or the magnitude
of physical hazard by some means, such as a dial or meter.
Disease. A departure from a state of health, usually recognized by a sequence
of signs and symptoms.
Disinfectant. An agent that frees from infection by killing the vegetative cells
of microorganisms.
Disintegration. A nuclear transformation or decay process that results in the
release of energy in the form of radiation.
Dispersion. The general term describing systems consisting of particulate mat-
ter suspended in air or other fluid; also, the mixing and dilution of con-
taminant in the ambient environment.
Distal. Away from the central axis of the body.
Distal phalanx. The last bony segment of a toe or finger.
Distillery. A facility or that portion of a facility where flammable or combus-
tible liquids produced by fermentation are concentrated and where the
concentrated products may also be mixed, stored, or packaged.
DNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid. The genetic material within the cell.
DOL. U.S. Department of Labor; includes the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) and Mine Safety Health Administration (MSHA).
DOP. Dioctyl phthalate, a powered chemical that can be aerosolized to an
extremely uniform size, i.e., 0.3 µm for a major portion of any sample.
Dose. (1) Used to express the amount of a chemical or of ionizing radiation
energy absorbed in a unit volume or an organ or individual. Dose rate is
the dose delivered per unit of time. (See also Roentgen, Rad, Rem.) (2)
Used to express the amount of exposure to a chemical substance.
Dose, absorbed. The energy imparted to matter in a volume element by ionizing
radiation divided by the mass of irradiated material in that volume ele-
ment.
Glossary 281
Dose equivalent. The product of absorbed dose, quality factor, and other mod-
ifying factors necessary to express on a common scale, for all ionizing
radiations, the irradiation incurred by exposed persons.
Dose equivalent, maximum permissible dose (MPD). The largest dose equiv-
alent received within a specified maximum permissible period that is
permitted by a regulatory agency or other authoritative group on the
assumption that receipt of such a dose equivalent creates no appreciable
somatic or genetic injury. Different levels of MPD may be set for different
groups within a population. (In popular usage, “dose, maximum permis-
sible” is an accepted synonym.).
Dose–response relationship. Correlation between the amount of exposure to
an agent or toxic chemical and the resulting effect on the body.
Dosimeter (dose meter). An instrument used to determine the full-shift expo-
sure a person has received to a physical hazard.
DOT. Department of Transportation.
Double insulation. A method of encasing electric components of tools so that
the operator cannot touch parts that could become energized during normal
operation or in the event of tool failure.
Drier. Any catalytic material that, when added to drying oil, accelerates drying
or hardening of the film.
Drop forge. To forge between dies using a drop hammer or drop press.
Droplet. A liquid particle suspended in a gas. The liquid particle is generally
of such size and density that it settles rapidly and remains airborne for
an appreciable length of a time only in a turbulent atmosphere.
Dross. The scum that forms on the surface of molten metals, consisting largely
of oxides and impurities.
Dry-bulb temperature. The temperature of air measured with a dry-bulb ther-
mometer.
Dry-bulb thermometer. An ordinary thermometer, especially one with an
unmoistened bulb, not dependent on atmospheric humidity. The reading
is the dry-bulb temperature.
Dry chemical. A powered fire-extinguishing agent usually composed of sodium
bicarbonate, monoammonium phosphate, potassium bicarbonate, etc.
Duct. A conduit used for conveying air at low pressures.
Ductile. Capable of being molded or worked, as metals.
Duct velocity. Air velocity through the duct cross-section. When solid partic-
ulate material is present in the airstream, the duct velocity must exceed
the minimum transport velocity.
Dust. Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, rapid impact,
detonation, and decrepitation of organic of inorganic materials, such as
rock, ore, metal, coal, wood, and gain. Dusts do not tend to flocculate,
except under electrostatic forces; they do not diffuse in air but settle under
the influence of gravity.
Dust collector. An air-cleaning device to remove heavy particulate loadings
from exhaust systems before discharge to the outdoors; usual range is
loadings of 0.003 g/ft3 (0.007 mg/m3) and higher.
Dynometer. Apparatus for measuring force or work output external to a subject.

Often used to compare external output with associated physiological phe-
nomena to assess physiological work efficiency.
Dys- (prefix). Difficult, bad. This prefix occurs in a large number of medical
words because it is attachable to a term for any organ of process that is
not functioning as well as it should.
Dysfunction. Disturbance, impairment, or abnormality of the functioning of an
organ.
Dyspnea. Shortness of breath, difficult or labored breathing. More strictly, the
sensation of shortness of breath.
Dysuria. Difficulty or pain in urination.
EAP. Employee Assistance Program.
Ear. The entire hearing apparatus, consisting of three parts: external ear (or
pinna), the middle ear or tympanic cavity, and the inner ear or labyrinth.
Sometimes the pinna is called the ear.
Ecology. The science of the relationships between living organisms and their
environments.
Economizer cycle. The use of up to 100% outside air (OA) during favorable
weather conditions, e.g., temperatures 55 to 70°F; may cause problems
when ambient air has high humidity.
-ectomy (suffix). A cutting out; surgical removal. Denotes any operation in
which all or part of a named organ is cut out of the body.
Eczema. A skin disorder. Dermatitis.
Edema. A swelling of body tissues as a result of waterlogging with fluid.
Effective temperature (ET). An arbitrary index that combines into a single
value the effects of temperature, humidity, and air movement on the
sensation of warmth and cold on the human body.
Effective temperature index. An empirically determined index on the degree
of warmth perceived on exposure to different combinations of tempera-
ture, humidity, and air movement. The determination of effective temper-
ature requires simultaneous determinations of dry-bulb and wet-bulb tem-
peratures.
Efficiency, fractional. The percentage of particles of a specified size that are
removed and retained by a particular type of collector or sampler. A plot
of fractional efficiency values vs. the respective sized particles yields a
fractional efficiency curve that may be related to the total collecting
efficiency of air-cleaning or air-sampling equipment.
Efflorescence. A phenomenon where by a whitish crust of fine crystals forms
on a surface. These are usually sodium salts that diffuse from the substrate.
Effluent. Generally something that flows out or forth, like a stream flowing out
into a lake. In terms of pollution, an outflow of a sewer, storage tank,
canal, or other channel.
Ejector. An air mover consisting of a two-flow system wherein a primary source
of compressed gas is passed through a Venturi and the vacuum developed
at the throat of the Venturi is used to create a secondary flow of fluid. In
Glossary 283
the case of air movers for sampling applications, the secondary flow is
the sample gas.
Elastomer. In a chemical industry sense, a synthetic polymer with rubberlike
characteristics; a synthetic or natural rubber or a soft, rubbery plastic with
some degree of elasticity at room temperature.
Electrical current. The flow of electricity measured in amperes.
Electrical precipitators. A device that removes particles from an airstream by
charging the particles and collecting the charged particles on a suitable
surface.
Electrolysis. The process of conduction of an electric current by means of a
chemical solution.
Electromagnetic field. The propagation of varying magnetic and electrical
fields through space; often associated with electrical equipment and mag-
nets (e.g., video terminals, electric motors, transformers).
Electromagnetic radiation. The propagation of varying electric and magnetic
fields through space at the speed of light, exhibiting the characteristics of
wave motion.
Electron. A minute atomic particle possessing a negative electric charge. In an
atom the electrons rotate around a nucleus. The weight of an electron is
so infinitesimal that it would take 500 octillion (500 followed by 27 zeros)
of them to make a pound. It is only about a two-thousandth of the mass
of a proton or neutron.
Electron volt (eV). A small unit of energy. An electron gains this much energy
when it is acted upon by a volt. Energies of radioactive materials may be
millions of electron volts (MeV), whereas particle accelerators generate
energies of billions of electron volts (BeV).
Electroplate. To cover with a metal coating (plate) by means of electrolysis.
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP). A collector that removes aerosols from an
airstream by charging the particle (usually with a wire) and collecting the
charged particles on an oppositely charged collector (usually a flat plate).
Element. Solid, liquid, or gaseous matter that cannot be further decomposed
into simpler substances by chemical means. The atoms of an element may
differ physically but do not differ chemically. All atoms of an element
contain a definite number of protons and thus have the same atomic
number.
ELF. Extremely low frequency electromagnetic field.
Elutriator. A device used to separate particles according to mass and aerody-
namic size by maintaining a laminar flow system at a rate that permits
the particles of greatest mass to settle rapidly while the smaller particles
are kept airborne by the resistance force of the flowing air for longer times
and distances. The various times and distances of deposit may be used to
determine representative fractions of particle mass and size.
Embryo. The name for the early stage of development of an organism. In
humans, the period from conception to the end of the second month.
Emergency plan. A plan of action for an anticipated, unwanted, occur-

rence/disaster. (e.g., evacuation plans, emergency equipment, employee
first aid, chemical showers, etc.).
Emergent beam system. Diameter of a laser beam at the exit aperture of the
system.
Emery. Aluminum oxide, natural and synthetic abrasive.
Emission. A release of some by-product or product from an operation or pro-
cess.
Emission factor. Statistical average of he amount of a specific pollutant emitted
from each type of polluting source in relation to a unit quality of material
handled, processed, or burned.
Emission inventory. A list of primary air pollutants emitted into a given com-
munity’s atmosphere, in amounts per day, by type of source.
Emission standards. The maximum amount of pollutant permitted to be dis-
charged from a single polluting source.
Emmetropia. A state of perfect vision.
Emphysema. A lung disease in which the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) have
been stretched too thin and have broken down.
Emulsifier or emulsifying agent. A chemical that holds one insoluble liquid
in suspension in another. Casein, for example, is a natural emulsifier in
milk, keeping butterfat droplets dispersed.
Emulsion. A suspension, each in the other, of two or more unlike liquids that
usually do not dissolve in each other.
Enamel. A paintlike oily substance that produces a glossy finish to a surface
to which it is applied, often containing various synthetic resins. It is lead
free, in contrast to ceramic enamel, that is, porcelain enamel, which
contains lead.
Encapsulate. To cover or coat over with another substance.
Endemic. (1) Present in a community or among a group of people; usually
refers to a disease prevailing continually in a region. (2) The continuing
prevalence of a disease, as distinguished from an epidemic.
Endo- (prefix). Within, inside of, internal. The endometrium is the lining mem-
brane of the uterus.
Endocrine. Secreting without the means of a duct or tube. The term is applied
to certain glands that produce secretions that enter the bloodstream or the
lymph directly and are then carried to the particular gland or a tissue
whose function they regulate.
Endothermic. Characterized by or formed with absorption of heat.
Endotoxin. A toxin that is part of the wall of a microorganism and is released
when that organism dies.
Energy-control program. A program consisting of an energy-control proce-
dure and employee training to ensure that a machine or equipment is
isolated and inoperative before servicing or maintenance, thus protecting
the employee from unexpected machine start-up or energizing. See also
Lockout/tagout.
Glossary 285
Energy density. The intensity of electromagnetic radiation per unit area per
pulse expressed in joules per square centimeter.
Energy isolation. A control procedure consisting of physical locks, blinds,
restraints, or other methods to prevent stored or accessible energy sources
from coming in contact with the employee.
Energy-isolation device. A mechanical device that physically prevents the
release or transmission of energy. Some examples of energy-isolation
devices include a manually operated circuit breaker, a disconnect switch,
a line valve, a block or blank, a blind, or other similar device. The
following are not energy-isolation devices; push-buttons, on/off switches,
selector switches.
Engineering controls. Methods of controlling employee exposures by modi-
fying the source or reducing the quantity of contaminants released into
the work environment.
Enteric. Intestinal.
Entero- (prefix). Pertaining to the intestines.
Enterotoxin. A toxin specific for cells of the intestine; gives rise to symptoms
of food poisoning.
Entrainment velocity. The gas flow velocity, which tends to keep particles
suspended and to cause deposited particles to become airborne.
Entrance loss. The loss in static pressure of a fluid that flows from an area into
and through a hood or duct opening. The loss in static pressure is caused
by friction and turbulence resulting from the increased gas velocity and
configuration of the entrance area.
Entry loss. The loss in pressure caused by air flowing into a duct or hood.
Environmental toxicity. Information obtained as a result of conducting envi-
ronmental testing designed to study the effects on aquatic and plant life.
Enzymes. Chemical substances, mostly proteins, that enter into and bring about
chemical reactions in living organisms.
EOE. Equal Opportunity Employer.
EPA. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA number. The number assigned to chemicals regulated by the Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
Epicondylitis. Inflammation of certain bony prominences in the area of the
elbow, for example, tennis elbow.
Epidemiology. The study of disease in human populations.
Epidermis. The superficial scarfskin or upper (outer) layer of skin.
Epilation. Temporary or permanent loss of body hair.
Epithelioma. Carcinoma of the epithelial cells of the skin and other epithelial
surfaces.
Epithelium. The purely cellular, avascular layer covering all the free surfaces
— cutaneous, mucous, and serous including the glands and other struc-
tures derived therefrom; for example, the epidermis.
Equivalent chill temperature (ECT). Also known as wind-chill index. A
temperature index used to account for heat loss from skin exposed to the
combined effects of cold temperatures and air speed.
erg. The force of 1 dyne acting through a distance of 1 centimeter. It would be

equivalent to the work done by a June bug climbing over a stone 0.5 in.
(1 cm) high, or the energy required to ionize about 20 billion molecules
of air.
Ergonomics. A multidisciplinary activity dealing with interactions between
humans and their total working environment plus stresses related to such
environmental elements as atmosphere, heat, light, and sound as well as
all tools and equipment of the workplace.
Erysipeloid. A bacterial infection affecting slaughterhouse workers and fish
handlers.
Eryth-, erythro- (prefix). Redness. Erythema is indicated by redness of the
skin (including a deep blush). An erythrocyte is a red blood cell.
Erythema. Reddening of the skin.
Erythemal region. Ultraviolet light radiation between 2800 and 3200 ang-
stroms (280 to 320 millimicrons); it is absorbed by the cornea of the eye.
Erythrocyte. A type of red blood corpuscle.
Eschar. The crust formed after injury by a caustic chemical or heat.
ESP. See Electrostatic precipitator.
Essential oil. Any of a class of volatile, odoriferous oils found in plants and
imparting to the plants odor and often other characteristic properties. Used
in perfumery, for example.
Esters. Organic compounds that may be formed by interaction between an
alcohol and an acid, or by other means. Esters are nonionic compounds,
including solvents and natural fats.
Etch. To cut or eat away material with acid or another corrosive substance.
Ethylene oxide. A carcinogenic hospital sterilant regulated by OSHA. Ethylene
oxide is also a reproductive hazard.
Etiologic agent. Refers to organisms, substances, or objects associated with
the cause of disease or injury.
Etiology. The study or knowledge of the causes of disease.
Eu- (prefix). Well and good. A euthyroid person has a thyroid gland that could
not be working better. A euphoric person has a tremendous sense of well-
being.
Eukaryote. An organism whose cells contain mitochondria and a nuclear mem-
brane. Describes organisms from yeast to humans.
Eustachian tube. A structure about 2.5 in. (6 cm) long leading from the back
of the nasal cavity to the middle ear. It equalizes the pressure of air in
the middle ear with that outside the eardrum.
Evaporation. The process by which a liquid is changed to the vapor state.
Evaporation rate. The ratio of the time required to evaporate a measured
volume of a liquid to the time required to evaporate the same volume of
a reference liquid (ethyl ether) under ideal test conditions. The higher the
ratio, the slower the evaporation rate.
Evase. A cone-shaped exhaust stack that recaptures static pressure from veloc-
ity pressure. Pronounced (eh-va-say).
Glossary 287
Exhalation valve. A device that allows exhaled air to leave a respirator and
prevents outside air from entering through the valve.
Exhaust ventilation. The removal of air, usually by mechanical means, from
any space. The flow of air between two points is due to a pressure
difference. The pressure difference causes air to flow from the high-
pressure to the low-pressure zone.
Exogenous. Growing or developing outside the body; originating outside the
body.
Exothermic, exothermal. Characterized by or formed with evolution of heat.
Exotoxin. A toxin excreted by a microorganism into the surrounding medium.
Explosion. A reaction that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous release of
pressure, gas, and heat.
Explosive limit. See Flammable limit.
Exposure. Contact with a chemical, biological, or physical hazard.
Exposure routes. Usually by inhalation, ingestion, or contact with the skin.
Extension. Movement whereby the angle between the bones connected by a
joint is increased. Motions of this type are produced by contraction of
extensor muscles.
Extensor muscles. A muscle that, when active, increases the angle between
limb segments, for example, the muscles that straighten the knee or elbow,
open the hand, or straighten the back.
Extensor tendon. Connecting structure between an extensor muscle and the
bone into which it inserts. Examples are the hard, longitudinal tendons
found on the back of the hand when the fingers are fully extended.
External mechanical environment. The synthetic physical environment, for
example, environment equipment, tools, machine controls, clothing. Ant-
onym: internal (bio)mechanical environment.
Extinguishing media. The fire-fighting substance used to stop combustion. It
is usually referred to by its generic name, such as CO2, foam, water, dry
chemical, etc.
Extravasate. To exude a substance from the body’s vessels into tissues.
Extrusion. The forcing of raw material through a die or a form in either a hot
or cold state, in a solid state, or in partial solution. Long used with metals
and clays, it is now extensively used in the plastics industry.
Eyepiece. Gas-tight, transparent window in a full face piece through which the
wearer may see.
Eye protection. “Safety” glasses, goggles, faces shield, etc., used to protect
against physical, chemical, and nonionizing radiation hazards.
Face piece. The portion of a respirator that covers the wearer’s nose and mouth
(in a half-mask face piece), or the nose, mouth, and eyes (in a full face
piece). It is designed to make a gas-tight or dust-tight fit with the face
and includes the headbands, exhalation valves, and connections for an air-
purifying device or respirable gas source, or both.
Face velocity. Average air velocity into the exhaust system measured at the
opening into the hood or booth.
Facilitator. A person who makes learning easier, assists interactions and the
execution of tasks, and clarifies goals and processes.
Facing. In foundry work, the final touch-up work of the mold surface to come
in contact with metal is called the facing operation, and the fine powdered
material used is called the facing.
Factor of safety (safety factor). The ratio of ultimate strength of a material or
structure to the specified stress available.
Fainting. Technically called syncope, a temporary loss of consciousness as a
result of a diminished supply of blood to the brain.
Fallout. Dust particles that contain radioactive fission products resulting from
a nuclear explosion. The wind can carry fallout particles many miles.
Fan. A mechanical device that physically moves air and creates static pressure.
Fan coil unit. A single-room ventilation system, consisting of a fan, coils, and
dampers. Usually mounted under windows, they often assist HVAC sys-
tems in rooms located on the periphery of a building.
Fan laws. Statements and equations that describe the relationship among fan
volume, pressure, brake horsepower, size, and rotating speed.
Fan laws (rpm). Equations that describe the relationships between pressure,
flow, horsepower, and fan rotations per minute (rpm).
Fan rating curve or table. Data that describe the volumetric output of a fan
at different static pressures.
Fan static pressure. The pressure added to the system by the fan. It equals the
sum of pressure losses in the system minus the velocity pressure in the
air at the fan inlet.
Fan total pressure (FTP). The total pressure difference between the inlet and
outlet of a fan; FTP = SPout - SPin when VPin = VPout.
Fan types. Two families: axial and centrifugal. Three types of centrifugal:
radial, backward inclined, and forward inclined.
Far field (free field). In noise measurement, this refers to the distance from
the noise source where the sound-pressure level decreases 6 dBA for each
doubling of distance (inverse square law).
Farmer’s lung. Fungus infection and ensuing hypersensitivity from grain dust.
FDA. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The FDA establishes require-
ments for the labeling of foods and drugs to protect consumers from
improperly labeled, unwholesome, ineffective, and hazardous products.
FDA also regulates materials for food contact service and the condition
under which such materials are approved.
Federal Register. Publication that compiles U.S. government documents offi-
cially promulgated under the law, documents whose validity depends upon
such publication. It is published on each day following the end of a
government working day. It is, in effect, the daily supplement to the Code
of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Feral animal. A wild animal, or a domestic animal that has reverted to the wild
state.
Glossary 289
Fertilizer. Plant food usually sold in a mixed formula containing basic plant
nutrients: compounds of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, and
sometimes other minerals.
Fetus. The term used to describe the developing organism (human) from the
third month after conception to birth.
FEV. Forced expiratory volume.
Fever. A condition in which the body temperature is above its regular or normal
level.
Fibrillation. Very rapid irregular contractions of the muscle fibers of the heart
resulting in a lack of synchronism of the heartbeat.
Fibrosis. A condition marked by an increase of interstitial fibrous tissue. Expo-
sures to contaminants via inhalation can lead to fibrosis or scarring of the
lung, a particular concern in industrial hygiene.
Film badge. A piece of masked photographic film worn by nuclear workers.
It is darkened by nuclear radiation, and radiation exposure can be checked
by inspecting the film.
Filter. (1) A device for separating components of a signal on the basis of its
frequency. It allows components in one or more frequency bands to pass
relatively unattenuated, and it greatly attenuates components in other
frequency bands. (2) A fibrous medium used in respirators to remove solid
or liquid particles from the airstream entering the respirators. (3) A sheet
of material that is interposed between patient and the source of X rays.
(4) A fibrous or membrane medium used to collect dust, fumes, or mist
air samples.
Filter efficiency. The efficiency of various filters can be established on the basis
of entrapped particles (that is, collection efficiency), or on the basis of
particles passed through the filter (that is, penetration efficiency).
Filter, HEPA. Hgh-efficiency particulate air filter, one that is at least 99.97%
efficient in removing thermally generated monodisperse dioctyl phthalate
smoke particles with a diameter of 0.0003 mm.
Firebrick. A special clay that is capable of resisting high temperatures without
melting or crumbling.
Fire Brigade. An organized group trained in fire-fighting operations.
Fire damp. In mining, the accumulation of an explosive gas, chiefly methane
gas. Miners call all dangerous underground gases “damps.”
Fire point. The lowest temperature at which a material can evolve vapors to
support continuous combustion.
Fire resistant. Material that is difficult to burn, has difficulty supporting com-
bustion, and offers some protection from fire. Commonly misunderstood
as “unable to burn” or “fireproof.”
Fireproof. Material incapable of burning without sustained heat and energy
source. The term “fireproof” is false. No material is immune to the effects
of fire possessing sufficient intensity and duration. The term is commonly,
although erroneously, used synonymously with fire resistant.
Fission. The splitting of an atomic nucleus into two parts accompanied by the
release of a large amount of radioactivity and heat. Fission reactions occur
only with heavy isotopes, such as uranium-233, uranium-235, and pluto-

nium-239.
Fissionable. A nucleus that undergoes fission under the influence of neutrons,
even very slow neutrons.
Fission product. The highly radioactive nuclei into which a fissionable nucleus
splits (fissions) under the influence of neutron bombardment.
Flagellum. A flexible, whiplike appendage on cells used as an organ of loco-
motion.
Flame ionization detector (FID). A direct-reading monitoring device that ion-
izes gases and vapors with an oxyhydrogen flame and measures the dif-
fering electrical currents generated.
Flame-proofing material. Chemicals that catalytically control the decomposi-
tion of cellulose material at flaming temperature. Substances used as fire
retardants are borax–boric acid, borax–boric acid diammonium phosphate,
ammonium bromide, stannic acid, antimony oxide, and combinations
containing formaldehyde.
Flame propagation. See Propagation of flame.
Flammable. Any substance that is easily ignited, burns intensely, or has a rapid
rate of flame spread. Flammable and inflammable are identical in meaning;
however, because the prefix “in” indicates the negative in many words
and can cause confusion, flammable is the preferred term.
Flammable aerosol. An aerosol that is required to be labeled Flammable under
the Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act (15 USC 1261).
Flammable limits. Also, upper and lower explosive limits: UEL, LEL. The
concentration (in percent) of a gas or vapor in air in which flames will
propagate. When the concentration is below the LEL, the mixture is too
lean; when above the UEL, the mixture is too rich. The concentrations
between the LEL and the UEL are called the “explosive range.”
Flammable liquid. A liquid with a flash point below 100°F.
Flammable range. The difference between the lower and upper flammable
limits, expressed in terms of percentage of vapor or gas in air by volume,
also often called the explosive range.
Flange. A rim of edge added to a hood to reduce the quantity of air entering
from behind the hood.
Flashback. Occurs when flame from a torch burns back into the tip, the torch,
or the hose in a oxygen-acetylene cutting rig.
Flash blindness. Temporary visual disturbance resulting from viewing an
intense light source.
Flash point. The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapor
to form an ignitable mixture with air and produce a flame when a source
of ignition is present. Two tests are used: open cup and closed cup.
Flask. In foundry work, the assembly of the cope and the drag constitutes the
flask. It is the wooden or iron frame containing sand into which molten
metal is poured. Some flasks may have three or four parts.
Glossary 291
Flexion. Movement where by the angle between to bones connected by a joint

is reduced. Motions of this type are produced by contraction of flexor
muscles.
Flexor muscles. A muscle that, when contracting, decreases the angle between
limb segments. The principal flexor of the elbow is the brachialis is
muscle. Flexors of the fingers and the wrist are the large muscles of the
forearm originating at the elbow. See also extensor muscles.
Flocculation. The process of forming a very fluffy mass of material held
together by weak forces of adhesion.
Flocculator. A device for aggregating fine particles.
Floor load. (1) The weight that may be safely placed on a floor without danger
of structural collapse. (2) The actual load (weight) placed on a floor.
Flora, microflora. Microorganisms present in a given situation (such as intes-
tinal flora, soil flora).
Flotation. A method of ore concentration in which the mineral is caused to
float due to chemical frothing agents while the impurities sink.
Flotation reagent. Chemical used in flotation separation of minerals. Added
to a pulverized mixture of solids and water and oil, it caused preferential
nonwetting by water of certain solid particles, making possible the flota-
tion and separation of nonwet particles.
Flow coefficient. A correction factor used for figuring the volume flow rate of
a fluid through an orifice. This factor includes the effects of contraction
and turbulence loss (covered by the coefficient of discharge), plus the
compressibility effect and the effect of an upstream velocity other than
zero. Because the latter two effects are negligible in many instances, that
flow coefficient is often equal to the coefficient of discharge. See also
Coefficient of discharge.
Flowmeter. An instrument for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid or gas.
Flow, turbulent. Fluid flow in which the fluid moves transversely as well as
in the direction of the tube or pipe axis, as opposed to streamline or
viscous flow.
Fluid. A substance tending to flow or conform to the outline of its container.
It may be liquid, vapor, gas, or solid (such as raw rubber).
Fluorescence. Emission of light from a crystal, after the absorption of energy.
Fluorescent screen. A screen coated with a fluorescent substance so that it
emits light when irradiated with X-rays.
Fluoroscope. A fluorescent screen mounted in front of an X-ray tube so that
internal organs may be examined through their shadow cast by X rays. It
may also be used for inspection of inanimate objects.
Fluoroscopy. Examination with the use of an X-ray fluoroscope.
Flux. Usually refers to a substance used to clean surfaces and promote fusion
in soldering. However, fluxes of varying chemical nature are used in the
smelting of ores, in the ceramic industry, in assaying silver and gold ores,
and in other endeavors. The most common fluxes are silica, various sili-
cate, lime, sodium and potassium carbonate, and litharge and red lead in
the ceramics industry. See also Solder, Galvanize, and Luminous flux.
Fly ash. Finely divided particles of ash entrained in flue gases arising from the
combustion of fuel.
Focus (pl. foci). A center or site of a disease process.
Fog. The visible presence of small water droplets suspended in air.
Follicle. A small anatomical cavity or deep, narrow mouthed depression; a small
lymph node.
Folliculitis. Infection of a hair follicle, often caused by obstruction by natural
or industrial oils.
Fomites. Clothing or other substances that can absorb and transmit contami-
nants, as in the case of poison ivy.
Footcandle. A unit of illumination. The illumination to a point on a surface
that is 1 foot from, and perpendicular to, a uniform point source of one
candle.
Foot-pounds of torque. A measurement of the physiological stress exerted
upon any joint during the performance of a task. The product of the force
exerted and the distance from the point of application to the point of stress.
Physiologically, torque that does not produce motion nonetheless causes
work stress, the severity of which depends on the duration and magnitude
of the torque. In lifting an object or holding it elevated, torque is exerted
and applied to the lumbar vertebrae.
Force. That which changes the state of rest or motion of matter. The SI (Inter-
national System) unit of measurement in the newton (N).
Fovea. A depression or pit in the center or the macula of the eye; it is the area
of clearest vision.
Fractionation. Separation of a mixture into different portions or fractions,
usually by distillation.
Free sound field (free field). A field in a homogeneous, isotropic medium free
from boundaries. In practice, it is a field in which the effects of the
boundaries are negligible over the region of interest. See also Far field.
Frequency (in Hz). Rate at which pressure oscillations are produced; 1 hertz
is equivalent to one cycle per second. A subjective characteristic of sound
related to frequency is pitch.
Friable. Readily crumbled or crumbling state. Commonly used to describe
airborne asbestos.
Friction factor. A factor used in calculating loss of pressure due to friction of
a fluid flowing through a pipe or duct.
Friction loss. The pressure loss caused by friction.
Fuller’s earth. A hydrated silica–alumina compound associated with ferric
oxide. Used as a filter medium and a catalyst and catalyst carrier and in
cosmetics and insecticides.
Fume. Airborne particulate formed by the condensation of solid particles from
the gaseous state. Usually, fumes are generated after initial volatilization
from a combustion process, or from a melting process (such as metal
fumes emitted during welding). Usually less than 1 µm in diameter.
Glossary 293
Fume fever, metal. An acute condition caused by a brief, high exposure to the
freshly generated fumes of metals, such as zinc or magnesium, or their
oxides.
Functional anatomy. Study of the body and its component parts, taking into
account structural features directly related to physiological function.
Fundamental frequency. The lowest component frequency of a periodic quan-
tity.
Fundus. The interior surface of a hollow organ, such as the retina of the eye.
Fungus (pl. fungi). Any of a major group of lower plants that lack chlorophyll
and live on dead or other living organisms. Fungi include molds, rusts,
mildews, smuts, and mushrooms.
Fuse. A wire or strip of metal with known electrical resistance, usually placed
in an electrical circuit as a safeguard. As the electrical current increases,
the resistance of the metals to flow causes it to heat until it reaches the
point where the metal melts, breaking the current at the rated amperage.
Fusion. (1) The joining of atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, accom-
plished under conditions of extreme heat (millions of degrees). If two
nuclei of light atoms fuse, the fusion is accompanied by the release of a
great deal of energy. The energy of the sun is believed to be derived from
the fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium. (2) In welding, the melting
together of filler metal and base metal (substrate), or of base metal only,
which results in coalescence.
FVC. Forced vital capacity.
Galvanizing. An old but still used method of providing a protective coating for
metals by dipping them in a bath of molten zinc.
Gamete. A mature germ cell. An unfertilized ovum or spermatozoon.
Gamma rays (gamma radiation). The most penetrating of all radiation.
Gamma (γ) rays are very high-energy X rays.
Ganglion (pl. ganglia). A knot or knotlike mass; used as a general term to
designate a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous
system. The term is also applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain
or spinal cord.
Gangue. In mining or quarrying, useless chipped rock.
Gas. A state of matter in which the material has very low density and viscosity,
can expand and contract greatly in response to change in temperature and
pressure, easily diffuses into other gases, and readily and uniformly dis-
tributes itself throughout any container. A gas can be changed to the liquid
or solid state only by the combined effect of increased pressure and
decreased temperature (below the critical temperature).
Gas chromatography. A gaseous detection technique that involves the sepa-
ration of mixtures by passing them through a column that enables the
components to be held up for varying periods of time before they are
detected and recorded.
Gas metal arc-welding (GMAW). An arc-welding process that produces coa-
lescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a continuous
filler metal (consumable) electrode and the work; shielding is obtained
entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture. Some methods

of this process are called MIG or CO2 welding.
Gastr-, gastro- (prefix). Pertaining to the stomach.
Gas tungsten arc-welding (GTAW). An arc-welding process that produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a tungsten
(nonconsumable) electrode and the work; shielding is obtained from a gas
or gas mixture. Pressure may not be used. This process has sometimes
been called TIG welding.
Gate. A groove in a mold to act as a passage for molten metal.
Gauge pressure. The difference between two absolute pressures, one of which
is usually atmospheric pressure.
Geiger counter. A gas-filled electrical device that counts the presence of an
atomic particle or ray by detecting the ions produced. Sometimes called
a Geiger-Muller counter.
General ventilation. System of ventilation consisting of either natural or
mechanically induced fresh air movements to mix with and dilute con-
taminants in the workroom air. This is not the recommended type of
ventilation to control contaminants that are toxic.
Generic name. A nonproprietary name for a material or product.
Genes. The ultimate biological units of heredity.
Genetically significant dose (GSD). The dose that, if received by every mem-
ber of the population, would be expected to produce the same total genetic
injury to the population as the actual doses received by the various indi-
viduals.
Genetic effects. Mutations or other change produced by irradiation of the germ
plasma.
Germ. A microorganism; a microbe usually thought of as a pathogenic organ-
ism.
Germicide. An agent capable of killing germs.
GFCI. See Ground fault circuit interrupter.
GI. Gastrointestinal.
GI tract. Gastrointestinal tract.
Gingival. Pertaining to the gingivae (gums), the mucous membrane, with the
supporting fibrous tissue, that overlies the crowns of unerupted teeth and
encircles the necks of those that have erupted.
Gingivitis. Inflammation of the gums.
Gland. Any body organ that manufactures some liquid product and secretes it
from its cells.
Globe thermometer. A thermometer set in the center of a metal sphere that
has been painted black to measure radiant heat.
Globulin. General name for a group of proteins that are soluble in saline
solutions but not in pure water.
Glossa- (prefix). Pertaining to the tongue.
Glove box. A sealed enclosure in which items inside the box are handled with
long, impervious glove sealed to ports in the walls of the enclosure.
Glossary 295
Gob. Lump. Gob pole is waste mineral material, such as from coal mines, that
contains sufficient coal that gob fires may arise from spontaneous com-
bustion.
Gonads. The male (testes) and female (ovaries) sex glands.
Grab sample. A sample taken within a very short time period to determine the
constituents at a specific time.
Gram (g). A metric unit of weight; 1 ounce equals 28.4 grams.
Grams per kilogram (g/kg). Indication of the dose of a substance given to test
animals in toxicity studies.
Granuloma. A mass or nodule of chronically inflamed tissue with granulations;
usually associated with an infective process.
Graticule. See Reticle.
Gravimetric. Pertaining to measurement by weight.
Gravimetric method. A procedure dependent upon the formation or use of a
precipitate of residue, which is weighed to determine the concentration
of a specific contaminant in a previously collected sample.
Gravitation. The universal attraction existing between all material bodies. The
gravitational attraction of the earth’s mass for bodies at or near its surface
is called gravity.
Gravity, specific. The ratio of the mass of a unit volume of a substance to the
mass of the same volume of a standard substance at a standard tempera-
ture. Water at 39.2°F (4°C) is usually the standard substance. For gases,
dry air, at the same temperature and pressure as the gas, is often taken as
the standard substance.
Gravity, standard. A gravitational force that produces an acceleration equal
to 32.17 ft (9.8 m) per second. The actual force of gravity varies slightly
with altitude and latitude. The standard was arbitrarily established as that
at sea level and 45° latitude.
Gray (Gy). Unit of absorbed radiation dose equal to 1 joule of absorbed energy
per kilogram of matter; also equal to 100 rad.
Gray iron. The same as cast iron; in general, any iron with high carbon content.
Grooving. Designing a tool with grooves on the handle to accommodate the
fingers of the user — a bad practice because of the great variation in the
sizes of workers’ hands. Grooving interferes with sensory feedback.
Intense pain may be caused by the grooves to the arthritic hand.
Ground. A contact with the ground (earth) that becomes part of the electrical
circuit.
Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). A device that measures the amount
of current flowing to and from an electrical source. When a difference
between the two is sensed, indicating a leakage of current, the device very
quickly breaks the circuit.
Grounding. The procedure used to carry an electrical charge to ground through
a conductive path, usually a rod or fixed wire.
Gyn- gyne- (prefix). Woman, female.
Gynecology. The medical specialty concerned with diseases of women.
Gyratory crusher. A device for crushing rock by means of a heavy steel pestle
rotating in a steel cone, with the rock fed in at the top and passing out at
the bottom.
Half-life, radioactive. For a single radioactive decay process, the time required
for the activity to decrease to half its value by that process.
Half-thickness. The thickness of a specified absorbing material that reduces
the dose rate to one half its original value.
Half-value layer (HVL). The thickness of a substance necessary to reduce the
intensity of a beam of gamma or X rays to half its original value. Also
known as half-thickness.
Halogenated hydrocarbon. A chemical material that has carbon plus one or
more of these elements: chlorine, fluorine, bromine, and iodine.
Hammer mill. A machine for reducing the size of stone or other bulk material
by means of hammers usually placed on a rotating axle inside a steel
cylinder.
Hand protection. Coverings worn over the hands to protect against physical,
chemical, biological, thermal, and electrical hazards.
Hard hat. A helmet so constructed as to help prevent head injuries from falling
objects of limited size.
Hardness. A relative term to describe the penetrating quality of radiation. The
higher the energy of the radiation, the more penetrating (harder) is the
radiation.
Hardness of water. A degree of hardness is the equivalent of 1 grain of calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, in 1 gallon of water.
Hazard. An unsafe condition or activity that, if left uncontrolled, can contribute
to an accident.
Hazard analysis. An analysis performed to identify and evaluate hazards for
the purpose of their elimination or control.
Hazard control. A program to recognize, evaluate, eliminate, or control the
existence of and exposure to hazards.
Hazardous material. Any substance or compound that has the capacity of
producing adverse effects on the health and safety of humans.
Hazwoper. Hazardous waste operations and emergency response — an OSHA
standard intended to protect workers engaged in hazardous waste opera-
tions.
Heading. In mining, a horizontal passage or drift of a tunnel; also the end of
a drift or gallery. In tanning, a layer of ground bark over the tanning liquor.
Health. Personal freedom from physical or mental defect, pain, injury, or dis-
ease.
Health physicist. A professional person specially trained in radiation physics
and concerned with problems of radiation damage and protection.
Hearing conservation. The prevention or minimizing of noise-induced deaf-
ness through the use of hearing protection devices; the control of noise
through engineering methods, annual audiometric tests, and employee
training.
Glossary 297
Hearing level. The deviation in decibels of an individual’s threshold from the

zero reference of the audiometer.
Hearing loss level. The decrease in decibels of an individual’s hearing from
the accepted zero reference of an audiometer. (“He has a hearing loss of
10 decibels at 4000 hertz”).
Heat cramps. Painful muscle spasms as a result of exposure to excess heat.
Heat exhaustion. A condition usually caused by loss of body water because
of exposure to excess heat. Symptoms include headache, tiredness, nausea,
and sometimes fainting.
Heat, latent. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off per unit weight of
material during a change of state, such as ice to water or water to steam.
Heat of fusion. The heat given off by a liquid freezing to a solid or gained by
a solid melting to a liquid, without a change in temperature.
Heat of vaporization. The heat given off by a vapor condensing to a liquid or
gained by a liquid evaporating to a vapor, without a change in temperature.
Heat rash. Itchy skin disorder caused by sweating and inadequate hygiene
practices.
Heat, sensible. Heat associated with a change in temperature; specific heat
exchange with environment, in contrast to a heat interchange in which
only a change of state (phase) occurs.
Heat stress. Relative amount of thermal strain from the environment.
Heat stress index (HIS). Also known as the Belding–Hatch heat stress index,
this index combines the environmental heat and metabolic heat into an
expression of stress in terms of requirement for evaporation of sweat.
Heatstroke. A serious disorder resulting from exposure to excess heat. It results
from sweat suppression and increased storage of body heat. Symptoms
include hot dry skin, high temperature, mental confusion, convulsions,
and coma. Heatstroke is fatal if not treated promptly.
Heat syncope. A heat-related disorder characterized by symptoms of blurred
vision and brief fainting spells; caused by pooling of blood in the legs or
skin during prolonged static postures in a hot environment.
Heat treatment. Any of several process of metal modification, such as anneal-
ing.
Heavy hydrogen. Same as deuterium.
Heavy metals. Metallic elements with high molecular weights.
Heavy water. Water containing heavy hydrogen (deuterium) instead of ordinary
hydrogen. It is widely used in reactors to slow neutrons.
Helmet. A device that shields the eyes, face, neck, and other parts of the head.
Hem-, hemato- (prefix). Pertaining to blood. Hematuria means blood in the
urine. When the roots occur internally in a word, the h is often dropped
for the sake of pronunciation, leaving -em- to denote blood, as in anoxemia
(deficiency of oxygen in the blood).
Hematology. Study of the blood and the blood-forming organs.
Hematuria. Blood in the urine.
Hemi- (prefix). Half. The prefix is straightforward enough in hemiplegia, “half
paralysis,” affecting one side of the body. It is not so evident in migraine
(one-sided headache), a word that shows how language changes through

the centuries. The original word was hemicrania, “half-head.”
Hemoglobin. The red coloring matter of the blood that carries the oxygen.
Hemolysis. Breakdown of red blood cells with liberation of hemoglobin.
Hemoptysis. Bleeding from the lungs, spitting blood, or blood-stained sputum.
Hemorrhage. Bleeding; especially profuse bleeding as from a ruptured or cut
blood vessel (artery or vein).
Hemorrhagic. Pertaining to or characterized by hemorrhage.
HEPA filter. High-efficiency particulate air filter. A disposable, extended-
medium, dry-type filter with a particle removal efficiency of no less than
99.97% for 0.3-µm particles.
Hepatitis. Inflammation of the liver.
Hepatitis B. A virus causing hepatitis. The virus may also cause liver cancer
in some individuals. The virus is bloodborne and, as such, is one of the
agents targeted by the OSHA bloodborne pathogen standard.
Hepatotoxin. Chemicals that produce liver damage.
Herpes. An acute inflammation of the skin or mucous membranes, character-
ized by the development of groups of vesicles on an inflammatory base.
Hertz. The frequency measured in cycles per second (cps). 1 cps = 1 Hz.
High-frequency loss. Refers to a hearing deficit starting with 2000 Hz and
beyond.
HIV. Human immunodeficiency virus. Held to be the initiating case of acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Hold harmless. A written agreement in which a party absolves or is absolved
by another for liability arising from a specific cause.
Homeotherm. Uniform body temperature, or a warm-blooded creature remain-
ing so regardless of environment.
Homogenizer. A machine that forces liquids under high pressure through a
perforated shield against a hard surface to blend or emulsify the mixture.
Homoiotherm. See Homeotherm.
Hood. (1) Enclosure, part of a local exhaust system. (2) A device that com-
pletely covers the head, neck, and portions of the shoulders.
Hood entry loss. The pressure loss from turbulence and friction as air enters
the ventilation system.
Hood, slot. A hood consisting of a narrow slot leading into a plenum chamber
under suction to distribute air velocity along the length of the slot.
Hood static pressure. The suction or static pressure in a duct near a hood. It
represents the suction that is available to draw air into the hood.
Hormones. Chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands, exerting
influence over practically all body activities.
Horsepower. A unit of power, equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute
(746 W). See also Brake horsepower.
Host. A plant or animal harboring another as a parasite or as an infectious agent.
Hot. In addition to meaning having a relatively high temperature, a colloquial
term meaning highly radioactive.
HSI. See Heat stress index.
Glossary 299
Human–equipment. Areas of physical or perceptual contact between person

and equipment. The design characteristics of the human–equipment inter-
face determine the quality of information. Poorly designed interfaces may
lead to excessive fatigue or localized trauma, e.g., calluses.
Human factors. See Ergonomics.
Human factors engineering. See Human–equipment; Ergonomics.
Humerus. The bone of the upper arm that starts at the shoulder joint and ends
at the elbow. Muscles that move the upper arm, forearm, and hand are
attached to this bone.
Humidify. To add water vapor to the atmosphere; to add water vapor or moisture
to any material.
Humidity. Wetness of the atmosphere. (1) Absolute humidity is the weight of
water vapor per unit volume: pounds per cubic foot or grams per cubic
centimeter. (2) Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual partial vapor
pressure of the water vapor in the space to the saturation pressure of pure
water at the same temperature.
Humidity, specfic. The weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air.
HVAC system. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system. Ventilation
system designed primarily for temperature, humidity, odor control, and
air quality.
Hyalinization. Conversion into a substance resembling glass.
Hydration. The process of converting raw material into pulp by prolonged
beating in water; to combine with water or the elements of water.
Hydrocarbons. Organic compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
Several hundred thousand molecular combinations of C and H are known
to exist. Basic building blocks of all organic chemicals. Main chemical
industry sources of hydrocarbons are petroleum, natural gas, and coal.
Hydrogenation. A reaction of molecular hydrogen with numerous organic
compounds. Examples are the hydrogenation of olefins to parraffins, or
of the aromatics to the naphthenes, or the reduction of aldehydes and
ketones to alcohols.
Hydrolysis. The interaction of water with a material resulting in decomposition.
Hydrometallurgy. Science of metal recovery by a process involving treatment
of ores in an aqueous medium, such as an acid or cyanide solution.
Hydrophobic. Repelled by water, or water-hating.
Hygroscopic. Readily absorbing or retaining moisture.
Hyper- (prefix). Over, above, increased. The usual implication is overactivity
or excessive production, as in hyperthyroidism.
Hyperkeratosis. Hypertrophy of the horny layer of the skin.
Hypertension. Abnormally high tension; especially high blood pressure.
Hypertrophy. Increase in cell size causing an increase in the size of the organ
or tissue.
Hypnotic. Anything that induces or that produces the effects ascribed to hyp-
notism.
Hypo- (prefix). Under, below; less decreased. The two different meanings of
this common prefix can be confusing. Hypodermic might reasonably be
interpreted to mean that an unfortunate patient has too little skin. The
actual meaning is “under or beneath the skin,” a proper site for an injec-
tion. The majority of hypo- words, however, denote an insufficiency,
lessening, or reduction from the norm, as in hypoglycemia, meaning too
little glucose in the blood.
Hypothermia. A systemic effect of cold stress; condition of reduced body
temperature.
Hysteresis. A retardation of the effect of cold stress; condition of reduced body
temperature.
IAQ. The study, evaluation, and control of indoor air quality related to temper-
ature, humidity, and airborne contaminants.
IARC. International Agency for Research on Cancer.
Iatro- (prefix). Pertaining to a doctor. A related root, -iatrist, denotes a special-
ist, as in psychiatrist.
Iatrogenic. Caused by the doctor.
ICC. Interstate Commerce Commission.
ICRP. International Commission on Radiological Protection and Measure-
ments.
ICTERUS. See Jaundicea.
Idio- (prefix). Peculiar to, private, or distinctive, as in idiosyncrasy.
Idiopathic. Disease that originates in or by itself.
Idiosyncrasy. A special susceptibility to a particular substance introduced into
the body.
IDLH. Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health. Concentrations of hazard-
ous materials in air where exposure may cause serious injury or death
within a short time, or serious delayed effect.
IES. Illumination Engineering Society.
Ignitable. Capable of being set afire.
Iliac crest. The upper rounded border of the hip bone. No muscles cross the
iliac crest, which lies immediately below the skin. It is an important
anatomical reference point because it can be felt through the skin. Seat
backrests should clear the iliac crest.
Illness, occupational. Also, occupational disease. An unhealthy condition of
the mind or body as a result of chronic exposure to physical, chemical,
ergonomic, or biological agents or hazards (e.g., black lung as a result of
long-term exposure to coal dust).
Image. The fluorescent picture produced by X rays hitting a fluoroscopic
screen.
Image receptor. Any device, such as a fluorescent screen or radiographic film,
that transforms incident X-ray photons either into a visible image or into
another form that can be made into a visible image by further transfor-
mations.
Imminent danger. An impending or threatening hazard that could be expected
to cause death or serious injury to persons in the immediate future unless
corrective measures are taken.
Immune. Resistant to disease.
Glossary 301
Immunity. The power of the body to resist infection and the effects of toxins.
This resistance results from the possession by the body of certain “fighting
substances,” or antibodies. To immunize is to confer immunity. Immuni-
zation is the process of acquiring or conferring immunity.
Impaction. The forcible contact of particles of matter; a term often used syn-
onymously with impingement, but generally reserved for the case where
particles are contacting a dry surface.
Impervious. Pertaining to a material that does not allow another substance to
pass through or penetrate it.
Impingement. As used in air sampling, refers to a process for the collection
of particulate matter in which a particle-containing gas is directed against
a wetted glass plate and the particles are retained by the liquid.
Impinger. A device containing an absorbing liquid used in air sampling for the
collection of gaseous particulate constituents of an airstream directed by
the device through the liquid. The impinger draws air at high velocity
through a glass nozzle or jet. A commonly used type is called the midget
impinger.
Impulse noise. Repetitive impulse noise is such as produced by rivet guns,
pneumatic hammers, and other devices that create an impact. Impulse
rates greater that 200 per minute are considered continuous noise.
Inches of mercury column. A unit used in measuring pressures; 1 inch of
mercury column equals a pressure of 1.491 lb/in2 (1.66 kPa).
Inches of water column. A unit used in measuring pressures; 1 inch of water
column equals a pressure of 0.036 lb/in2 (0.25 kPa).
Incidence. An undesired event that may cause personal harm or other damage.
In the United States OSHA specifies that incidence of a certain severity
be recorded on the OSHA 200 log.
Incidence rate. The number of injuries and/or illnesses or lost workdays per
100 full-time employees per year or 200,000 hours of exposure.
Incompatible. A term applied to liquid and solid systems to indicate that one
material cannot be mixed with another specified material.
Incubation. Holding cultures of microorganisms under conditions favorable to
their growth.
Incubation time. The elapsed time between exposure to infection and the
appearance of disease symptoms, or the time period during which micro-
organisms inoculated into a medium are allowed to grow.
Indirect cost. Losses ultimately measurable in a monetary sense resulting from
an accident other than those costs that are insurable (overtime to cover
the absent employee, retraining cost, production losses, reporting time,
etc.).
Induration. Heat hardening that may involve little more than thermal dehydra-
tion.
Industrial hygiene. The art and science of recognizing, evaluating, and con-
trolling occupational hazards.
Industrial ventilation. The equipment or operation associated with the supply

or exhaust of air, by natural or mechanical means, to control occupational
hazards in the industrial setting.
Inert (chemical). Not having active properties.
Inert gas. A gas that does not normally combine chemically with the base metal
or filler metal.
Inert welding. An electric welding operation using an inert gas such as helium
to flush the air away to prevent oxidation of the metal being welded.
Inertial moment. As related to biomechanics, that moment of force-time
caused by sudden accelerations or decelerations. Whiplash of the neck is
caused by an inertial moment. In an industrial setting, sidestepping causes
application of a lateral inertial moment on the lumbosacral joint, which
may cause trauma, pain, and in any case lowers performance efficiency.
The inertial moment is one of the seven elements of a lifting task.
Infection. Entrance into the body or its tissues of disease-causing organisms
with the effect of damage to the body as a whole or to tissues or organs.
It also refers to the entrance into the body of parasites, such as certain
worms. On the other hand, parasites such as mites and ticks that attack
the surface of the body are said to infest, not infect.
Infectious. Capable of invading a susceptible host, replicating and causing an
altered host reaction; commonly referred to as a disease.
Infestation. Invasion of the body surface by parasites. See also infection.
Infiltration. Air leakage into a space through cracks and interstices, and
through ceilings, floors, and walls.
Inflammation. The reaction of body tissue to injury; whether by infection or
trauma. The inflamed area is red, swollen, hot, and usually painful.
Infrared. Wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum longer than those of
visible light and shorter than radio waves, 10–4 to 10–1 cm wavelength.
Infrared radiation. Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths from 770 to
12,000 nm.
Ingestion. (1) The process of taking substances into the stomach, such as food,
drink, or medicine. (2) With regard to certain cells, the act of engulfing
or taking up bacteria and other foreign matter.
Ingot. A block of iron or steel cast in a mold for ease in handling before
processing.
Inguinal region. The abdominal area on each side of the body occurring as a
depression between the abdomen and the thigh; the groin.
Inhalation. The breathing in of a substance in the form of a gas, vapor, fume,
mist, or dust.
Inhalation valve. A device that allows respirable air to enter a face piece and
prevents exhaled air from leaving a face piece through the intake opening.
Inhibition. Prevention of growth or multiplication of microorganisms.
Inhibitor. An agent that arrests or slows chemical action or a material used to
prevent or retard rust or corrosion.
Injury. Damage or harm to the body, as a result of violence, infection, or
anything else that produces a lesion.
Glossary 303
Innocuous. Harmless.
Inoculation. The artificial introduction of microorganisms or antigens into a
system.
Inorganic. Used to designate compounds that generally do not contain carbon,
whose source is matter other than vegetable or animal. Examples are
sulfuric acid and salt. Exceptions are carbon monoxide and carbon diox-
ide.
Inrunning nip (point). A rotating mechanism that can seize loose clothing,
belts, hair, body parts, etc; when two or more shafts or rollers rotate
parallel to one another in opposite directions.
Insoluble. Incapable of being dissolved.
Insomnia. Inability to sleep; abnormal wakefulness.
Inspection. Monitoring function conducted in an organization to locate and
report existing and potential hazards having capacity to cause accidents
in the workplace. Also used to identify program, policy, inspection, and
compliance adherence.
Instantaneous radiation. The radiation emitted during the fission process;
often called prompt gamma rays or prompt neutrons. Most fission products
continue to emit radiation after the fission process.
Inter- (prefix). Between.
Interlock. A device that interacts with another device or mechanism to govern
succeeding operations. For example, an interlocked machine guard will
prevent the machine from operating unless the guard is in its proper place.
An interlock on an elevator door will prevent the car from moving unless
the door is properly closed.
Intermediate. A chemical formed as a middle step in a series of chemical
reactions, especially in the manufacture of organic dyes and pigments. In
many cases, it may be isolated and used to form a variety of desired
products. In other cases, the intermediate may be unstable or may be used
up at once.
Internal biomechanical environment. The muscles, bones, and tissues of the
body, all of which are subject to the same Newtonian force as external
objects in their interaction with other bodies and natural forces. When
designing for the body, one must consider the forces that the internal
biomechanical environment must withstand.
Interphalangeal joints. The finger or toe joints. The thumb has one interpha-
langeal joint; the fingers have two interphalangeal joints each.
Interstitial. (1) Pertaining to the small spaces between cells or structures.
(2) Occupying the interstices of a tissue or organ. (3) Designating con-
nective tissue occupying spaces between the functional units of an organ
or a structure.
Intoxication. Either drunkenness or poisoning.
Intra- (prefix). Within.
Intraperitoneal. Inside the space formed by the membrane that lines the inte-
rior wall of the abdomen and covers the abdominal organs.
Intravenous. Into or inside the vein.
Intrinsically safe. Said of an instrument that is designed and certified to be

operated safely in flammable or explosive atmospheres.
Inverse square law. The propagation of energy through space is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance it must travel. An object 3 m
away from an energy source receives one ninth as much energy as an
object 1 m away.
Inversion. Phenomenon of a layer of cool air trapped by a layer of warmer air
above it so that the bottom layer cannot rise. This is a special problem in
polluted areas because the contaminating substances cannot be dispersed.
Investment casting. There are numerous types of investment casting, and the
materials include fire clay, silicon dioxide, zirconium oxide, and others.
The Mercast process uses mercury poured into a steel die. A ceramic shell
mold is built around the pattern, and then the pattern is frozen. The
mercury is subsequently recovered at room temperature. The potential
harm from exposure to mercury is often unrecognized.
Ion. An electrically charged atom. An atom that has lost one or more of its
electrons is left with a positive electrical charge. Those that have gained
one or more extra electrons are left with a negative charge.
Ion-exchange resin. Synthetic resins containing active groups that give the
resin the property of combining with or exchanging ions between the resin
and the solution.
Ionization. The process whereby one or more electrons is removed from a
neutral atom by the action of radiation. Specific ionization is the number
of ion pairs per unit distance in matter, usually air.
Ionization chamber. A device roughly similar to a Geiger counter; used to
measure radioactivity.
Ionizing radiation. (1) Electrically charged or neutral particles. (2) Electro-
magnetic radiation that interacts with gases, liquids, or solids to produce
ions. There are five major types: alpha, beta, X (for X ray), gamma, and
neutrons.
Ion pair. A positively charged atom (ion) and an electron formed by the action
of radiation on a neutral atom.
Irradiation. Exposure of something to radiation.
Irritant. A substance that produces an irritating effect when it contact skin,
eyes, nose, or respiratory system.
Ischemia. Loss of blood supply to a particular part of the body.
Ischial tuberosity. A rounded projection on the ischium. It is a point of attach-
ment for several muscles involved in moving the femur and the knee. It
can be affected by improper chair design and by situations involving
trauma to the pelvic region. When seated, pressure is borne at the site of
the ischial tuberosities. Chair design should provide support to the pres-
sure projection of the ischial tuberosity through the skin of the buttocks.
Isometric work. Refers to state of muscular contraction without movement.
Although no work in the “physics” sense is done, physiological work
(energy use and heat production) occurs. In isometric exercise, muscles
are tightened against immovable objects. In work measurements, isometric
Glossary 305
muscular contractions must be considered as a major factor of task sever-

ity.
Isotope. One of two or more atomic species of an element differing in atomic
weight but having the same atomic number. Each contains the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Uranium-238
contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons; the isotope uranium-235 contains
92 protons and 143 neutrons. Thus, the atomic weight (atomic mass) of
uranium-238 is 3 higher than that of uranium-235. See also Radioisotope.
Isotropic. Exhibiting properties with the same values when measured along
axes in all directions.
-itis (suffix). Inflammation.
Jaundice. Icterus. A serious symptom of disease that causes the skin, the whites
of the eyes, and even the mucous membranes to turn yellow.
Jigs and fixtures. Often used interchangeably; precisely, a jig holds work in
position and guides the tools acting on the work, whereas a fixture holds
but does not guide.
Job safety analysis. A method for studying a job to (1) identify hazards or
potential accidents associated with each step or task and (2) develop
solutions that will eliminate, nullify, or prevent such hazards or accidents.
Sometimes called a Job Hazard Analysis.
Joint. Articulation between two bones that may permit motion in one or more
planes. They may become the sites for work-induced trauma (such as
tennis elbow or arthritis) or other disorders.
Joule. Unit of energy used in describing a single pulsed output of a laser. It is
equal to 1 watt-second or 0.239 calories. It equals 1 × 107 ergs.
Joule/cm2 (J/cm2). Unit of energy density used in measuring the amount of
energy per area of absorbing surface or per area of a laser beam. It is a
unit for predicting the damage potential of a laser beam.
Kaolin. A type of clay composed of mixed silicates used for refractories,
ceramics, tile, and stoneware. In some deposits, free silica may be present
as an impurity.
Kaolinosis. A disorder induced by inhalation of the dust released in the grinding
and handling of kaolin (china clay).
Kelvin scale. The fundamental temperature scale, also called the absolute or
thermodynamic scale, in which the temperature measure is based on the
average kinetic energy per molecule of a perfect gas. The zero of the
Kelvin scale is –273.18°C.
Keratin. Sulfur-containing proteins that form the chemical basis for epidermal
tissues; found in nails, hair, and feathers.
Keratinocyte. An epidermal cell that produces keratin.
Keratitis. Inflammation of the cornea.
KeV. A unit of energy equal to 1000 electron volts.
Kilocurie. 1000 curies. A unit of radioactivity.
Kilogram (kg). A unit of weight in the metric system equal to 2.2 pounds.
Kinesiology. The study of human movement in terms of functional anatomy.
Kinetic energy. Energy due to motion. See work.
Kyphosis. Abnormal curvature of the spine of the upper back in the anteropos-
terior plane.
l. Liter.
Laboratory-acquired infection. Any infection resulting from exposure to bio-
hazardous materials in a laboratory environment. Exposure may be the
result of a specific accident or inadequate biohazard control procedure or
equipment.
Lacquer. A colloidal dispersion or solution of nitrocellulose or similar film-
forming compounds, resins, and plasticizers in solvents and diluents used
as a protective and decorative coating for various surfaces.
Laminar airflow. Streamlined airflow in which the entire body of air within a
designated space moves with uniform velocity in one direction along
parallel flow lines.
LAN. Local area network. A network of computers linked electronically and
by software. Located geographically locally, usually in one office or office
building.
Lapping. The operation of polishing or sanding surfaces such as metal or glass
to a precise dimension.
Laryngitis. Inflammation of the larynx.
Larynx. The organ by which the voice is produced. It is situated at the upper
part of the trachea.
Laser. The acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radi-
ation.
Laser light. A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes ultraviolet,
visible, and infrared light.
Laser system. An assembly of electrical, mechanical, and optical components
that includes a laser.
Latent heat. The amount of heat energy absorbed or emitted by one unit of
mass of a substance during a change of state (e.g., vaporization, freezing).
Latent period. The time that elapses between exposure and the first manifes-
tation of damage.
Latex. Originally, a milky extract from the rubber tree, containing about 35%
rubber hydrocarbon, with the remainder water, proteins, and sugars. Also
applied to water emulsions of synthetic rubbers or resins. In emulsion
paints, the film-forming resins are in the form of latex.
Lathe. A machine tool used to perform cutting operations on wood or metal
by the rotation of the workpiece.
Latissimus dorsi. A large, flat muscle of the back humerus near the armpit. It
adducts the upper arm, and when the elbow is abducted, it rotates the arm
medially. It is actively used in operating equipment such as the drill press,
where a downward pull by the arm is required.
LC. Lethal concentration; a concentration of a substance being tested that will
kill a test animal.
LC50. Lethal concentration that kills 50% of the test animals within a specified
time. See also LD50.
Glossary 307
LD. Lethal dose; an amount of a substance being tested that will kill a test
animal.
LD50. Lead Poisoning. Poisoning that results when lead compounds are swal-
lowed or inhaled. Inorganic lead compounds commonly cause symptoms
of lead colic and lead anemia. Organic lead compounds can attack the
nervous system.
Leakage radiation. Radiation emanating from the diagnostic source assembly,
except for the useful beam and radiation, produced when the exposure
switch or timer is not activated.
LEL. Lower explosive limit. See Flammable limits.
Lens, crystalline. Lens of the eye; a transparent biconvex body situated
between the anterior chamber (aqueous) and the posterior chamber (vit-
reous) through which the light rays are further focused on the retina. The
cornea provides most of the refractive power of the eye.
Lesion. Injury, damage, or abnormal change in a tissue or organ.
Lethal. Capable of causing death.
Leuk, leuko- (prefix). White.
Leukemia. A group of malignant blood diseases distinguished by overproduc-
tion of white blood cells.
Leukemogenic. Having the ability to cause leukemia.
Leukocyte. White blood cell.
Leukocytosis. An abnormal increase in the number of white blood cells.
Leukopenia. A serious reduction in the number of white blood cells.
LFL. Lower flammable limit. See Flammable limits.
Liability. The state of being bound or obligated in law to do, pay, or make
good on something. Regarding the law of torts, usually based on the law
of negligence.
Liability, strict. The imposition of liability for damages resulting from any and
all defects and hazardous products without requiring proof of negligence.
Disclaimers are not valid; traditional warranty concepts, privity, and notice
of injury are eliminated.
Lifestyle. The way one lives and behaves.
Lig- (prefix). Binding. A ligament ties two or more bones together.
Linear accelerator. A machine for speeding up charged particles such as pro-
tons. It differs from other accelerators in that the particles move in a
straight line at all times instead of in circles or spirals.
Line-voltage regulation. The difference between the no-load and the load-line
potentials expressed as a percent of the load-line potential.
Lipo-(prefix). Fat, fatty.
Liquefied petroleum (LP) gas. A compressed or liquefied gas usually com-
posed of propane, some butane, and lesser quantities of other light hydro-
carbons and impurities; obtained as a by-product in petroleum refining.
Used chiefly as a fuel and in chemical synthesis.
Liquid. A state of matter in which the substance is a formless fluid that flows
in accord with the law of gravity.
Liter (l). A measure of capacity; 1 quart equals 0.9 l.

Liver. The largest gland or organ in the body, situated on the right side of the
upper part of the abdomen. It has many important functions, including
regulating the amino acids in the blood; storing iron and copper for the
body; forming and secreting bile, which aids in absorption and digestion
of fats; transforming glucose into glycogen; and detoxifying exogenous
substances.
Live room. A reverberant room that is characterized by an unusually small
amount of sound absorption.
Load limit. The upper weight limit capable of safe support by a vehicle, floor,
or roof structure.
Local exhaust ventilation. A ventilation system that captures and removes the
contaminants at the point at which they are being produced before they
escape into the workroom air.
Localized. Restricted to one spot or area in the body, and not spread throughout
it; contrasted to systemic.
Lockout/tagout. A basic safety concept and OSHA standard requiring imple-
mentation of practices and procedures to prevent the release of potentially
hazardous energy from machines or parts of machines and equipment
while maintenance, servicing, or alteration activity is performed. The
energy in question may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, or any other
form. Also called lockout/ tagout/ blockout.
Long-term sample. Sample taken over a sufficiently long period of time that
the variation in exposure cycles are averaged.
Lordosis. The curvature of the lower back in the anteroposterior plane.
Loss. Usually refers to the conversion of static pressure to heat in components
of the ventilation system, i.e., “the hood entry loss.”
Loss control. A program designed to minimize accident-related financial
losses. The concept of total loss control is based on detailed analysis of
both indirect and direct accident costs. Property damages, as well as
injurious and potentially injurious accidents, are included in the analysis.
Loss prevention. A before-the-loss program designed to identify and correct
hazards before they result in incidents that produce actual financial loss
and injury.
Loss workday. The number of workdays (consecutive or not), beyond the day
of injury or onset of illness, that an employee was away from work or
limited to restricted work activity because of an occupational injury or
illness.
Loudness. The intensive attribute of an auditory sensation, in terms of which
sounds may be ordered on a scale extending from soft to loud. Loudness
depends primarily upon the sound pressure of the stimulus, but it also
depends upon the frequency and waveform of the stimulus.
Louver. A slanted panel.
Lower confidence limit (LCL). In analyzing sampling data, a statistical pro-
cedure used to estimate the likelihood that the true value of the sampled
quantity is lower than that obtained.
Glossary 309
Lower explosive limit (LEL). The lower limit of flammability of a gas or vapor
at ordinary ambient temperatures expressed by a percentage of the gas or
vapor in air by volume. This limit is assumed constant for temperatures
up to 250°F (120°C); above this, it should be decreased by a factor of
0.7, because explosibility increases with higher temperatures.
Low-pressure tank. A storage tank designed to operate at pressures between
0.5 and 15 psig (3.5 to 103 kPa).
LP gas. See Liquefied petroleum gas.
Lumbar spine. The section of the lower spinal column or vertebral column
immediately above the sacrum. Located in the small of the back and
consisting of five large lumbar vertebrae, it is a highly stressed area in
work situations and in supporting the body structure.
Lumbosacral joint. The joint between the fifth lumbar vertebrae and the
sacrum. Often the site of spinal trauma from lifting tasks.
Lumen. The luminous flux on 1 square foot of a sphere 1 foot in radius with
a light source of one candle at the center that radiates uniformly in all
directions.
Luminous flux. The rate of light flow measured in lumens.
Luminous lux. A unit of illumination equal to 10 footcandles.
Lyme disease. A disease transmitted to humans by the deer tick.
Lymph. A pale, coagulable fluid consisting of a liquid portion resembling blood
plasma and containing white blood cells (lymphocytes).
Lymph node. Small oval bodies with a glandlike structure scattered throughout
the body in the course of the lymph vessels. Also known as lymphatic
nodes, lymph glands, and lymphatic glands.
Lymphoid. Resembling lymph.
Lyophilized. Freeze-dried, as in freeze-dried bacterial cultures.
Lysis. The distribution or breaking up of cells by internal or external means.
MAC. Maximum allowable concentration.
Maceration. Softening of the skin by action of a liquid.
Macrophage. Immune system cell whose normal function is to engulf and
remove foreign matter from the body’s tissues.
Macroscopic. Visible without the aid of a microscope.
Macula. An oval area in the center of the retina devoid of blood vessels; the
area most responsible for color vision.
Magnification. The number of times the apparent size of an object has been
increased by the lens system of a microscope.
Makeup air. Clean, tempered outdoor air supplied to a work space to replace
air removed by exhaust ventilation or by some industrial process.
Malaise. A vague feeling of bodily discomfort.
Malignant. As applied to a tumor, cancerous and capable of undergoing
metastasis (invasion of surrounding tissue).
Manometer. Instrument for measuring pressure; essentially a U-tube partially
filled with a liquid (usually water, mercury, or a light oil) and constructed
in such a way that the amount of displacement of the liquid indicates the
pressure being exerted on the instrument.
Maser. Microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. When

used in the term optical maser, it is often interpreted as molecular ampli-
fication by stimulated emission of radiation.
Masking. The stimulation of a person’s ear with controlled noise to prevent
that person from hearing with one ear the tone or signal given to the other
ear. This procedure is used when there is at least a 15 to 20 dBA difference
in the hearing level between ears.
Mass. Quantity of matter; measured in grams or pounds.
Material safety data sheet (MSDS). As part of hazard communication stan-
dards (right-to-know laws), federal and state OSHA programs require
manufacturers and importers of chemicals to prepare compendia of infor-
mation on their products. Categories of information that must be provided
on MSDSs include physical properties, recommended exposure limits,
personal protective equipment, spill-handling procedures, first aid, health
effects, and toxicological data.
Matter. Anything that has mass or occupies space.
Maximum evaporative capacity. The maximum amount of evaporating sweat
from a person that an environment can accept.
Maximum line current. The root mean square current in the supply line of an
X-ray machine operating at its maximum rating.
Maximum permissible concentration (MCP). Concentration set by the
National Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP); recommended
maximum average concentrations of radionuclides to which a worker may
be exposed assuming that the worker works 8 hours a day, 5 days a week,
and 50 weeks a year.
Maximum permissible power. The intensity of laser radiation not expected to
cause detectable bodily injury to a person or energy density at any time
during the person’s life.
Maximum use concentration (MUC). The product of the protection factor of
the respiratory protection equipment and the permissible exposure limit
(PEL).
Mechanical efficiency curve. A graphical representation of the relative effi-
ciency of a fan in moving air at different airflow rates and static pressures.
Mechanical filter respirator. A respirator used to protect against airborne
particulate matter like dusts, mist, metal fumes, and smoke. Mechanical
filter respirators do not provide protection against gases, vapors, or
oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
Mechanical ventilation. A powered device, such as a motor-driven fan or
vacuum hose attachment, for exhausting contaminants from a workplace,
vessel, or enclosure.
Mechanotactic stress. Stress caused by contact with a mechanical environ-
ment.
Mechanotaxis. Contact with a mechanical environment consisting of forces
(pressure, moment, vibration, and so on); one of the ecological stress
vectors. Improper design of he mechanotactic interface may lead to instan-
taneous trauma, cumulative pathogenesis, or death.
Glossary 311
Median nerve. A major nerve controlling the flexor muscles of the wrist and
hand. Tool handles and other grasped objects should make solid contact
with the sensory feedback area of this nerve, located in the palmar surface
of the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and part of the ring finger.
Medium. See Culture medium.
Medulla. The part of the brain that controls breathing.
Mega. One million. For example, 1 megacurie = 1 million curies.
Mega-, megalo- (perfix). Large, huge. The prefix macro- has the same mean-
ing.
Meiosis. The process whereby chromosome pairs undergo nuclear division as
the germ cell matures.
Melanocyte. An epidermal cell containing dark pigments.
Melanoderma. Abnormal darkening of the skin.
Melt. In the glass industry, the total batch of ingredients that may be introduced
into pots or furnaces.
Melting point. The transition point between the solid and liquid states.
Expressed as the temperature at which this change occurs.
Membrane. A thin, pliable layer of animal tissue that covers a surface, lines
the interior of a cavity or organ, or divides a space.
Membrane filter. A filter medium made from various polymeric material such
as cellulose, polyethylene, and tetrapolyethylene. Usually exhibit narrow
ranges of effective pore diameters and are therefore useful in collecting
and sizing microscopic and submicroscopic particles and in sterilizing
liquids.
Men-, meno- (prefix). Pertaining to menstruation; from the Greek for month.
Méniér’s disease. A combination of deafness, tinnitus, and vertigo.
Meson. A particle that weighs more than an electron but generally less than a
proton. Mesons can be produced artificially or by cosmic radiation (natural
radiation from outer space). Mesons are not stable and disintegrate in a
fraction of a second.
Mesothelioma. Cancer of the membranes that line the chest and abdomen.
Metabolism. The flow of energy and the associated physical and chemical
changes constantly taking place in the billions of cells that make up the
body.
Metal fume fever. A flulike condition caused by inhaling heated metal fumes.
Metallizing. Melting wire in a special device that sprays the atomized metal
onto a surface. The metal can be steel, lead, or another metal or alloy.
Metastasis. Transfer of the causal agent (cell or microorganism) of a disease
from a primary focus to a distant one through the blood or lymphatic
vessels. Also, spread of malignancy from a site of primary cancer to
secondary sites.
Meter (m). A unit of length in the metric system; 1 meter is about 39.37 inches.
Methemoglobinemia. The presence of methemoglobin in the blood. (Methe-
moglobin is a compound formed when the iron moiety of hemoglobin is
oxidized from the ferrous to the ferric state.) This protein inactivates
hemoglobin as an oxygen carrier.
Mev. Million electron volts.

mg. Milligram. A metric unit of weight. There are 1000 milligrams in 1 gram
(g) of a substance; 1 gram is equivalent to almost 4/100 of an ounce.
mg/kg. Milligram per kilogram.
mg/m3. Milligram per cubic meter.
Mica. A large group of silicates of varying composition that are similar in
physical properties. All have excellent cleavage and can be split into very
thin sheets. Used in electrical insulation.
Microbar. A unit of pressure commonly used in acoustics; equals 1 syne/cm2.
A reference point for the decibel, which is accepted as 0.0002 dyne/cm2.
Microbe. A microscopic organism.
Microcurie (µ µc). One millionth of a currie. A still smaller unit is the micromi-
crocurie [µµc].
Micron (µ µm). A unit of length equal to 10–4 cm, approximately 1/25,000 in.
Also called micrometer.
Microorganism. A minute organism; microbes, bacteria, cocci, viruses, and
molds, among others.
Microphone. An electroacoustic transducer that responds to sound waves and
delivers essentially equivalent electric waves.
Midsagittal plane. A reference plane formed by bisecting the human anatomy
into a right and left aspect. Human motor function can be described in
terms of movement relative to the midsagittal plane.
Miliary. Characterized or accompanied by seedlike blisters or inflamed raised
portions of tissue.
Milliampere. 1/1000 of an ampere.
Milligram (mg). A unit of weight in the metric system; 1 thousand milligrams
equal 1 gram.
Milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). Unit used to measure air concentrations
of dusts, gases, mists, and fumes.
Milliliter (ml). A metric unit used to measure volume; 1 milliliter equals 1
cubic centimeter.
Millimeter of mercury (mmHg). The unit of pressure equal to the pressure
exerted by column of liquid mercury 1 millimeter high at standard tem-
perature.
Milliroentgen. One one-thousandth of a roentgen.
Millwright. A mechanic engaged in the erection and maintenance of machinery.
Mineral pitch. Tar from petroleum or coal as opposed to wood tar.
Mineral spirits. A petroleum fraction with a boiling range between 300 and
400°F (149 and 240°C).
Minimum transport velocity (MTV). The minimum velocity that will trans-
port dry particles in a duct with little settling; the MTV depends upon
article size, material density, particulate loading, and other factors; scrub-
bing velocity.
Miosis. Excessive smallness or contraction of the pupil of the eye.
Mists. Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous
to the liquid state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, such
Glossary 313
as by splashing, foaming, or atomizing. Formed when a finely divided

liquid is suspended in air.
Mitosis. Nuclear cell division in which resulting nuclei have the same number
and kinds of chromosomes as the original cell.
Mixture. A combination of two or more substances that may be separated by
mechanical means. The components may not be uniformly dispersed. See
also Solution.
ml. See milliliter.
mmHg. Millimeters (mm) of mercury (Hg).
Moderator. A material used to slow neutrons in a reactor. These slow neutrons
are particularly effective in causing fission. Neutrons are slowed when
they collide with atoms of light elements such as hydrogen, deuterium,
and carbon — three common moderators.
Mold. (1) A growth of fungi forming a furry patch, as on stale bread or cheese.
See also Spore. (2) A hollow form or matrix into which molten material
is poured to produce a cast.
Molecule. A chemical unit composed of one or more atoms.
Moment. Magnitude of force times distance of application.
Moment concept. A concept based on theoretical and experimental foundations
that lifting stress depends on the bending moment exerted at susceptible
points of the vertebral column rather than depending on weight alone.
Monaural hearing. Hearing with one ear only.
Monitoring. Testing to determine if the parameters being measured are within
acceptable limits. This includes environmental and medical (biological)
monitoring in the workplace.
Monochromatic. Single fixed wavelength.
Monomer. A compound of relatively low molecular weight that, under certain
conditions, either alone or with another monomer, forms various types
and lengths of molecular chains called polymers or copolymers of high
molecular weight. Styrene, for example, is a monomer that polymerizes
readily to form polystyrene. See also Polymer.
Morphology. The branch of biological science that deals with the study of the
structure and form of living organisms.
MORT. Management Oversight and Risk Tree.
Motile. Capable of spontaneous movement.
MPC. See Maximum permissible concentration.
MPD. See Dose equivalent, maximum permissible.
MPE. Maximum permissible exposure.
MPL. Maximum permissible level, limit, or dose; refers to the tolerable dose
rate for humans exposed to nuclear radiation.
Mppcf. Million particles per cubic foot.
mr. millirem.
mR. milliroentgen.
MSDS. See Material safety data sheet.
MSHA. The Mine Safety and Health Administration; a federal agency that
regulates safety and health in the mining industry.
MUC. See Maximum use concentration.

Mucous membranes Lining of the hollow organs of the body, notably the nose,
mouth, stomach, intestines, bronchial tubes, and urinary tract.
Muff. A covering on the outside ear to reduce noise exposure.
Musculoskeletal system The combined system of muscles and bones that com-
prise the internal biomechanical environment.
Mutagen. Anything that can cause a change (mutation) in the genetic material
in the living cell.
Mutation. A transformation of the gene that may result in the alteration of
characteristics of offspring.
MWD. Megawatt days, usually per ton. The amount of energy obtained from
1 megawatt power in 1 day, normally a measure of the extent of nuclear
fuel burn-up. 10,000 MWD per ton is about 1% burn-up.
My-, myo- (prefix). Pertaining to muscle. Myocardium is the heart muscle.
Myelo- (prefix). Pertaining to marrow.
NAAQS. EPA National Ambient Air Quality Standard. Nine compounds have
established standards (e.g., lead at 1.5 µg/m3, carbon monoxide at 9 ppm,
annual average.).
Nanometer. A unit of length equal 10–7 cm.
Naphthas. Hydrocarbons of the petroleum type that contain substantial portions
of paraffins and naphthalenes.
Narcosis. Stupor or unconsciousness produced by chemical substances.
Narcotics. Chemical agents that completely or partially induce sleep.
Narrow band. Applies to a narrow band of transmitted waves, with neither the
critical or cutoff frequencies of the filter being zero or infinite.
Nasal septum. Narrow partition that divides the nose into right and left nasal
cavities.
Nascent. Just forming, as from a chemical or biological reaction.
Nasopharynx. Upper extension of the throat.
National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). Collects data from
119 representative hospital emergency rooms on product-related injuries
receiving emergency room treatment. A part of the U.S. Consumer Pro-
duct Safety Commission.
Natural gas. A combustible gas composed largely of methane and other hydro-
carbons with variable amounts of nitrogen and noncombustible gases;
obtained from natural earth fissures or from driven wells. Used as a fuel
in the manufacture of carbon black and in chemical synthesis of many
products. Major source of hydrogen for the manufacture of ammonia.
Natural radioactivity. The radioactive background or, more properly the radio-
activity that is associated with the naturally occurring heavy elements.
Natural uranium. Purified from the naturally occurring ore, as opposed to
uranium enriched in fissionable content by processing at separation facil-
ities.
Natural ventilation. The movement of outdoor air into space through inten-
tionally provided openings, such as windows, doors, or other nonpowered
ventilators, or by infiltrations.
Glossary 315
Nature of injury. The type of injury inflicted, such as sprain, burn contusion,
laceration, etc.
Nausea. An unpleasant sensation, vaguely referred to the epigastrium and abdo-
men. Often proceeds vomiting.
NC. Noise criteria. NC curves have been developed for in-room use (e.g.,
offices, laboratories, conference rooms, lunchrooms, and other nonindus-
trial sites). Based on a series of octave band curves, the NC curves show
the maximum allowable sound level at each octave.
NCRP. National Committee on Radiation Protection; an advisory group of
scientists and professionals that makes recommendations for radiation
protection in the United States.
Near field. In noise measurement, refers to a field in the immediate vicinity of
the noise source where the sound-pressure level does not follow the inverse
square law.
Necro- (prefix). Dead.
Necrosis. Death of body tissue.
Negligence. The lack of required, expected, or reasonable conduct or care that
a prudent person would ordinarily exhibit. There need not be a legal duty.
NEISS. See National Electronic Injury Surveillance System.
Neoplasm. A cellular outgrowth characterized by rapid cell multiplication; may
be benign (semicontrolled and restricted) or malignant.
Nephr-, nephro- (prefix). From the Greek for kidney.
Nephritis. Inflammation of the kidneys.
Nephrotoxins. Chemicals that produce kidney damage.
Neur- neuro- (prefix). Pertaining to the nerves.
Neural loss. Hearing loss. See also Sensorineural.
Neuritis. Inflammation of a nerve.
Neurological (neurology). The branch of medical science dealing with the
nervous system.
Neurotoxin. Chemicals that produce their primary effect on the nervous system.
Neutral wire. Wire carrying electrical current back to its source, thus complet-
ing the circuit.
Neutrino. A particle, resulting from nuclear reactions, that carries energy away
from the system but has no mass or charge and is absorbed only with
extreme difficulty.
Neutron. A constituent of the atomic nucleus. A neutron weighs about as much
as a proton, and has no electric charge. Neutrons make effective atomic
projectiles for the bombardment of nuclei.
NFPA. National Fire Protection Association; a voluntary membership organi-
zation whose aim is to promote and improve fire protection and prevention.
NFPA publishes the National Fire Codes.
NIOSH. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; a federal
agency that conducts research on health and safety concerns, tests and
certifies respirators, and trains occupational health and safety profession-
als.
Nip point. The point of intersection or contact between two or more surfaces
when one or more are moving.
Nitrogen fixation. Chemical combination or fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
with hydrogen, as in the synthesis of ammonia. Bacteria fixate nitrogen
in soil. Provides an industrial and agricultural source of nitrogen.
Node. (1) A point, line, or surface in a standing wave where some characteristic
of the wave field has essentially zero amplitude. (2) A small, round, or
oval mass of tissue; a collection of cells. (3) One of several constrictions
occurring at regular intervals in a structure.
Nodule. A small mass of rounded or irregularly shaped cells or tissue; a small
node.
Nodulizing. Simultaneous sintering and drum balling, usually in a rotary kiln.
NOEL. See No observable effect level.
Noise. Any unwanted sound.
Noise-induced hearing loss. Slowly progressive inner ear hearing loss resulting
from exposure to continuous noise over a long period of time, as contrasted
to acoustic trauma or physical injury to the ear.
Nonauditory effects of noise. Refers to stress, fatigue, health, work efficiency,
and performance effects of loud, continuous noise.
Nonferrous metal. Metal such as nickel, brass, or bronze that does not include
any appreciable amount of iron.
Nonflammable. Not easily ignited, or if ignited, not burning with a flame
(smolders).
Nonionizing radiation. Electromagnetic radiation that does not cause ioniza-
tion. Includes ultraviolet, laser, infrared, microwave, and radio frequency
radiation.
Nonpolar solvents. The aromatic and petroleum hydrocarbon groups charac-
terized by low dielectric constants.
Nonvolatile matter. The portion of a material that does not evaporate at ordi-
nary temperature.
No Observable Effect Level (NOEL). In toxicology the concentration of a
substance at (and below) which exposure produces no evidence of injury
or impairment.
Normal pulse (conventional pulse). Heartbeat; also, a single output event
whose pulse duration is between 200 µs and 1 ms.
Nosocomial. Pertaining to (1) a hospital; (2) disease caused or aggravated by
hospital life.
NRC. Nuclear Regulatory Commission of the U.S. Department of Energy.
NRR. Noise Reduction Rating of hearing protection. EPA requires manufac-
turers to print attenuation potential (NRR) on the packaging of all hearing
protection devices.
NTP. National Toxicology Program.
Nuclear battery. A device in which the energy emitted by decay of a radio-
isotope is first converted to heat and then directly to electricity.
Nuclear bombardment. The shooting of atomic projectiles at nuclei, usually
in an attempt to split the atom or to form a new element.
Glossary 317
Nuclear energy. The energy released in a nuclear reaction such as fission or

fusion. Nuclear energy is popularly, although mistakenly, called atomic
energy.
Nuclear explosion. The rapid fissioning of a large amount of fissionable mate-
rial; creates intense heat, a light flash, a heavy blast, and a large amount
of radioactive fission products. These may be attached to dust and debris,
forming fallout. Nuclear explosions also result from nuclear fusion, which
does not produce radioactive fission products.
Nuclear reaction. Result of the bombardment of a nucleus with atomic or
subatomic particles or very high-energy radiation. Possible reactions are
emission of other particles, fission, fusion, and the decay of radioactive
material.
Nuclear reactor. A machine for producing a controlled chain reaction in fis-
sionable material. It is the heart of nuclear power facilities, where it serves
as a heat source. See Reactor.
Nucleonics. The application of nuclear science and techniques in physics,
chemistry, astronomy, biology, industry, and other fields.
Nucleus. The inner core of the atom; consists of neutrons and protons tightly
locked together.. .
Nuclide. A type of atom characterized by its mass number, atomic number, and
energy state of the nucleus, provided that the mean life in that state is
long enough to be observable.
Nuisance dust. Dust with a long history of little adverse effect on the lungs;
does not produce significant organic disease or toxic effect when expo-
sures are kept at reasonable levels.
Null point. The distance from a contaminant source at which the initial energy
or velocity of the contaminants is dissipated, allowing the material to be
captured by a hood.
N-unit (or n-unit). A measure of radiation dose caused by fast neutrons.
Nutrient. A substance that can be used for food.
Occupational Health Nursing (OHN). Specialized nursing practice providing
health-care service to workers and worker populations.
Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC). An inde-
pendent body established to review actions of federal OSHA that are
contested by employers, employees, or their representatives.
Occupied zone. The region within an occupied space between the floor and 72
inches above the floor and more than 2 feet from the walls for fixed air-
conditioning equipment (from ASHRAE Standard 55-1992).
Octave. The interval between two sounds having a basic frequency ratio of two.
Octave band. An arbitrary spread of frequencies. The top frequency in an
octave band is always twice the bottom frequency. The octave band may
be referred to by a center frequency.
Ocul-, oculo-, ophthalmo- (prefix). The eye; ophth- refers more often to eye
diseases.
Odor. That property of a substance that affects the sense of smell.
Odorant. Any substance with an odor.
Odor control. Absorption (e.g., activated charcoal), oxidation, liquid scrub-

bing, odor masking.
Odor threshold. The minimum concentration of a substance at which a major-
ity of test subjects can detect and identify the characteristic odor of a
substance.
Ohm (Ω Ω). The unit of electrical resistance.
Ohm’s law. Voltage in a circuit is equal to the current times the resistance.
Oil dermatitis. Blackheads and acne caused by oils and waxes that plug the
hair follicles and sweat ducts.
Olecranon fossa. A depression in the back of the lower end of the humerus in
which the ulna rests when the arm is straight.
olf. From “olfactory.” A perceived air quality term that attempts to quantify a
given pollution load. One person creates 1 olf of bioeffluents. If there are
10 m3 of floor space per person, then people create 0.1 olf per square
meter. Other sources are compared and quantified by olfs. For example,
if 40% of the people smoke, this adds 0.2 olf/m2 to the load.
Olfactory. Pertaining to the sense of smell.
Olfactory fatigue. The tendency for the odor threshold to shift following
extended exposure to an odor.
Olfactory thresholds. Upper and lower concentration at which people detect
odors; varies with individuals.
Olefins. A class of unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by relatively great
chemical activity. Obtained from petroleum and natural gas. Examples
are butene, ethylene, and propylene. Generalized formula: CnH2n.
Olig-, oligo- (prefix). Scanty, few, little. Oliguria means scanty urination.
Oncogenic. Tumor generating.
Oncology. Study of causes, development, characteristics, and treatment of
tumors.
Opacity. The condition of being nontransparent; a cataract.
Ophthalmologist. A physician who specializes in the structure, function, and
diseases of the eye.
Optical density (OD). A logarithmic expression of the attenuation afforded by
a filter.
Optically pumped laser. A type of laser that derives its energy from a nonco-
herent light source, such as a xenon flash lamp; usually pulsed and com-
monly called a solid state laser.
Organ. An organized collection of tissues that have a special and recognized
function.
Organic. Chemicals that contain carbon. To date, nearly 1 million organic
compounds have been synthesized or isolated. See also Inorganic.
Organic disease. Disease in which some charge in the structure of body tissue
could either be visualized or positively inferred from indirect evidence.
Organic matter. Compounds containing carbon.
Organism. A living thing, such as a human being, animal, germ, plant, and so
on, especially one consisting of several parts, each specializing in a par-
ticular function.
Glossary 319
Organ of Corti. The heart of the hearing mechanism; an aggregation of nerve

cells in the ear lying on the basilar membrane that picks up vibrations
and converts them to electrical energy, which is sent to the brain and
interpreted as sound.
Orifice. (1) The opening that serves as an entrance and/or outlet of a body
cavity or organ, especially the opening of a canal or a passage. (2) A small
hole in a tube or duct. A critical or limiting orifice is used to control rate
of flow of a gas in rotometers and other air-sampling equipment.
Orifice meter. A flowmeter, employing as the measure of a flow rate the
difference between pressures measured on the upstream and downstream
sides of a restriction within a pipe or duct.
Ortho- (prefix). Straight, correct, normal. Orthopsychiatry is the specialty con-
cerned with “straightening out” behavioral disorders.
Orthoaxis. The true anatomical axis about which a limb rotates, as opposed to
the assumed axis. The assumed axis is usually the most obvious or geo-
metric one; the orthoaxis is less evident and can only be found by the use
of anatomical landmarks.
Os-, oste-, osteo- (prefix). Pertaining to bone. The Latin os- is most often
associated with anatomical structures, whereas the Greek osteo- usually
refers to conditions involving bone. Osteogenesis means formation of
bone.
Oscillation. The variation, usually with time, of the magnitude of a quantity
with respect to a specified reference when the magnitude is alternatively
greater and smaller than the reference.
OSHA. U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
OSHA 200 Log. Record keeping of employee injuries and illnesses is required
by OSHA standard; OSHA 200 Log is a format that contains the necessary
required details. It may be used by employers and is available from OSHA.
Osmosis. The passage of fluid through a semipermeable membrane as a result
of osmotic pressure.
Osseous. Pertaining to bone.
Ossicle. One of three small bones in the ear that connects the eardrum with the
oval window of the inner ear.
Ot-, oto- (prefix). Pertaining to the ear. Otorrhea means ear discharge.
Otitis media. An inflammation and infection of the middle ear.
Otologist. A physician specializing in surgery and diseases of the ear.
Otosclerosis. A condition of the ear caused by growth of body tissue about the
foot plate of the stapes and oval window of the inner ear; results in a
gradual loss of hearing.
Outdoor air (OA). “Fresh” air mixed with return air (RA) to dilute contami-
nants in the supply air (SA).
Output power and output energy. Power is used primarily to rate CW lasers
because the energy delivered per unit time remains relatively constant
(output measured in watts). In contrast, pulsed lasers deliver their energy
output in pulses and their effects may be best categorized by energy output
per pulse. The output power of CW lasers is usually expressed in milli-
watts or watts, pulsed lasers in kilowatts, and q-switched pulsed lasers in

megawatts or gigawatts. Pulsed energy output is usually expressed as
joules per pulse.
Overexposure. Exposure beyond the specified limits.
Oxidation. Process of combining oxygen with some other substance; techni-
cally, a chemical change in which an atom loses one or more electrons.
Opposite of reduction.
Oxygen deficiency. A point at which the concentration (or partial pressure) of
oxygen in air is inadequate. Various concentrations may be “deficient”;
two are 18% and 16% by volume in air. Another definition of deficient is
oxygen partial pressure less than 120 mmHg.
PAH. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons.
Pair production. The conversion of a gamma ray into a pair of particles: an
electron and a positron. That is an example of direct conversion of energy
into matter according to Einstein’s famous formula, E = mc2: energy =
mass × velocity of light squared.
Palmar arch. Blood vessels in the palm of the hand from which the arteries
supplying blood to the fingers are branched. Pressure against the palmar
arch by poorly designed tool handles may cause ischemia of the fingers
and loss of tactile sensation and precision of movement.
Palpitation. Rapid heartbeat of which a person is acutely aware.
Papilloma. A small growth or tumor of the skin or mucous membrane; warts
and polyps, for example.
Papule. A small, solid, usually conical elevation of the skin.
Papulovesicular. Characterized by the presence of papules and vesicles.
Para- (prefix). Alongside, near, abnormal; as in paraproctitus, inflammation of
tissues near the rectum. A Latin suffix with the same spelling, -para,
denotes bearing or giving birth, as in multipara, a woman who has given
birth to two or more children.
Paraffins, paraffin series. From parm affinis — small affinity. Straight or
branched-chain hydrocarbon components of crude oil and natural gas
whose molecules are saturated (that is, carbon atoms attached to each
other by single bonds) and therefore very stable. Examples are methane
and ethane. Generalized formula: CnH2n+2.
Parasite. An organism that derives its nourishment from a living plant of animal
host. Does not necessarily cause a disease.
Parenchyma. The distinguished or specific (working) tissue of a bodily gland
or organ, contained in and supported by the connected tissue framework,
or stroma.
Parent. Precursor; the name given to a radioactive product or daughter.
Partial barrier. An enclosure constructed so that sound transmission between
its interior and its surroundings is minimized.
Particle. Also, aerosol. A small, discrete solid or liquid matter in air. Could
include smokes, fogs, mists, dusts, fumes, or sprays.
Glossary 321
Particle concentration. Concentration expressed in terms of number of parti-

cles per unit volume of air or other gas. When expressing particle con-
centrations, the method of determining the concentration should be stated.
Particle size. The measured dimension of liquid or solid particles, usually in
microns.
Particle size distribution. The statistical distribution of the sizes or ranges of
size of a population of particles.
Particulate. A particle of solid or liquid.
Particulate matter. A suspension of fine solid or liquid particles in air, such
as dust, fog, fume, mist, smoke, or sprays. Particulate matter suspended
in air is commonly known as an aerosol.
Path-, patho-, (prefix), -pathy (suffix). Feeling, suffering, disease. Pathogenic
means producing disease; enteropathy means disease of the intestines;
pathology is the medical specialty concerned with all aspects of disease.
The root appears in the everyday word sympathy (feeling with).
Pathogen. Any microorganism capable of causing disease.
Pathogenesis. Describes how a disease takes hold on the body and spreads.
Pathogenic. Producing or capable of producing disease.
Pathognomonic. Distinctive or characteristic of a specific disease or patholog-
ical condition; a sign or symptom from which a diagnosis can be made.
Pathological. Abnormal or diseased.
Pathology. The study of disease processes.
PEL. Permissible exposure limit. OSHA version of acceptable or upper-limit
exposure in the workplace.
Pelleting. In various industries, powdered material may be made into pellets or
briquettes for convenience. The pellet is a distinctly small briquette. See
Pelletizing.
Pelletizing. Refers primarily to extrusions and to some balled products. Gen-
erally regarded as being larger than grains and smaller than briquettes.
Percent impairment of hearing. Or percent hearing loss. An estimate of a
person’s ability to hear correctly; usually determined by the pure tone
audiogram. The specific rule for calculating this quantity varies from state
to state according to law.
Percutaneous. Performed through the unbroken skin, as by absorption of an
ointment through the skin.
Peri- (prefix). Around, about, surrounding. Periodontium is tissue that sur-
rounds and supports the teeth.
Periodic table. Systematic classification of the elements according to atomic
numbers (nearly the same order as by atomic weights) and by physical
and chemical properties.
Peripheral neuropathy. Deterioration of peripheral nerve function; affects the
hands, arms, feet, and legs. Certain hydrocarbon solvents are known to
cause peripheral neuropathies in overexposed individuals.
Permanent disability or permanent impairment. The partial or complete loss
or impairment of any part or function of the body.
Permeation. Process by which a chemical moves through a protective clothing

material on a molecular level.
Permissible dose. See MPC, MPL.
Permissible exposure limit (PEL). An exposure limit published and enforced
by OSHA as legal standard.
Personal protective equipment. Devices worn by the worker to protect against
hazards in the environment. Respirators, gloves, and hearing protectors
are examples.
Person–machine Interface. Points of perceptual or physical contact between
people and the equipment they work with; also “man/machine” interface.
Pesticides. General term for chemical used to kill such pests as rats, insects,
fungi, bacteria, weeds, and so on, that prey on humans or agricultural
products. Among these are insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenti-
cides, miticides, fumigants, and repellents.
Petrochemical. A term applied to chemical substances produced from petro-
leum products and natural gas.
PF. Protection factor. In respirator usage, PF refers to the ratio of the concen-
tration outside the mask to that inside (e.g., if the concentration outside
is 100 ppm and the concentration inside is 5 ppm, then PF = 100/5 = 20).
PH. The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution, with neutrality indicated
as 7.
Phagocyte. A cell in the body that engulfs foreign material and consumes debris
and foreign bodies.
Phalanx (pl. phalanges). Any of the bones of the fingers or toes. Often used
as anatomical reference points in ergonomic work analysis.
Pharmaceuticals. Drugs and related chemicals reaching the public primarily
through drug suppliers. In government reports, this category includes not
only such medicinals as aspirin and antibiotics but also such nutrients as
vitamins and amino acids for both human and animal use.
Pharyngeal. Pertaining to the pharynx (the musculo-membranous sac between
the mouth, nares, and esophagus).
Phenol. C6H5OH. Popularly known as carbolic acid; important chemical inter-
mediate and base for plastics, pharmaceuticals, explosives, antiseptics,
and many other end products.
Phenolic resins. A class of resins produced as the condensation product of
phenol or substituted phenol and formaldehydes.
Phosphors. Fluorescent or luminescent materials.
Photochemical process. Chemical changes brought about by radiant energy
acting upon various chemical substances. See Photosynthesis.
Photoelectric effect. Occurs when an electron is thrown out of an atom by a
light ray or gamma ray. This effect is used in an “electric eye,” where
light falls on a sensitive surface throwing out electrons that can then be
detected.
Photoionization detector (PID). A direct-reading monitoring instrument that
operates by detecting and distinguishing between ions of vapors and gases
following ionization by the ultraviolet light source of the instrument.
Glossary 323
Photomultiplier tube. A vacuum tube that multiplies electron input.

Photon. A bundle (quantum) of radiation. Constitutes, for example, X rays,
gamma rays, and light.
Photophobia. Abnormal sensitivity to light.
Photopic vision. Vision attributed to cones of the eye; the ability to discriminate
small detail and color; usually associated with vision in daylight.
Photosynthesis. The process by which plants produce carbohydrates and oxy-
gen from carbon dioxide and water.
Physical hazards of chemicals. A chemical for which there is scientifically
valid evidence that it is a combustible liquid, a compressed gas, explosive,
flammable, an organic peroxide, an oxidizer, pyrochloric, unstable (reac-
tive), or water reactive.
Physiology. The study of the functions in disease or modified by a disease.
Physiopathology. The science of functions in disease or modified by a disease.
Pig. (1) A container (usually lead) used to ship or store radioactive materials.
The thick walls protect workers from radiation. (2) In metal refining, a
small ingot from the casting of blast furnace metal.
Pigment. A finely divided insoluble substance that imparts color to a material.
Pilot facility. Small-scale operation preliminary to major enterprises. Common
in the chemical industry.
Pinch point. Any point at which it is possible to be caught between the moving
parts, stationary parts, or the material being processed. See also Nip point.
Pink noise. Noise that has been weighted, especially at the low end of the
spectrum, so that the energy per band (usually octave band) is approxi-
mately constant over the spectrum.
Pinna. Ear flap; the part of the ear that projects from the head. Also known as
the auricle.
Pitch. The attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds may be
ordered on a scale extending from low to high. Pitch depends primarily
on the frequency of the sound stimulus, but also on the sound pressure
and waveform of the stimulus.
Pitot tube. A device consisting of two concentric tubes: one serving to measure
the total or impact pressure existing in the airstream; the other to measure
the static pressure only. When the annular space between the tubes and
the interior of the center tube are connected across a pressure-measuring
device, the pressure difference automatically nullifies the static pressure,
and the velocity pressure alone is registered.
Plasma. (1) The fluid part of the blood in which the blood cells are suspended.
Also called protoplasm. (2) Gas that has been heated to a partially or
completely ionized condition, enabling it to conduct an electric current.
Plasma arc welding (PAW). A process that produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with a constricted arc between an electrode and the work-
piece (transferred arc) or between the electrode and the constricting nozzle
(nontransferred arc). Shielding is obtained by the hot, ionized gas issuing
from the orifice, which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of
shielding gas. Shielding gas can be an inert gas or a mixture of gases.
Pressure may or may not be used and filler metal may or may not be
supplied.
Plastics. Any one of a large group of materials that contains as an essential
ingredient an organic substance of large molecular weight. Two basic
types are thermosetting (irreversibly rigid) and thermoplastic (reversibly
rigid). Before compounding and processing, plastics often are referred to
as (synthetic) resins. Final form may be a film, sheet, solid, or foam
(flexible or rigid).
Plasticizers. Organic chemicals used in modifying plastics, synthetic rubber,
and processing, and to impart flexibility to the end product.
Plenum. Pressure equalizing chamber.
Plenum chamber. An air compartment connected to one or more ducts or
connected to a slot in a hood; used for air distribution.
Pleura. The thin membrane investing the lungs and lining the thoracic cavity,
completely enclosing a potential space known as the pleural cavity. There
are two pleurae, right and left, entirely distinct from each other. The pleura
is moistened with a secretion that facilitates the movements of the lungs
and the chest.
Pleurisy. Condition caused when the outer lung lining (visceral pleura) and the
chest cavity’s inner lining (parietal pleura) lose their lubricating proper-
ties; the resultant friction causes irritation and pain.
Plumbism. A name for lead intoxication.
Plume trap. An exhaust ventilation hood designed to remove the plume given
off the target on impact of a laser beam.
Plutonium. A heavy element that undergoes fission under the impact of neu-
trons. It is a useful fuel in nuclear reactors. Plutonium cannot be found
in nature, but can be produced and “burned” in reactors.
Pneumo- (Greek), pulmo- (Latin) (prefix). Pertaining to the lungs.
Pneumoconiosis. Dusty lungs; a result of the continued inhalation of various
kinds of dust or other particles.
Pneumoconiosis-producing dust. Dust that, when inhaled, deposited, and
retained in the lungs, may produce signs, symptoms, and findings of
pulmonary disease.
Pneumonitis. Inflammation of the lungs.
Poison. (1) A material introduced into the reactor core to absorb neutrons. (2)
Any substance that, when taken into the body, is injurious to health.
Poison, Class A. A U.S. DOT hazard class for extremely dangerous poisons,
that is, poisonous gases or liquids of such nature that a very small amount
of the gas, or vapor of the liquid, mixed with air is dangerous to life.
Some examples: phosgene, cyanogen, hydrocyanic acid, and nitrogen
peroxide.
Poison, Class B. A U.S. DOT hazard class for liquid, solid, paste, or semisolid
substances (other than Class A poisons or irritating materials) that are
known (or presumed on the basis of animal tests) to be so toxic to humans
as to afford a hazard to health during transportation. Some examples:
arsenic, beryllium chloride, cyanide, mercuric oxide.
Glossary 325
Polarography. A physical analysis method for determining certain atmospheric

pollutants that are electroreducible or electro-oxidizable and are in true
solution and stable for the duration of the measurement.
Polar solvents. Solvents (such as alcohols and keytones) that contain oxygen
and that have high dielectric constants.
Pollution. Synthetic contamination of soil, water, or atmosphere beyond that
which is natural.
Poly- (prefix). Many.
Polycythemia. A condition marked by an excess in the number of red corpus-
cles in the blood.
Polymer. A high-molecular-weight material formed by the joining together of
many simple molecules (monomers). There may be hundreds or even
thousands of the original molecules linked end to end and often cross-
linked. Rubber and cellulose are naturally occurring polymers. Most resins
are chemically produced polymers.
Polymerization. A chemical reaction in which two or more small molecules
combine to form larger molecules (polymers) that contain repeating struc-
tural units of the original molecules. A hazardous polymerization is one
with an uncontrolled release of energy.
Polystyrene resins. Synthetic resins formed by polymerization of styrene.
Popliteal clearance. Distance between the front of the seating surface and the
popliteal crease. This should be about 5 in. in good seat design to prevent
pressure on the popliteal artery.
Popliteal crease (or line). The crease in the hollow of the knee when the lower
leg is flexed. Important anatomical reference point.
Popliteal height of chair. The height of the highest part of the seating surface
above the floor.
Popliteal height of individual. The distance between the crease in the hollow
of the knee and the floor.
Porphyrin. One of a group of complex chemical substances that forms the
basis of he respiratory pigments of animals and plants; hemoglobin and
chlorophyll are other examples.
Portal. Place of entrance.
Portland cement. See Cement, Portland.
Positive displacement pump. Any type of air mover pump in which leakage
is negligible, so that the pump delivers a constant volume of fluid, building
up to any pressure necessary to deliver that volume.
Positron. A particle that has the same weight and charge as an electron but is
electrically positive rather than negative. The existence of the positron
was predicted in theory years before it was actually detected. It is not
stable in matter because it reacts readily with an electron to yield two
gamma rays.
Potential energy. Energy due to position of one body with respect to another
or to the relative parts of the same body.
Pound-mole. The molecular weight equivalent of a material in pounds, e.g.,
one pound-mole of water is 18 lb (h = 1 + 1, O =16).
Power. Rate at which work is done; measured in watts (1 joule per second) and
horsepower (33,000 foot-pounds per minute); 1 horsepower equals 746
watts.
Power density. The intensity of electromagnetic radiation per unit area,
expressed as watts/cm.
Power level. Ten times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of a given
power to a reference power; measured in decibels.
ppb. Parts per billion.
PPE. See Personal protective equipment.
ppm. Parts per million parts of air by volume of a vapor or gas or other
contaminant.
Precision. The degree of agreement (expressed in terms of distribution of test
results about the mean result) of repeated measurements of the same
property, obtained by repetitive testing of a homogeneous sample under
specified conditions. The precision of a method is expressed quantitatively
as the standard deviation, computed from the results of a series of con-
trolled determinations.
Presby- (prefix). Old. As in presbyopia, eye changes associated with aging.
Presbycusis. Hearing loss due to aging. Usually occurs in nerve cells in cochlea.
Presence-sensing device. A device designed to detect an intrusion into a
defined danger zone and to cause the potential harmful action to cease.
Pressure. Force applied to or distributed over a surface; measured as force per
unit area. See also Atmospheric pressure; Gauge pressure; Standard tem-
perature and pressure; Static pressure; Pressure total; Vapor pressure; and
Velocity pressure.
Pressure drop. The difference in static pressure measured at two locations in
a ventilation system; caused by friction or turbulence.
Pressure loss. Energy lost from a pipe or duct system through friction or
turbulence.
Pressure, static. The potential pressure exerted in all directions by a fluid at
rest. It is the tendency either to burst or to collapse the pipe. Usually
expressed in “inches of water gauge” when dealing with air. See also
Static pressure.
Pressure, total. In the theory of the flow of fluids, the sum of the static pressure
and the velocity pressure at the point of measurement. Also called dynamic
pressure.
Pressure, vapor. See Vapor pressure.
Pressure vessel. A storage tank or vessel designed to operate at pressures
greater than 15 psig (103 kPa).
PRF laser. A pulsed recurrence frequency laser, which is a pulsed-type laser
with properties similar to a CW laser when the frequency is very high.
Probe. A tube used for sampling or for measuring pressures at a distance from
the actual collection or measuring apparatus; commonly used for reaching
inside stacks or ducts.
Process safety management (PSM). Encompassing safety concept for the
chemical processing industry that is mandated and regulated in the OSHA
Glossary 327
process safety management standard. In PSM, potential hazards are sys-

tematically analyzed for each step of a chemical process.
Product liability. The liability a merchant or a manufacturer may incur as the
result of some defect in the product sold or manufactured, or the liability
a contractor might incur after job completion from improperly performed
work.
Prokaryote. Single-celled organism lacking mitochondria and a defined
nucleus. Usually has a cell wall. Describes primarily bacterial organisms.
Proliferation. The reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially
of cells and morbid cysts.
Pronation. Rotation of the forearm in a direction to face the palm downward
when the forearm is horizontal, and backward when the forearm is vertical.
Propagation of flame. The spread of flame through the entire volume of a
flammable vapor–air mixture from a single source of ignition. A vapor–air
mixture below the lower flammable limit may burn at the point of ignition
without propagating from the ignition source.
Prophylactic. Preventive treatment for protection against disease.
Protection factor (PF). In respiratory protective equipment, the ratio of the
ambient airborne concentration of the contaminant to the concentration
inside the face piece.
Protective atmosphere. A gas envelope surrounding an element to be brazed,
welded, or thermal-sprayed with the gas composition controlled with
respect to chemical composition, dew point, pressure, flow rate, and so on.
Protective coating. A thin layer of metal or organic material, applied as paint
to a surface to protect it from oxidation, weathering, and corrosion.
Proteins. Large molecules found in the cells of all animal and vegetable matter
containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes sulfur
and phosphorus. The fundamental structural units of proteins are amino
acids.
Proteolytic. Capable of splitting or digesting proteins into simpler compounds.
Proton. A fundamental unit of matter having a positive charge and a mass
number of one.
Protoplasm. The basic material from which all living tissue is made. Physically,
it is a viscous, translucent, semifluid colloid, composed mainly of proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, salts, and water.
Protozoa. Single-celled microorganisms belonging to the animal kingdom.
Proximal. The part of a limb that is closest to the point of attachment. The
elbow is proximal to the wrist, which is proximal to the fingers.
psi. Pounds per square inch. For technical accuracy, pressure must be expressed
as psig (pounds per square inch gauge) or psia (pounds per square inch
absolute); that is, gauge pressure plus sea level atmospheric pressure, of
psig plus about 14.7 pounds per square inch).
psig. Pounds per square inch gauge. See psi.
Psittacosis. Parrot fever. An infectious disease of birds to which poultry han-
dlers and other workers exposed to dried bird feces are at risk. Caused
by Chlamydia psittaci. The most noted symptom of the disease among

humans is fever.
Psych-, psycho- (prefix). Pertaining to the mind, from the Greek for soul.
Psychogenic deafness. Loss originating in or produced by the mental reaction
of individuals to their physical or social environment. It is sometimes
called functional deafness or feigned deafness.
Psychogenic disease. Real or perceived health effects that originate in mental
or emotional reactions to physical or social environments.
Psychrometer. An instrument consisting of wet- and dry-bulb thermometers
for measuring relative humidity.
Psychrometric chart. A graphical representation of the thermodynamic prop-
erties of moist air.
Pterygium. A growth of the conjunctiva caused by a degenerative process
brought on by long, continued irritation (as from exposure to wind, dust,
and possibly ultraviolet radiation).
Pulmonary. Pertaining to the lungs.
Pulsed laser. A class of laser characterized by operation in a pulsed mode; that
is, emission occurs in one or more flashes of short duration (pulse length).
Pulse length. Duration of a pulsed laser flash; may be measured in milliseconds,
microseconds, or nanoseconds.
Pulvation. The act of particles being emitted or induced to become airborne;
term coined by Hemeon.
Pumice. A natural silicate from volcanic ash or lava. Used as an abrasive.
Pupil. The variable aperture in the iris through which light travels toward the
interior regions of the eye. The pupil size varies from 2 to 8 mm.
Pur-, pus- (Latin), Pyo- (Greek) (prefix). Indicates pus, as in purulent, sup-
portive, pustulant, and pyoderma.
Purefaction. Decomposition of proteins by microorganisms, producing dis-
agreeable odors.
Pure tone. A sound wave characterized by its singleness of frequency.
Purpura. Extensive hemorrhage into the skin or mucous membrane.
Push–pull hood. A local exhaust hood that has an air jet, opposite the hood
intake, which pushes a stream of air across the control surface toward the
exhaust opening.
Pyel-, pyelo- (prefix). Pertaining to the urine-collecting chamber of the kidney.
Pyloric stenosis. Obstruction of the pyloric opening of the stomach caused by
hypertrophy of the pyloric sphincter.
Pylorus. The orifice of the stomach leading to the small intestine.
Pyr-, pyret- (prefix). Fever.
Pyrethrum. A pesticide obtained from the dried, powdered flowers of the plant
of the same name; mixed with petroleum distillates, it is used as an
insecticide.
Pyrolysis. The breaking apart of complex molecules into simpler units by the
use of heat, as in the pyrolysis of heavy oil into gasoline.
QF. See Quality factor.
Glossary 329
Q fever. Disease caused by a rickettsial organism that infects meat and livestock
handlers; similar but not identical to tick fever.
Q-switched laser. Also known as Q-spoiled. A pulsed laser capable of
extremely high peak powers for very short durations (pulse length of
several nanoseconds).
Qualitative fit testing. A method of assessing the effectiveness of a particular
size and brand of respirator based on an individual’s subjective response
to a test atmosphere. The most common test agents are isoamyl acetate
(banana oil), irritant smoke, and sodium saccharin. Proper respirator fit
is indicated by the individual reporting no indication of the test agent
inside the face piece during the performance of a full range of facial
movements.
Quality. A term used to describe the penetrating power of X rays or gamma
rays.
Quality assurance (Quality control). A management function to ensure that
the products or goods are produced as intended.
Quality factor. A linear energy transfer–dependent factor by which absorbed
radiation doses are to be multiplied to obtain the dose equivalent.
Quantitative fit testing. A method of assessing the effectiveness of a particular
size and brand of respirator on an individual. Instrumentation is used to
measure both the test atmosphere (a gas, vapor, or aerosol, such as DOP)
and the concentration of the test contaminant inside the face piece of the
respirator. The quantitative fit factor thus obtained is used to determine if
a suitable fit has been obtained by referring to a table or to the software
of the instrumentation. Quantitative fit factors obtained in this way do not
correlate well with Assigned Protection Factors, which are based on actual
measurements of levels of contaminant inside the face piece during actual
work.
Quantum. “Bundle of energy”; discrete particle of radiation; pl. quanta.
Quartz. Vitreous, hard, chemically resistant, free silica, the most common form
in nature. The main constituent in sandstone, igneous rocks, and common
sands.
Quenching. A heat-treating operation in which metal raised to the desired
temperature is quickly cooled by immersion in an oil bath.
Rabbit. A capsule that carries samples in and out of an atomic reactor through
a pneumatic tube to permit study of the effect of intense radiation on
various materials.
rad. Roentgen absorbed dose or radiation absorbed dose; a standard unit of
absorbed ionizing radiation dose equal to 100 erg absorbed per gram.
Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging). A radio detecting instrument able to
measure distance to an object, among other characteristics.
Radial deviation. Flexion of the hand that decreases the angle between its
longitudinal axis and radius. Tool design should minimize radial deviation.
Strength of grasp is diminished in radial deviation.
Radian. An arc of a circle equal in length to the radius.
Radiant temperature. The temperature resulting from a body absorbing radi-

ant energy.
Radiation (nuclear). The emission of atomic particles or electromagnetic radi-
ation from the nucleus of an atom.
Radiation protection guide (RPG). The radiation dose that should not be
exceeded without careful consideration of the reasons for doing so; every
effort should be made to encourage the maintenance of radiation doses
as far below this guide as practicable.
Radiation (radioactivity). See Ionizing radiation.
Radiation source. An apparatus or material emitting or capable of emitting
ionizing radiation.
Radiation (thermal). The transmission of energy by means of electromagnetic
waves longer than visible light. Radiant energy of any wavelength may,
when absorbed, become thermal energy and result in an increase in the
temperature of the absorbing body.
Radiator. That which is capable of emitting energy in waveform.
Radioactive. The property of an isotope or element that is characterized by
spontaneous decay to emit radiation.
Radioactivity. Emission of energy in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma radi-
ation from the nucleus of an atom. Always involves change of one kind
of atom into a different kind. A few elements, such as radium, are naturally
radioactive. Other radioactive forms are induced. See also Radioisotope.
Radioactivity concentration guide (RCG). The concentration of radioactivity
in the environment that is determined to result in organ doses equal to the
radiation protection guide (RPG).
Radiochemical. Any compound or mixture containing a sufficient portion of
radioactive elements to be detected by a Geiger counter.
Radiochemistry. The branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and
behavior of radioactive materials.
Radiodiagnosis. A method of diagnosis that involves X-ray examination.
Radiohumeral joint. Part of the elbow. Not truly a joint, but a thrust bearing.
Radioisotope. A radioactive isotope of an element. A radioisotope can be
produced by placing material in a nuclear reactor and bombarding it with
neutrons. Many of the fission products are radioisotopes. Sometimes used
as tracers, as energy sources for chemical processing or food pasteuriza-
tion, or as heat sources for nuclear batteries. Radioisotopes are at present
the most widely used outgrowth of atomic research and are one of the
most important peacetime contributions of nuclear energy.
Radionuclide. A radioactive nuclide; one that have the capability of spontane-
ously emitting radiation.
Radioresistant. Relatively invulnerable to the effect of radiation.
Radiosensitive. Tissues that are more easily damaged by radiation.
Radiotherapy. Treatment of human ailments with the application of relatively
high roentgen dosages.
Radium. One of the earliest-known naturally radioactive elements. It is far
more radioactive than uranium and is found in the same ores.
Glossary 331
Radius. The long bone of the forearm in line with the thumb; the active element
in the forearm during pronation (inward rotation) and supination (outward
notation). Also provides the forearm connection to the wrist joint.
Rale. Any abnormal sound or noise in the lungs.
Random noise. A sound or electrical wave whose instantaneous amplitudes
occur as a function of time, according to a normal (Gaussian) distribution
curve. Random noise is an oscillation whose instantaneous magnitude is
not specified for any given instant of time. The instantaneous magnitudes
of a random noise are specified only by probability functions giving the
fraction of the total time that the magnitude, or some sequence of the
magnitudes, lies within a specified range.
Rare earths. Originally, the elements in the periodic table with atom numbers
57 through 71. Often included are numbers 39 and, less often, 21 and 90.
Emerging uses include the manufacture of special steels and glasses.
Rash. Abnormal reddish coloring or blotch on some part of the skin.
Rated-line voltage. The range of potentials, in volts, of the supply line specified
by the manufacturer at which an X-ray machine is designed to operate.
Rated output current. The maximum allowable lead current of an X-ray high-
voltage generator.
Rated output voltage. The allowable peak potential, in volts, at the output
terminals of an X-ray high-voltage generator.
Raynaud’s syndrome phenomenon. Abnormal constriction of the blood ves-
sels of the fingers on exposure to cold temperature.
RBE. Relative biological effectiveness; the relative effectiveness of the same
absorbed dose of two ionizing radiations in producing a measurable bio-
logical response.
RCG. See Radioactivity concentration guide.
Reaction. A chemical transformation or change; the interaction of two or more
substances to form new substances.
Reactivity (chemical). The susceptibility of a substance to undergo a chemical
reaction or change that may result in dangerous side effects, such as an
explosion, burning, and corrosive or toxic emissions.
Reactor. An atomic “furnace” or nuclear reactor. In a reactor, nuclei of the fuel
undergo controlled fission under the influence of neutrons. The fission
produces new neutrons in a chain reaction that releases large amounts of
energy. This energy is removed as heat that can be used to make steam.
The moderator for the first reactor was piled-up blocks of graphite. Thus,
a nuclear reactor was formerly referred to as a pile. Reactors are usually
classified now as research, test, process heat, and power, depending on
their principal function. No workable design for a controlled fusion reactor
has yet been devised.
Reagent. Any substance used in a chemical reaction to produce, measure,
examine, or detect another substance.
Receiving hood. A one- or two-sided overhead hood that receives rising hot
air or gas.
Recommended exposure limit (REL). An exposure limit, generally a time-

weighted average, to a substance; developed by NIOSH based on toxico-
logical and industrial hygiene data.
Recoil energy. The energy emitted and shared by the reaction products when
a nucleus undergoes a nuclear reaction such as fission or radioactive decay.
Reduction. Addition of one or more electrons to an atom through chemical
change.
Reflectance. The ratio of light reflected from a surface to the light arriving at
the surface.
Refractories. Materials exceptionally resistant to the action of heat and hence
used for lining furnaces; examples are fire clay, magnesite, graphite, and
silica.
Regenerative process. Replacement of damaged cells by new cells.
Regimen. A regulation of the mode of living, diet, sleep, exercise, and so on
for a hygienic or therapeutic purpose; sometimes mistakenly called
regime.
Reid method. A method of determining the vapor pressure of a volatile hydro-
carbon by the Standard Method of Test for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum
Products, ASTM D232.
Relative biological effectiveness. See RCG.
Relative humidity. The ratio of the quantity of water vapor present in the air
to the quantity that would saturate it at any specific temperature.
Reliability. The degree to which an instrument, component, or system retains
its performance characteristics over a period of time.
rem. Roentgen equivalent man; a radiation dose unit that equals the dose in
rads multiplied by the appropriate value of relative biological effect or
quality factor for the particular radiation.
Renal. Having to do with the kidneys.
Replacement air. Also, compensating air, makeup air. Air supplied to a space
to replace exhausted air.
Replication. A fold or folding back; the act or process of duplicating or repro-
ducing something.
Resin. A solid or semisolid amorphous (noncrystalline) organic compound or
mixture of such compounds with no definite melting point and no tendency
to crystallize. May be of vegetable (gum arabic), animal (shellac), or
synthetic (celluloid) origin. Some resins may be molded, cast, or extruded.
Others are used as adhesives, in the treatment of textiles and paper, or as
protective coatings.
Resistance. (1) Opposition to the flow of air, as through a canister, cartridge,
particulate filter, or orifice. (2) A property of conductors, depending on
their dimensions, material, and temperature, that determines the current
produced by a given difference in electrical potential.
Resonance. Each object or volume of air resonates or strengthens a sound at
one or more particular frequencies. The frequency depends on the size
and construction of the object or air volume.
Glossary 333
Resonate. An object that resonates, strengthening the sound at a particular

frequency.
Respirable-size particulates. Paticulates in a size range that permits them to
penetrate deep into the lungs upon inhalation.
Respirator. A device that protects the wearer from inhalation of harmful con-
taminants.
Respiratory protection. Devices that protect the wearer’s respiratory system
from overexposure by inhalation to airborne contaminants.
Respiratory system. System consisting of the nose, mouth, nasal passages,
nasal pharynx, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, air sacs
(alveoli) of the lungs, and muscles of respiration.
Reticle. A scale or grid or other pattern located in the focus of the eyepiece of
a microscope.
Retina. The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that receives and transmits
images formed by the lens.
Retro- (prefix). Backward or behind.
Return air. Air that is returned from the primary space to the fan for recircu-
lation.
Reverberatory furnace. A furnace in which heat is supplied by burning fuel
in a space between the charge and the low roof.
Reynolds number (Re). A unitless measure that describes the turbulence of a
material (e.g., water, air) as it flows; Re takes into consideration the size
of space (e.g., the diameter of a duct), and the velocity, density, and
viscosity of the material.
Rheumatoid. Resembling rheumatism, a disease marked by inflammation of
the connective tissue structures of the body, especially the membranous
linings of the joints, and by pain in these parts; eventually the joints
become stiff and deformed.
Rhin-, rhino- (prefix). Pertaining to the nose.
Rhinitis. Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining in the nasal passages.
Rickettsia. Rod-shaped microorganisms that grow within the cells of animals.
These human pathogens are often carried by arthropods.
Riser. In metal casting, a channel in a mold to permit escape of gases.
Risk. (1) An insurance term for insured value and another name for the insured
or prospective insured. (2) A term applied to the individual or combined
assessments of “probability of loss” and potential amount of loss.
rms average. Root mean square average. Root mean square is obtained by
squaring each entry in a timed set of numbers, adding all the squares,
dividing by the total time, and then taking the square root of that number.
Roasting of ores. A refining operation in which ore is heated to a high tem-
perature, sometimes with catalytic agents, to drive off certain impurities;
an example is the roasting of copper ore to remove sulfur.
Roentgen (R). A unit of radioactive or exposure. See rad.
Roentgenogram. A film produced by exposing X-ray film to X rays.
Roentgenography. Photography by means of roentgen rays. Special techniques

for roentgenography of different areas of the body have been given specific
names.
Rosin. Specifically applies to the resin of the pine tree and chiefly derives from
the manufacture of turpentine. Widely used in the manufacture of soap
and flux.
Rotometer. A flowmeter consisting of a precision-bored, tapered, transparent
tube with a solid float inside.
Rotary kiln. Any of several types of ovens used to heat material, as in the
Portland cement industry.
Rouge. A finely powdered form of iron oxide used as a polishing agent.
Route of entry. A path by which chemicals can enter the body. There are three
main routes of entry: inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption.
RTECS. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances.
SAE. Sampling and analytical error. The reason a particular sampling result
may vary from the true value. Quantitative estimates of SAE are often
used to develop a clear picture of the potential range of a given exposure.
Safe. A condition of relative freedom from danger.
Safeguarding. The term used to encompass all methods of protection against
injury or illness.
Safety. The control of recognized hazards to attain an acceptable level of risk.
Safety belt. A life belt worn by linesmen, window washers, etc., attached to a
secure object (window sill, etc.) to prevent falling. A seat or torso belt
securing a passenger in an automobile or airplane to provide body pro-
tection during a collision, sudden stop, air turbulence, etc.
Safety can. An approved container of not more than 5-gal (19-l) capacity having
a spring-loaded lid and spout cover and designed to relieve internal pres-
sure safely when exposed to fire.
Safety factor. See Factor of safety.
Safety program. Activities designed to assist employees in the recognition,
understanding, and control of hazards in the workplace.
Safety shoes. A term commonly used to describe protective footwear meeting
ANSI Z-41 requirements.
Sagittal plane. A plane from back to front vertically dividing the body into the
right and left portions. Important in anthropometric definitions. Midsag-
ittal plane is the sagittal plane symmetrically dividing the body.
Salamander. A small furnace, usually cylindrical in shape, without grates.
Salivation. An excessive discharge of saliva; ptyalism.
Salmonella. A genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped pathogenic bacteria.
Salt. A product of the reaction between an acid and a base. Table salt, for
example, is a compound of sodium and chlorine. It can be made by
reacting sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid.
Sampling. The withdrawal or isolation of a fractional part of a whole. In air
analysis, the separation of a portion of an ambient atmosphere with sub-
sequent analysis to determine concentration.
Glossary 335
Sandblasting. A process for cleaning metal castings and other surfaces with
sand projected by a high-pressure airstream.
Sandhog. Any worker performing tunneling work requiring atmospheric pres-
sure control.
Sanitize. To reduce the microbial flora in or on articles such as eating utensils
to levels judged safe by public health authorities.
Saprophyte. An organism living on dead organic matter.
Saprophytic. Obtaining nourishment from nonliving organic materials; related
to the growth of microorganisms in HVAC systems.
SARA. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act.
Sarcoma. Malignant tumors that arise in connective tissue.
Scattered radiation. Radiation that is scattered by interaction with object or
within tissue.
SCBA. Self-contained breathing apparatus.
scfm. Standard cubic feet per minute. Airflow rate at standard conditions; dry
air at 29.92 in. Hg gauge, 70°F.
Scintillation counter. A device for counting atomic particles by means of the
tiny flashes of light (scintillations) that particles produce when they strike
certain crystals or liquids.
Scler- (prefix). Hard, tough.
Sclera. The tough white outer coat of the eyeball.
Scleroderma. Hardening of the skin.
Scotoma. A blind or partially blind area in the visual field.
Scotopic vision. Vision attributed to rods of the eye; the inability to discriminate
small detail and color; usually associated with vision at night and for the
detection of movement and low-light-intensity vision.
Sealed source. A radioactive source sealed in a container or having a bonded
cover, in which the container or cover has sufficient mechanical strength
to prevent contact with and dispersion of the radioactive material.
Sebaceous. Of or related to fatty material.
Seborrhea. An oily skin condition caused by an excess output of sebum from
the sebaceous glands of the skin.
Self-ignition. See Autoignition temperature.
Self-insurance. A term used to describe the assumption of one’s own financial
risk.
Semicircular canals. The special organs of balance closely associated with the
hearing mechanism and the eighth cranial nerve.
Semiconductor or junction laser. A class of laser that normally produces
relatively low CW power outputs; can be tuned in wavelength and has the
greatest efficiency.
Sensation. The translation into consciousness of the effects of a stimulus excit-
ing a sense organ.
Sensible. Capable of being perceived by the sense organs.
Sensible heat. Heat manifested to body senses; the heat that fixes the temper-
ature of air; heat that, when added to air, changes its temperature.
Sensitivity. The minimum amount of contaminate that can repeatedly be

detected by an instrument.
Sensitization. The process of rendering an individual sensitive to the action of
a chemical.
Sensitizer. A material that can cause an allergic reaction of the skin or respi-
ratory system.
Sensorineural. Type of hearing loss that affects millions of people. If the inner
ear is damaged, the hearing loss is sensory; if the fibers of the eighth
nerve are affected, it is a neural hearing loss. Because the pattern of
hearing loss is the same in either case, the term sensorineural is used.. .
Sensory end organs. Receptor organs of the sensory nerves located in the skin.
Each end organ can sense only a specific type of stimulus. Primary stimuli
are heat, cold, or pressure, each requiring different end organs.
Sensory feedback. Use of external signals perceived by sense organs to indicate
quality or level of performance of an event triggered by voluntary action.
On the basis of sensory feedback information, decisions may be made;
for example, permitting or not permitting an event to run its course or
enhancing or decreasing activity levels.
Septicemia. Blood poisoning; growth of infectious organisms in the blood.
Septum. A dividing wall or partition; used as a general term in anatomical
nomenclature.
Sequestrants. Chelates used to deactivate undesirable properties of metal ions
without removing these ions from solution. Sequestrants have many uses,
including application as antigumming agents in gasoline, antioxidants in
rubber, and rancidity retardants in edible fats and oils.
Serious violation. Any violation in which there is a substantial probability that
death or serious physical harm could result from violating the conditions
of the OSHA Act.
Serum. (1) The clear fluid that separates from the blood during clotting. (2)
Blood serum-containing antibodies.
Shakeout. In the foundry industry, the separation of the solid, but still not cold,
casting from its molding sand.
Shakes. Common term for metal fume fever.
Shale. Many meanings in industry, but in geology, a common fossil rock formed
from clay, mud, or silt; somewhat stratified but without characteristic
cleavage.
Shale oil. Tarry oil distilled from bituminous shale.
Shaver’s disease. Bauxite pneumoconiosis.
Shell. Spheres centered on the nucleus of an atom. The electrons around the
nucleus of an atom are arranged in shells. The innermost shell is called
the K-shell, the next is called the L-shell, and so on to the Q-shell. The
nucleus itself may also have a shell-type structure.
Shielded-metal arc welding (SMAW). An arc-welding process that produces
coalescence of metal by heating them with an arc between a covered metal
electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the
Glossary 337
electrode covering. Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained from
the electrode.
Shield, shielding. Interposed material (such as a wall) that protect workers from
harmful radiations released by radioactive materials.
Shock. Primarily, the rapid fall in blood pressure following injury, a surgical
operation, or the administration of anesthesia.
Short-term exposure limit (STEL). ACGIH-recommended exposure limit.
Maximum concentration to which workers can be exposed for a short
period of time (15 min) only four times throughout the day with at least
1 hr between exposures. See TLV.
Shotblasting. A process for cleaning metal castings or other surfaces by small
steel shot in a high-pressure airstream; a substitute for sandblasting to
avoid silicosis.
SI. Systeme International d’Unités (International System of Units); the metric
system that is being adopted throughout the world. It is a modern version
of the MKSA (meter, kilogram, second, ampere) system, whose details
are published and controlled by an international treaty organization
financed by member states of the Metre Convention, including the United
States.
SIC. See Standard Industrial Classification Code.
Sick building syndrome (SBS). Usually refers to a class of complaints or
symptoms (e.g., discomfort, headache, urinary tract irritation) seen in IAQ
episodes.
Siderosis. The deposition of iron pigments in the lung; can be associated with
disease.
Sievert. Unit of absorbed radiation dose in gray times the quality factor of the
radiation in comparison with gamma radiation; 1 sievert = 100 rem.
Silica gel. Compounds of silicon, oxygen, and one or more metals with or
without hydrogen. These dusts cause nonspecific dust reactions, but gen-
erally do not interfere with pulmonary function or result in disability.
Silicates. Compounds consisting of oxygen, silicon, and one or more metals.
Silicon. A nonmetallic element that, next to oxygen, is the chief elementary
constituent of the earth’s crust.
Silicones. Unique group of compounds made by molecular combination of
silicon (or certain silicon compounds) with organic chemicals. Produced
in a variety of forms, including silicone fluids, resins, and rubber. Silicones
have special properties, such as water repellency, wide temperature resis-
tance, high durability, and great dielectric strength.
Silicosis. A disease of the lungs caused by the inhalation of silica dust.
Silver solder. A solder of varying components but usually containing an appre-
ciable amount of cadmium.
Simple tone (pure tone). (1) A sound wave whose instantaneous sound pressure
is a simple sinusoidal function of time. (2) A sound sensation characterized
by its singularity of pitch.
Sintering. Process of making coherent powder of earthy substances by heating
without melting.
Skin dose. A special instance of tissue dose referring to the dose immediately
on the surface of the skin.
Skin toxicity. See Dermal toxicity.
Slag. The dross of flux and impurities that rise to the surface of molten metal
during melting and refining.
Slot velocity. Linear flow rate through the opening in a slot-type hood (planting,
degreasing operations, and so on).
Sludge. Any muddy or slushy mass. Specifically, mud from a drill hole in
boring, muddy sediment in a steam boiler, or precipitated solid matter
arising from sewage treatment processes.
Slurry. A thick, creamy liquid resulting from the mixing and grinding of lime-
stone, clay, water, and other raw materials.. .
SMACNA. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning National Association.
Smelting. One step in the procurement of metals from ore; hence, to reduce,
to refine, to flux, or to scorify.
Smog. Irritating haze resulting from the sun’s effect on certain pollutants in the
air, notably automobile and industrial exhaust.
Smoke. An air suspension (aerosol) of particles originating from combustion
or sublimation; generally contains droplets as well as dry particles.
Tobacco, for example, produces a wet smoke composed of minute tarry
droplets.
Soap. Ordinarily a metal salt of a fatty acid, usually sodium stearate, sodium
oleate, sodium palmitate, or some combination of these.
Soapstone. Complex silicate of varied composition, similar to some talcs, with
wide industrial application, including rubber manufacture.
Solder. A material used for joining metal surfaces together by filling a joint or
covering a junction. The most commonly used solder contains lead and
tin; silver solder may contain cadmium. Zinc chloride and fluorides are
commonly used as fluxes to clean the soldered surfaces.
Solid-state laser. A type of laser that uses a solid crystal such as ruby or glass;
commonly used in pulsed lasers.
Solution. Mixture in which the components lose their individual properties and
are uniformly dispersed. All solutions are composed of a solvent (water
or other fluid) and a solute (the dissolved substance). A true solution is
homogeneous, as salt in water.
Solvent. A substance that dissolves another substance. Usually refers to organic
solvents.
Soma. Body, as distinct from psyche (mind).
Somatic. Pertaining to all tissue other than reproductive cells.
Somnolence. Sleepiness; also unnatural drowsiness.
Soot. Agglomerations of carbon particles impregnated with tar; formed in the
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material.
Sorbent. (1) A material that removes toxic gases and vapors from air inhaled
through a canister or cartridge. (2) Material used to collect gases and
vapors during air sampling.
Glossary 339
Sound. An oscillation in pressure, stress, particle displacement, particle veloc-

ity, and so on, propagated in an elastic material, in a medium with internal
forces (elastic or viscous, for example); or the superposition of such
propagated oscillations. Also the sensation produced through the organs
of hearing usually by vibrations transmitted in a material medium, com-
monly air.
Sound absorber. A material (e.g., air, fiberglass) capable of changing sound
energy into another form of energy, usually heat. Sound absorbers reduce
the sound by “absorbing” its energy.
Sound absorption. The change of sound energy into some other form, usually
heat, on passing through a medium or on striking a surface. Also, the
property possessed by materials and objects, including air, of absorbing
sound energy.
Sound absorption coefficient. The ratio of the sound energy absorbed by the
surface of a medium (or material) exposed to a sound field (or to sound
radiation) to the sound energy incident on that surface.
Sound analyzer. A device for measuring the band pressure level or pressure-
spectrum level of a sound as a function of frequency.
Sound level. A weighted sound-pressure level obtained by use of metering
characteristics and the weighting A, B, or C, as specified in ANSI S1.4.
Sound-level meter and octave-band analyzer. Instruments for measuring
sound-pressure levels in decibels referenced to 0.0002 microbars. Read-
ings can also be made in specific octave bands, usually beginning at 75
Hz and continuing through 10,000 Hz.
Sound-pressure level (SPL). The level, in decibels, of a sound is 20 times the
logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the pressure of this sound to the
reference pressure, which must be explicitly stated.
Sound pressure units. 1 dyne\cm2 = 1 µbar = 0.1 N/m2 = 0.1 Pa.
Sound transmission. The word sound usually means sound waves traveling in
air. However, sound waves also travel in solids and liquids. These sound
waves may be transmitted to air to make sound that can be heard.
Sound transmission loss. The ability of a barrier to block transmission; mea-
sured in decibels.
Sound wave. A pattern of fluctuations on air pressure over distance and/or time.
The fluctuations in pressure can be modeled as waves.
Sour gas. Slang for either natural gas or a gasoline contaminated with odor-
causing sulfur compounds. In natural gas, the contaminant is usually
hydrogen sulfide; in gasoline, usually mercaptans.
Source. Any substance that emits radiation. Usually refers to a piece of radio-
active material conveniently packaged for scientific or industrial use.
Spasm. Tightening or contraction of any set of muscles.
Spray coat painting. The result of the application of a spray in painting as a
substitute for brush painting or dipping. Typically creating mist that pre-
sents possible respiratory hazards.
Specific absorption (SA). Quantity of radiofrequency energy in joules per
kilogram.
Specific absorption rate (SAR). Radiofrequency dosage term expressed as

watts of power per kilogram of tissue.
Specific gravity. The ratio of the mass of a unit volume of a substance to the
mass of the same volume of a standard substance at a standard tempera-
ture. Water at 39.2°F (4°C) is usually the standard for liquids; for gases,
dry air (at the same temperature and pressure as the gas) is often taken
as the standard substance. See Density.
Specificity. The degree to which an instrument or detection method is capable
of accurately detecting or measuring the concentration of a single con-
taminant in the presence of other contaminants.
Specific ionization. See Ionization.
Specific volume. The volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance under
specified conditions of temperature and pressure.
Specific weight. The weight per unit volume of a substance; same as density.
Spectrography, spectral emission. An instrument method for detecting trace
contaminants using a spectrum formed by exciting the subject contami-
nants by various means, causing characteristic radiation to be formed,
which is dispersed by a grating or prism and photographed.
Spectrophotometer. A direct-reading instrument used for comparing the rela-
tive intensities of corresponding electromagnetic wavelengths produced
by absorption of ultraviolet, visible, or infrared radiation from a vapor or
gas.
Spectroscopy. Observation of the wavelength and intensity of light or other
electromagnetic waves absorbed or emitted by various materials. When
excited by an arc or spark, each element emits light of certain well-defined
wavelengths.
Spectrum. The frequency distribution of the magnitudes (and sometimes
phases) of the components of the wave. Also used to signify a continuous
range of frequencies. Usually wide in extent, within which waves have
some specified common characteristics. Also, the pattern of red-to-blue
light observed when a beam of sunlight passes through a prism and then
projects upon a surface.
Speech interference level (SIL). The average, in decibels, of the sound-pres-
sure levels of a noise in the three octave bands of frequency: 600, 1200
to 2400, and 2400 to 4800 Hz.
Speech perception test. A measurement of hearing acuity by the administration
of a carefully controlled list of words. The identification of correct
responses is evaluated in terms of norms established by the average
performance of normal listeners.
Speech reading. Lip reading or visual hearing.
Sphincter. A muscle that surrounds an orifice and functions to close it.
Sphygmomanometer. Apparatus for measuring blood pressure.
SPL formula. Sound-pressure levels are defined by a formula that compares
the measured pressure, P, to a base or reference pressure, P0 (usually
0.0002 dynes/cm2 = 0.00002 Pa, the weakest sound that a healthy ear can
Glossary 341
hear under ideal listening conditions; also known as the threshold of

hearing.) The formula is: SPL (in decibels, dB) = 20 log P/P0.
Spontaneously combustible. A material that ignites as a result of retained heat
from processing, or that will oxidize to generate heat and ignite, or that
absorbs moisture to generate heat and ignite.
Spore. A resistant body formed by certain microorganisms; resistant resting
cells. Mold spores: unicellular reproductive bodies.
Spot size. Cross-sectional area of laser beam at the target.
Spot welding. One form of electrical resistance welding in which the current
and pressure are restricted to the spots of metal surfaces directly in contact.
Spray-coating painting. The result of the application of spray in painting as
a substitute for brush painting or dipping.
Squamous. Covered with or consisting of scales.
Stack. The device on the end of a ventilation system that disperses exhaust
contaminates for dilution by the atmosphere.
Stain. A dye used to color microorganisms as an aid to visual inspection.
Stamping. A term with many different usages in industry; a common one is
the crushing of ores by pulverizing.
Standard. A written guide that may or may not be a legal requirement.
Standard air. Air at standard temperature and pressure. The most common
values are 70°F (21.1°C) and 29.92 in. Hg (103.3 kPa). Also, air with a
density of 0.075 lb/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3) is substantially equivalent to dry air at
70°F and 29.92 in. Hg.
Standard air-density. The density of air, 0.075 lb/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3), at standard
conditions.
Standard conditions. In industrial ventilation, 70°F (21.1°C), 50% relative
humidity, and 29.92 in. Hg (101.3 kPa) atmospheric pressure.
Standard gravity. Standard accepted value for the force of gravity. It equals
the force that produces an acceleration of 32.17 ft/s (9.8 m/s).
Standard Industrial Classification Code (SIC). Classification system for
places of employment according to major type of activity.
Standard man. A theoretical physically fit man of standard (average) height,
weight, dimensions, and other parameters (blood composition, percent
water, mass of salivary glands, to name a few).
Standard temperature and pressure. See Standard air.
Standing wave. A periodic wave having a fixed distribution in space that is the
result of interference of progressive waves of the same frequency and
kind. Such waves are characterized by the existence of nodes or partial
nodes and antinodes that are fixed in space.
Stannosis. A form of pneumoconiosis caused by the inhalation of tin-bearing
dusts.
Static pressure. The potential pressure exerted in all directions by a fluid at
rest. For a fluid in motion, it is measured in a direction normally (at right
angles) to the direction of flow; thus, it shows the tendency to burst or
collapse the pipe. When added to velocity pressure, it gives total pressure.
Static pressure curve. A graphical representation of the volumetric output and

fan static pressure relationship for a fan operating at a specific rotating
speed.
Static pressure regain. The increase in static pressure in a system as air
velocity decreases and velocity pressure is converted into static pressure
according to Bernoulli’s theorem.
STEL. See Short-term exposure limit.
Sterile. Free of living microorganisms.
Sterility. Inability to reproduce.
Sterilization. The process of making sterile; the killing of all forms of life.
Sterilize. To perform any act that results in the absence of all life on or in an
object.
Sternomastoid muscles. A pair of muscles connecting the breastbone and
lower skull behind the ears, which flex or rotate the head.
Stink damp. In mining, hydrogen sulfide.
Stoke’s law. A law that describes the relationships between particle shape, size,
density, and settling velocity. (Spheres tend to settle most easily. Particle
settling tends to increase as the square of particle diameter.).
Stp flow rate. The rate of flow of fluid, by volume, corrected to standard
temperature and pressure.
Stp volume. The volume that a quantity of gas or air would occupy at standard
temperature and pressure.
Stress. A physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental
tension and may be a factor in disease causation or fatigue.
Stressor. Any agent or thing causing a condition of stress.
Strict liability. See Liability, strict.
Strip mine. A mine in which coal or ore is extracted from the earth’s surface
after removal of overlayers of soil, clay, and rock.
STS. Standard threshold shift in hearing acuity. OSHA defines STS as a 10-
decibel shift in the 2000, 3000, or 4000 Hz bands.
Stupor. Partial unconsciousness or nearly complete unconsciousness.
Sublimation. A process in which a material passes directly from a solid to a
gaseous state or condenses from a gaseous state to form solid crystals,
without liquefying.
Suction pressure. Archaic; refers to static pressure on upstream side of fan.
See Static pressure.
Sulcus (pl. sulci). A groove, trench, or furrow; used in anatomical nomenclature
as a general term to designate a depression, especially on the surface of
the brain, separating the gyri; also, a linear depression in the surface of
a tooth, the sloping sides of which meet at an angle.
Superfund. See CERCLA.
Supination. Rotation of the forearm about its own longitudinal axis. Supination
turns the palm upward when the forearm is horizontal, and forward when
the body is in anatomical position. Supination is an important element of
available motions inventory for industrial applications, particularly where
Glossary 343
tools such as screwdrivers are used. Efficiency in supination depends on

arm position. Workplace design should provide for elbow flexion at 90°.
Supplied-air suit. A one- or two-piece suit that is impermeable to most par-
ticulate and gaseous contaminants and is provided with an adequate supply
of respirable air.
Supra- (prefix). Above, on.
Surface-active. Any of a group of compounds added to a liquid to modify an
agent, surfactant, or interfacial tension. In synthetic detergents, which is
the best known use of surface-active agents, reduction of interfacial ten-
sion provides cleansing action.
Surface coating. Paint, lacquer varnish, or other chemical composition used
for protecting and/or decorating surfaces. See also Protective coating.
Suspect carcinogen. A material believed to be capable of causing cancer, based
on limited scientific evidence.
Sweating. (1) Visible perspiration. (2) The process of uniting metal parts by
heating solder so that it runs between the parts.
Swing grinder. A large, power-driven grinding wheel mounted on a counter-
balanced, swivel-supported arm guided by two handles.
Symptom. Evidence from a patient indicating illness; the subjective feelings
of the patient.
Syncope. Fainting spell.
Syndrome. A collection, constellation, or concurrence of signs and symptoms,
usually of disease.
Synergism. Cooperative action of substances whose total effect is greater than
the sum of their separate effects.
Synergistic. Pertaining to an action of two or more substances, organs, or
organisms to achieve an effect greater than the additive effects of the
separate elements.
Synonym. Another name by which a chemical may be known.
Synthesis. The reaction or series of reactions by which a complex compound
is obtained from simpler compounds or elements.
Synthetic. From the Greek synthetikos, “that which is put together.” “Manmade
’synthetic’ should not be thought of as a substitute for the natural,” accord-
ing to the Encyclopedia of the Chemical Process Industries, which adds,
“synthetic chemicals are frequently more pure and uniform than those
obtained naturally.” A classic example is synthetic indigo.
Synthetic detergents. Chemically tailored cleaning agents soluble in water or
other solvents. Originally developed as soap substitutes; because they do
not form insoluble precipitates, they are especially valuable in hard water.
They may be composed of surface-active agents alone, but generally are
combinations of surface-active agents and other substances, such as com-
plex phosphates, to enhance detergency.
Synthetic rubber. Artificial polymer with rubberlike properties. Types have
varying composition and properties. Major types are designated as S-
types, butyl, neoprene (chloroprene polymers), and N-type. Several syn-
thetics duplicate the chemical structure of natural rubber.
System curve. The actual or design curve of pressure vs. flow rate for a specific
ventilation system. System design determines the optimum operating point
on the system curve.
Systemic. Spread throughout the body; affecting all body systems and organs,
not localized in one spot or area.
Systemic toxicity. Adverse effects caused by a substance that affects the body
in a general rather than local manner.
Tachy- (prefix). Indicates fast or speedy, as in tachycardia, abnormally rapid
heartbeat.
Tailings. In mining or metal recovery processes, the gangue rock residue after
all or most of the metal has been extracted.
Talc. A hydrous magnesium silicate used in ceramics, cosmetics, paint, and
pharmaceuticals, and as a filler in soap, putty, and plaster.
Tall oil. Derived from the Swedish tallolja; a material first investigated in
Sweden, not synonymous with U.S. pine oil. Natural mixture of rosin
acids, fatty acids, sterols, high-molecular-weight alcohols, and other mate-
rials, derived primarily from waste liquors of sulfate wood pulp manufac-
ture. Dark brown, viscous, oily liquid often called liquid rosin.
Tar. A loose term embracing wood, coal, or petroleum exudations. In general
represents complex mixture of chemicals of top fractional distillation
systems.
Tar crude. Organic raw material derived from distillation of coal tar and used
for chemicals.
Tare. A deduction of weight, made in allowance for the weight of a container
or medium. The initial weight of a filter, for example.
Tare weight. The initial weight of a filter; the deduction of the weight of a
container or holder.
Target. The material into which the laser beam is fired or at which electrons
are fired in an X-ray tube.
Temper. To relieve the internal stresses in metal or glass and to increase ductility
by heating the material to a point below its critical temperature and cooling
slowly. See also Anneal.
Temperature. The condition of a body that determines the transfer of heat to
or from other bodies. Specifically, it is a manifestation of the average
translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance caused by
heat agitation. See Celsius; Kelvin scale.
Temperature, dry-bulb. The temperature of a gas or mixture of gases indicated
by an accurate thermometer after correction for radiation.
Temperature, effective. An arbitrary index that combines into a single value
the effect of temperature, humidity, and air movement on the sensation
of warmth or cold felt by the human body. The numerical value is the
temperature of still, saturated air that would induce an identical sensation.
Temperature, mean radiant (MRT). The temperature of a uniform black
enclosure in which a solid body or occupant would exchange the same
amount of radiant heat as in the existing nonuniform environment.
Glossary 345
Temperature, wet-bulb. The temperature indicated by a wet-bulb psychrom-

eter. Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is the temperature at which
liquid or solid water, by evaporating into air, can bring the air to saturation
adiabatically at the same temperature.
Tempering. The process of heating or cooling makeup air to the proper tem-
perature.
Temporary threshold shift (TTS). The hearing loss suffered as the result of
noise exposure, all or part of which is recovered during an arbitrary period
of time when one is removed from the noise. It accounts for the necessity
of checking hearing acuity at least 16 hours after a noise exposure.
Temporary total disability. An injury or illness that does not result in death
or permanent disability, but that renders the injured person unable to
perform regular duties or activities on one or more calendar days after
the day of injury. (This is a definition established by U.S. OSHA.)
Tendon. Fibrous component of a muscle. It often attaches to bone at the area
of application of tensile force. When its cross section is small, stresses in
the tendon are high, particularly because the total force of many muscle
fibers is applied at the single terminal tendon. See also Tenosynovitis.
Tennis elbow. Sometimes called lateral epicondylitis, an inflammatory reaction
of tissues in the lateral elbow region.
Tenosynovitis. Inflammation of the connective tissue sheath of a tendon.
Teratogen. An agent or substance that may cause physical defects in the devel-
oping embryo or fetus when a pregnant female is exposed to the substance.
Terminal velocity. The terminal rate of fall of a particle through a fluid as
induced by gravity or other external force; the rate at which frictional
drag balances the accelerating force (or the external force).
Tetanus. A disease of sudden onset caused by the toxin of the bacterium called
Clostridium tetani. It is characterized by muscle spasms. Also called
lockjaw.
Therm. A quantity of heat equivalent to 100,000 Btu.
Thermal burns. Result of the application of too much heat to the skin. First-
degree burns show redness of the unbroken skin; second-degree burns,
skin blisters and some breaking of the skin; third-degree burns, skin
blisters and destruction of the skin and underlying tissues, which can
include charring and blackening.
Thermal pollution. Discharge of heat into bodies of water to the point that the
increased warmth activates all sewage, depletes the oxygen the water must
have to cleanse itself, and eventually destroys some of the fish and other
organisms in the water. Eventually, thermal pollution causes the water to
smell and taste bad.
Thermonuclear reaction. A fusion reaction, that is, a reaction in which two
light nuclei combine to form a heavier atom, releasing a large amount of
energy. This is believed to be the sun’s source of energy. It is called
thermonuclear because it occurs only at a very high temperature.
Thermoplastic. Capable of being repeatedly softened by heat.
Thermoplastic plastics. Plastics that can repeatedly melt or that soften with
heat and harden on cooling. Examples: vinyls, acrylics, and polyethylene.
Thermosetting. Capable of undergoing a chemical change from a soft to a
hardened substance when heated.
Thermosetting plastics. Plastics that are heat-set in their final processing to a
permanently hard state. Examples: phenolics, ureas, and melamines.
Thermostable. Resistant to changes by heat.
Thinner. A liquid used to increase the fluidity of paints, varnishes, and shellac.
Threshold. The level where the first effects occur; also, the point at which a
person begins to notice that a tone is audible.
Threshold limit value (TLV). Chemical or physical exposure limit established
by the ACGIH.
Thromb- (prefix). Pertaining to a blood clot.
Throw distance. The distance contaminants, primarily particles, are dispersed
by the initial emitting velocity before being slowed by air fiction to the
settling velocity.
Tight building syndrome. Commonly related to problems associated with
buildings designed and operated at minimum outdoor air supply, or poor
distribution.
Timbre. The quality given to a sound by its overtones; the tone distinctive of
a singing voice or a musical instrument. Pronounced “TAMbra” or “TIM-
ber.”
Time-weighted average Concentration (TWA). Refers to concentrations of
airborne toxic materials weighted for a certain time duration, usually 8
hours.
Tinning. Any work with tin such as tin roofing; in particular, in soldering, the
primary coating with solder of the two surfaces to be united.
Tinnitus. A perception of sound arising in the head. Most often perceived as
a ringing or hissing sound in the ears. Can be the result of high-frequency
hearing loss.
Tissue. A large group of similar cells bound together to form a structural
component. An organ is composed of several kinds of tissue, and in this
respect it differs from a tissue as a machine differs from its parts.
TLV. Threshold limit value. A time-weighted average concentration under
which most people can work consistently for 8 hours a day, day after day,
with no harmful effects. A table of these values and accompanying pre-
cautions is published annually by the American Conference of Govern-
mental Industrial Hygienist (ACGIH).
TLV-C. The ceiling limit; the concentration that should not be exceeded even
for an instant.
TLV-STEL. The short term exposure limit, or maximum concentration for a
continuous 15-min exposure period (maximum of four such periods per
day, with at least 60 min between exposure periods, provided that the
daily TLV-TWA is not exceeded).
TLV-TWA. The allowable time-weighted average concentration for a normal
8-hour workday, 40-hour work week.
Glossary 347
Tolerance. (1) The ability of the living organism to resist the usually anticipated
stress. (2) The limits of permissible inaccuracy in the fabrication of an
article above and below its design specification.
Tolerance dose. See Maximum permissible concentration; MPL.
Toluene, C6H5CH3. Hydrocarbon derived mainly from petroleum but also from
coal. Source of TNT, lacquers, saccharin, and many other chemicals.
Tone deafness. The inability to discriminate between fundamental tones close
together in pitch.
Topography. Configuration of a surface, including its relief and the position
of its natural and anthropogenic features.
Tort. A civil wrong, other than breach of contract, for which the law allows
compensation by payment of damages.
Total pressure. See Pressure, total.
Total suspended. The mass of particles suspended in a unit volume of air
particulate matter (typically 1m3) when collected by a high-volume sam-
pler.
Toxemia. Poisoning by the way of the bloodstream.
Toxicant. A poison or poisonous agent.
Toxicity. The property of a material or agent that is capable of causing a harmful
effect; the relative amount of material required to induce a specific harmful
biological outcome.
Toxic substance. Any substance that can cause acute or chronic injury to the
human body, or that is suspected to be able to cause disease or injury
under some conditions.
Toxin. A poisonous substance derived from an organism.
Tracer. A radioisotope mixed with a stable material. The radioisotope enables
scientists to trace the material as it undergoes chemical and physical
changes. Tracers are used widely in science, industry, and agriculture
today. When radioactive phosphorus, for example, is mixed with a chem-
ical fertilizer, the radioactive substance can be traced through the plant
as it grows.
Trachea. The windpipe, or tube that conducts air to and from the lungs. It
extends between the larynx above and the point where it divides into two
bronchi below.
Trade name. The commercial name or trademark by which a chemical is
known. One chemical may have a variety of trade names depending on
the manufacturers or distributors involved.
Trade secret. Any confidential formula, pattern, process, device, information,
or compilation of information (including chemical name or other unique
chemical modifier) that is used in an employer’s business and that gives
the employer an opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors who
do not know or use it.
Transducer. Any device or element that converts an input signal into an output
signal of a different form; examples include the microphone, phonograph
pickup, loudspeaker, barometer, photoelectric cell, automobile horn, door-
bell, and underwater sound transducer.
Transmission loss. The ratio, expressed in decibels, of the sound energy inci-
dent on a structure to the sound energy that is transmitted. The term is
applied both to building structures (wall, floors, etc.) and to air passages
(muffler, ducts, etc.).
Transmutation. Any nuclear process that involves a change in energy or iden-
tity of the nucleus.
Transport (conveying) velocity. Minimum air velocity required to move sus-
pended particulates in the airstream.
Trauma. An injury or wound brought about by an outside force.
Tremor. Involuntary shaking, trembling, or quivering.
Triceps. The large muscle at the back of the upper arm that extends the forearm
when contracted.
Tridymite. Vitreous, colorless form of free silica formed when quartz is heated
to 1598°F (870°C).
Trigger finger. Also known as snapping finger, a condition of partial obstruc-
tion in flexion or extension of a finger. Once past the point of obstruction,
movement is eased. Caused by constriction of the tendon sheath.
Tripoli. Rottenstone. A porous, siliceous rock resulting from the decomposition
of chert or siliceous limestone. Used as a base in soap and scouring
powders, in metal polishing, as a filtering agent, and in wood and paint
fillers. A cryptocrystalline form of free silica.
Tritium. Often called hydrogen-3, extraheavy hydrogen whose nucleus con-
tains two neutrons and one proton. It is three times as heavy as ordinary
hydrogen and is radioactive.
TSCA. Toxic Substance Control Act; U.S. environmental legislation, adminis-
trated by the EPA, for regulating the manufacture, handling, and use of
materials classified as “toxic substances.”
Tuberculosis. A contagious disease caused by infection with the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It usually affects the lung, but bone, lymph
glands, and other tissues may be affected.
Tularemia. A bacterial infection of wild rodents, such as rabbits. It may be
generalized or localized in the eyes, skin, lymph nodes, or respiratory
tract. It can be transmitted to humans.
Tumbling. An industrial process, as in founding, in which small castings are
cleaned by friction in a revolving drum (tumbling barrel), which may
contain sand, sawdust, stone, etc.
Turbid. Cloudy.
Turbidity. Cloudiness; disturbances of solids (sediment) in a solution, so that
it is not clear.
Turbinates. A series of scroll-like bones in the nasal cavity that serve to
increase the amount of tissue surface exposed in the nose, permitting
incoming air to be moistened and warmed prior to reaching the lungs.
Turbulence loss. The pressure or energy lost from a ventilation system through
air turbulence.
Glossary 349
Turbulent flow. Airflow characterized by transverse velocity components as

well as velocity in the primary direction of flow in a duct; mixing veloc-
ities.
Turning vanes. Curved pieces added to elbows or fan inlet boxes to direct air
and so reduce turbulence losses.
TWA. Time-weighted average.
Tympanic cavity. Another name for the chamber of the middle ear.
UCL. See Upper confidence limit.
UEL. See Upper explosive limit.
Ulcer. The destruction of an area of skin or mucous membrane.
Ulceration. The formation or development of an ulcer.
Ulna. One of the two bones of the forearm. It forms the hinge joint at the elbow
and does not rotate about its longitudinal axis. It terminates at the wrist
on the same side as the little finger. Task design should not impose thrust
loads through the ulna.
Ulnar deviation. A position of the hand in which the angle on the little finger
side of the hand with the corresponding side of the forearm is decreased.
Ulnar deviation is a poor working position for the hand and may cause
nerve and tendon damage.
Ultrasonics. The technology of sound at frequencies above the audible range.
Ultraviolet. Wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that are shorter than
those of visible light and longer than X rays, 10–5 to 10–6 cm wavelength.
Unstable. Refers to all radioactive elements, because they emit particles and
decay to form other elements.
Unstable (reactive) liquid. A liquid that in the pure state or as commercially
produced or transported, vigorously polymerizes, decomposes, condenses,
or becomes self-reactive under conditions of shocks, pressure, or temper-
ature.
Upper confidence limit (UCL). In sampling analysis, a statistical procedure
used to estimate the likelihood that a particular value is above the obtained
value.
Upper explosive limit (UEL). The highest concentration (expressed as the
percentage of vapor or gas in the air by volume) of a substance that will
burn or explode when an ignition source is present.
Uranium. A heavy metal. The two principal isotopes of natural uranium are
uranium-235 and uranium-238. Uranium-235 has the only readily fission-
able nucleus that occurs in appreciable quantities in nature, hence its
importance as a nuclear fuel. Only 1 part of 140 of natural uranium is
uranium-235. Highly toxic and a radiation hazard that requires special
consideration.
Urethr-, urethro- (prefix). Relating to the urethra, the canal leading from the
bladder for discharge of urine.
URT. Upper respiratory tract.
Urticaria. Hives.
USC. United States Code. The official compilation of federal statutes. New
editions are issued approximately every 6 years. Cumulative supplements
are issued annually.
USDA. U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Vaccine. A suspension of disease-producing microorganisms modified by kill-
ing or attenuation so that it does not cause disease and can facilitate the
formation of antibodies upon inoculation into humans or animals.
Valence. A number indicating the capacity of an atom and certain groups of
atoms to hold others in combination. The term also is used in more
complex senses.
Valve (air oxygen). A device that controls the direction of air or fluid flow or
the rate and pressure at which air or fluid is delivered, or both.
Vapor. The monomolecular “gaseous” form of a material, which is normally a
liquid at room temperature (e.g., when water evaporates, it forms water
vapor).
Vapor pressure. Pressure (measured in pounds per square inch absolute, psia)
exerted by a vapor. If a vapor is kept in confinement over its liquid so
that the vapor can accumulate above the liquid (with the temperature held
constant), the vapor pressure approaches a fixed limit called the maximum
(or saturated) vapor pressure, dependent only on the temperature and the
liquid.
Vapors. The gaseous form of substances that are normally in the solid or liquid
state (at room temperature and pressure). The vapor can be changed back
to the solid or liquid state either by increasing or decreasing the temper-
ature alone. Vapors also diffuse. Evaporation is the process by which a
liquid is changed to the vapor state and mixed with the surrounding air.
Solvents with low boiling points volatilize readily.
Vapor volume. The number of cubic feet of pure solvent vapor formed by the
evaporation of 1 gallon of liquid at 75°F (24°C).
van der Waall’s forces. The forces of attraction and retention between the
molecules of a gas or vapor coming in contact with a solid sorbent.
(Adsorption increases directly with the number or carbon atoms and
inversely with the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule.).
Variable air volume (VAV). Refers to HVAC systems in which the air volume
is varied by dampers or fan speed controls to maintain the temperature;
primarily used for energy conservation.
Vasoconstriction. Decrease in the cross-sectional area of blood vessels. This
may result from contraction of a muscle layer within the walls of the
vessels or may be the result of mechanical pressure. Reduction in blood
flow results.
Vat dyes. Water-insoluble, complex coal tar dyes that can be chemically
reduced in a heated solution to a soluble form that can impregnate fibers.
Subsequent oxidation then produces insoluble color dyestuffs that are
remarkably fast to washing, light, and chemicals.
Vector. (1) Term applied to an insect or any living carrier that transports a
pathogenic microorganism from the sick to the well, inoculating the latter;
Glossary 351
the organism may or may not pass through any developmental cycle. (2)
Any quantity (for example, velocity, mechanical force, electromotive
force) having magnitude and direction that can be represented by a straight
line of appropriate length and direction.
Velocity. A vector that specifies the time rate of change of displacement with
respect to a reference.
Velocity, capture. The air velocity required to draw contaminants into a hood.
Velocity, face. The inward air velocity in the plane of openings into an enclo-
sure.
Velocity pressure. The kinetic pressure in the direction of flow necessary to
cause a fluid at rest to flow at a given velocity. When added to static
pressure, it gives total pressure.
Velometer. A device for measuring air velocity.
Vena contracta. The reduction in the diameter of a flowing airstream at hood
entries and other locations.
Veni-, veno- (prefix). Relating to the veins.
Ventilation. One of the principal methods to control health hazards; may be
defined as causing fresh air to circulate to replace foul air simultaneously
removed.
Ventilation, dilution. Airflow designed to dilute contaminants to acceptable
levels. Also called general ventilation.
Venilation, local exhaust. Ventilation near the point of generation of a con-
taminant.
Ventilation, mechanical. Air movement caused by a fan or other air-moving
device.
Ventilation, natural. Air movement caused by wind, temperature difference,
or other nonmechanical factors.
Vermiculite. An expanded mica (hydrated magnesium–aluminum–iron silicate)
used in lightweight aggregates, insulation, fertilizer, and soil conditioners;
as a filler in rubber and paints; and as a catalyst carrier.
Vertigo. Dizziness; more exactly, the sensation that the environment is revolv-
ing around one.
Vesicant. Anything that produces blisters on the skin.
Vesicle. A small blister on the skin.
Vestibular. Relating to the cavity at the entrance to the semicircular canals of
the inner ears.
Viable. Any living organism.
Vibration. An oscillation motion about an equilibrium position produced by a
disturbing force.
Vinyl. A general term applied to a class of resins such as polyvinyl chloride,
acetate, butyryl, etc.
Virulence. The capacity of a microorganism to produce disease.
Virulent. Extremely poisonous or venomous; capable of overcoming bodily
defense mechanisms.
Viruses. A group of pathogens consisting mostly of nucleic acids and lacking
cellular structure.
Viscera. Internal organs of the abdomen.

Viscose. Term applied to viscous liquid composed of cellulose xanthate.
Viscose rayon. The type of rayon produced from the reaction of carbon disul-
fide with cellulose and the hardening of the resulting viscous fluid by
passing it through dilute sulfuric acid; this final operation causes the
evolution of hydrogen sulfide gas.
Viscosity. The property of a fluid that resists internal flow by releasing coun-
teracting forces.
Viscosity, absolute. A measure of the tendency of a fluid to resist flow without
regard to density. The product of the kinematic viscosity of a fluid times
its density, expressed in dyne-seconds per centimeter or poises (or pascal-
seconds).
Viscosity, kinematic. The relative tendency of a fluid to resist flow. The value
of the kinematic viscosity is equal to the absolute viscosity of the fluid
divided by the fluid density and is expressed in units of stoke (or square
meters per second).
Visible light. Wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human
eye (e.g., 10–4 to 10–5 cm in length).
Visible radiation. The wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum between
10–4 cm and 10–5 cm.
Vision, photopic. Vision attributed to cone function characterized by the ability
to discriminate colors and small details; daylight vision.
Vision, scotopic. Vision attributed to rod function characterized by the lack of
ability to discriminate colors and small details and effective primarily in
the detection of movement and low luminous intensities; might vision.
Visual Acuity. Ability of the eye to perceive sharply the shapes of objects in
the direct line of vision.
Volatile. Percent volatile by volume; the percentage of a liquid or solid (by
volume) that will evaporate at an ambient temperature or 70°F (unless
some other temperature is stated). Examples: butane, gasoline, and paint
thinner (mineral spirits) are 100% volatile; their individual evaporation
rates vary, but over a period of time each will evaporate completely.
Volatility. The tendency or ability of a liquid to vaporize. Such liquids as
alcohol and gasoline, because of their well-known tendency to evaporate
rapidly, are called volatile liquids.
Volt. A practical unit of electric force or difference in potential between two
points in an electrical field.
Volume flow rate. The quantity (measured in units of volume) of a fluid flowing
per unit of time, such as cubic feet per minute, gallons per hour, or cubic
meters per second.
Volume, specific. The volume occupied by 1 pound of a substance under
specified conditions of temperature and pressure.
Volumetric analysis. A statement of the various components of a substance
(usually applied to gases only), expressed in percentages by volume.
Vortex tube. A tube that uses compressed air to provide personal cooling.
Glossary 353
Vulcanization. The process of combining rubber (natural, synthetic, or latex)

with sulfur and accelerators in the presence of zinc oxide under heat and
usually pressure to change the material permanently from a thermoplastic
to a thermosetting composition, or from a plastic to an elastic condition.
Strength, elasticity, and abrasion resistance also are improved.
Vulcanizer. A machine in which raw rubber that has been mixed with chemicals
is cured by heat and pressure to render it less plastic and more durable.
WAN. Wide-area network of linked computers or LANs, whose elements are
usually geographically distant.
Warranty. A promise that a proposition of fact is true and, if not true, a
consideration is available.
Wart. A characteristic growth on the skin, appearing most often on the fingers;
generally as a result of a virus infection. Synonym: verruca.
Water column. A unit used in measuring pressure. See also Inches of water
column.
Water curtain or waterfall booth. A term with many different meanings in
industry; but in spray painting, a stream of water running down a wall
into which the excess paint spray is drawn or blown by fans, and which
carries the paint downward to a collecting point.
Waterproofing gents. Usually formulations of three distinct material: a coating
material, a solvent, and a plasticizer. Among the materials used in water-
proofing are cellulose esters and ether, polyvinyl chloride resins or ace-
tates, and variations of vinyl chloride–vinylidine chloride polymers.
Watt (W). A unit of power equal to 1 joule per second. See erg.
Watts/cm2. A unit of power density used in measuring the amount of power
per area of absorbing surface, or per area of a CW laser beam.
Wavelength. The distance in the line of advance of a wave from any point to
a like point on the next wave. It is usually measured in angstroms, microns,
or nanometers.
WBGT index. Wet-bulb globe temperature index. An empirical index of the
effects of heat on humans (e.g., heat stress).
Weight. The force with which a body is attracted toward the earth. Although
the weight of the body varies with its location, the weights of various
standards of mass are often used as units of force. See Force.
Weighting network (sound). Electrical networks (A, B, C) associated with
sound-level meters. The C network provides a flat response over the
frequency range 20 to 10,000 Hz; the B and A networks selectively
discriminate against low (less than 1 kHz) frequencies.
Weld. A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced either by
heating the materials to suitable temperatures, with or without the appli-
cation of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone, with or without
the use of filler material.
Welding. Fusing the several types of welding are electric arc-welding, spot
welding, and inert or shielded gas welding using helium or argon. The
hazards involved in welding stem from the fumes from the weld metal
such as lead or cadmium metal, the gases created by the process, and the
fumes or gases arising from the flux.
Welding rod. A rod or heavy wire that is melted and fused to metals in arc-
welding.
Wellness. The practice of a healthy lifestyle.
Wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT). A temperature obtained with a WBGT
thermometer, which takes into account the effects of humidity and infrared
radiation.
Wet-bulb globe temperature index. An index of the heat stress in humans
when work is performed in a hot environment.
Wet-bulb temperature (WB). The temperature of air as influenced by humid-
ity; the WB-emperature is obtained by covering a dry-bulb thermometer
bulb with a wet wick and moving air past the wick; the WB-temperature
is almost always less than the dry-bulb temperature because of the cooling
effects of the evaporation of water from the wick.
Wet-bulb thermometer. A thermometer having the bulb covered with a cloth
saturated with water.
Wheatstone bridge. A type of electrical circuit used in one type of combustible
gas monitor. Combustion in small quantities of the ambient gas and
changes in electrical resistivity by this circuitry are detected.
White damp. In mining, carbon monoxide.
White noise. A noise whose spectrum density (of spectrum level) is substan-
tially independent of frequency over a specified range.
Wideband. Applied to broad band of transmitted waves, with neither of the
critical or cutoff frequencies of the filter being zero or infinite.
Wideband noise. Noise associated with a broad band of frequencies.
Wind load. The pressure exerted on a building or structure from moving air.
Work. When a force acts against resistance to produce motion in a body, the
force is said to do work. Work is measured by the product of the force
acting and the distance moved against the resistance. The units of mea-
surement are the erg (a joule is 1 × 107 ergs) and the foot-pound.
Work hardening. The property of metal to become harder and more brittle on
being worked (bent repeatedly or drawn).
Work hours. The total numbers of hours worked by all employees.
Work injuries. Injuries (including occupational illnesses) that arise out of or
in the course of gainful employment regardless of where the accident
occurs. Excluded are work injuries to private household workers and
injuries occurring in connection with farm chores, which are classified as
home injuries.
Work strain. The natural physiological response of the body to the application
of work stress. The focus of the reaction may be remote from the point
of application of work stress. Work strain is not necessarily traumatic but
may appear as trauma when excessive, either directly or cumulatively,
and must be considered by the industrial engineer in equipment and task
design.
Glossary 355
Work stress. Biomechanically, any external force acting on the body during
the performance of a task. It always produces work strain. Application of
work stress to the human body is the inevitable consequence of perfor-
mance of any task, and is therefore synonymous with stressful work
conditions only when excessive. Work stress analysis is an integral part
of task design.
Worker’s Compensation. An insurance system under law, financed by employ-
ers, that provides payment to injured and diseased employees or relatives
for job-related injuries and illnesses.
Working level (WL). Any combination of radon daughters in 1 liter of air that
result in the ultimate emission of 1.3 × 105 MeV of alpha energy.
Xanth- (prefix). Yellow.
Xero-(prefix). Dryness, as in xerostomia, dryness of the mouth.
Xeroderma. Dry skin; may be rough as well as dry.
X rays. Highly penetrating radiation similar to gamma rays. Unlike gamma
rays, X rays do not come from the nucleus of the atom but from the
surrounding electrons. They are produced by electron bombardment.
When these rays pass through an object, they leave shadow picture of the
denser portions.
X-ray diffraction. Because all crystals act as three-dimensional gratings for
X rays, the pattern of diffracted rays is a characteristic for each crystalline
material. The method is of particular value in determining the presence
or absence of a crystalline silica in a industrial dust.
X-ray tube. Any electron tube designed for the conversion of electrical energy
into X-ray energy.
Z. Symbol for atomic number. The atomic number of an element is the same
as the number of protons found in one of its nuclei. All isotopes of a given
element have the same Z number.
Zero energy state. Zero mechanical energy.
Zero mechanical energy (ZME). An old term, now called energy isolation,
that indicates a piece of equipment without any source of power that could
harm someone.
Zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP). Hematopoietic enzyme used as a measure of
exposure.
Zoonoses. Diseases biologically adapted to and normally found in lower ani-
mals, but that under some conditions also infect humans.
Zygote. Cell produced by the joining of two gametes (sex or germ cells).
L1407_IDX Page 357 Thursday, June 14, 2001 8:20 AM
Index
A Breathing, difficulties, 44, see also Respirators
Breathing air quality, 37
ABIH, see American Board Industrial Hygiene
Acceptable entry conditions, 81
Accident investigations, 223–227 C
Accident reports, 227
ACGIH, see American Conference on Canisters, 22, 27
Government Industrial Hygienists Capable of being locked out, 103, 210
Acids, 149 Carbon dioxide, 71
Aerosols Carcinogenicity, 158
chemical profile, 139–143 Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
flammable, 119 confined space entry, 99
Affected employee, 103, 210 insulation, 160
AFFT, see Aqueous film forming foam paint, 163
After-flame, 70 pesticides, 168
Air-purifying respirator, 21, 27, 31 refractories, 174
Alcoholic beverages, 116, 117 toluene/xylene, 181
American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH), waste, 185
229, 230 Categorizations
American Conference on Government Industrial accident investigations, 223, 224
Hygienists (ACGIH), 6 chemicals, 138–139
American Industrial Health Association, 5 Caution labels, 165
American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE), 5 Certification, 71, 95, 108
Approved, definition, 70–71 Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH), 12, 229–231
Aqueous film forming foam (AFFT), 70 Certified Safety Professional (CSP), 231–232
Article, definition, 118 CFCs, see Chlorofluorocarbons
ASSE, see American Society of Safety Engineers Check valves, 146
Atmosphere, accident investigations, 225 Checklists
Atmosphere-supplying respirator, 22, 27 bad habits and short cuts, 189
Attendant, definition, 81 computer workstations, 190
Authorized employee, 103, see also Employees confined space entry, 191
Authorized entrant, 82 emergency preparedness, 192
Automatic fire detection device, 71 fire protection, 193
hazardous atmospheres, 194
hazardous communications, 195
B ladders, 196
lockout/tagout policy and safety standard
Bases, 149 operating manual, 221
BCSP, see Board of Certified Safety Professional machine guarding, 197
Benchmarking, 4–7 new hire employees, 198
Binders, 161, see also Paint noise and hearing protection, 199
Birdcage, 246, 247 personal protective equipment, 200
Bitrex solution aerosol protocol, 49–51 powered platforms, 201
Blanking, 82 scaffolds, 202
Blinding, see Blanking twenty questions, 188
Board of Certified Safety Professional (BCSP), walking surfaces, 203
231 Chemical explosions, 3
357
Chemical manufacturers, 129, 130, 132, 134, 136 permit space program, 89–93
Chemical name, 118, 127, 128 rescue and emergency services, 98–100
Chemical profile training, 95
aerosols, 139–143 Consumer products, 116
compressed gases, 143–147 Container, criteria for aerosols, 141
corrosives, 147–150 Contamination, 21
flammable liquids, 151–154 Control of hazardous energy (lockout/tagout),
fuels, 154–156 103–104
insulation, 157–160 Controlled negative pressure (CNP), 57–58
paint, 160–164 Cord/plug-connected equipment, 213
pesticides, 164–168 Corrective action, accident investigations, 223
reactives, 168–171 Corrective glasses, 32
refractories, 171–174 Corrosion, 78
solvents, 174–178 Corrosives, 147
toluene and xylene, 178–181 Cosmetics, 117
waste, 181–185 Cover ups, 223
Chemicals, 114, 118, 133, see also Hazard CPR, see Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
communication Criteria, safety benchmarking, 4
Chernobyl, 3–4 CSP, see Certified Safety Professional
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 139, see also Cup and cone break, 245
Aerosols Curled rope, 248
CIH, see Certified Industrial Hygienist Cyclohexane vapor, 3
Class A fire, 71 Cylinders, requirements for air, 37–38
Class B fire, 72
Class C fire, 72
Cleaning, respirators, 34–35 D
CNC, see Condensation nuclei counter
CNP, see Controlled negative pressure Danger label, 165
Code of ethics, 12 Demand respirator, 22
Combustible liquid, 118 Denatonoum benzoate, see Bitrex solution aerosol
Commercial account, 118 protocol
Common name, 118, 127 Designated representative, 119, 131
Communications Disinfection, 34–35
accident investigations, 225 Disposal
control of hazardous energy, 108–109 aerosols, 141–142
hazard, see Hazardous Communications compressed gases, 144–145
Competitors, 5, 6, see also Benchmarking corrosives, 148
Compressed breathing, 37 flammable liquids, 152
Compressed gases fuels, 155
chemical profile, 143–147 insulation, 159
definition, 118 paint, 162–163
Compressors, 38 pesticides, 167
Computer workstations, 190 reactives, 170
Condensation nuclei counter (CNC), 56 refractories, 173
Confined space, 82, 166 solvents, 176–177
Confined space entry toluene and xylene, 179–180
checklist, 191 waste, 183–184
definitions, 81–85 Distilled spirits, see Alcoholic beverages
duties Distributors, 119, 130
attendants, 96–98 Double block and bleed, 82
authorized entrants, 96 Downsizing, 9
entry supervisors, 98 Drugs, 117
employee participation, 100 Drum crushing, 248
general requirements, 85–89 Dry chemical, 72, 74
permit system, 93–95 Dry powder, 72
Index 359
Dust, pesticide, 166 Energy source, 103, 210

Duties Engineering controls, 159
authorized personnel, 92, 96–98 Engulfment, 82
safety professionals, 10–12 Entry, 82
Entry permit, 82, 93–95
Entry supervisor, 82
E Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 164
EPA, see Environmental Protection Agency
Education, 72, 81 Equipment
Elements, list of atomic numbers, 242–244 approved, 70–71
Emergency procedures for removing from service, 215
definition, 82 Escape-only respirator, 22
situation, 22 ESLI, see End-of-service-life indicator
medical, 132 Exemptions, fire extinguisher regulations, 76
preparedness checklist, 192 Explosion, 151
procedures, 128–129 Explosives, 119
summoning services, 92, 94, 97, 98–100 Exposure
Emergency response definition, 119
aerosols, 142 medical conditions aggravated by insulation,
compressed gases, 145, 147 158
corrosives, 149–150 pesticides, 166
flammable liquids, 152–153 role of industrial hygiene professionals, 11
fuels, 155–156 toluene and xylene, 178
insulation, 159–160 Extinguisher classification, 72
paint, 163 Extinguisher rating, 72
pesticides, 167 Extinguishing agents, 76
reactives, 170 Eyes
refractories, 173 emergency response, 149, 159, 163, 180
solvents, 177 personal hazards, 140, 148, 172, 175
waste, 184 personal protective equipment, 140, 176, 179
Employee exposure, 22 protection regulations, 19–21
Employees Eyewitnesses, 227
definition, 119
hazardous energy, 105, 108–109
material safety data sheet and hazard F
communication, 131
new hires and audit checklist, 198 Face, protection, 19–21
participation and confined space entry, 100 Facepiece, 43
regulations of personal protective equipment, loose-fitting, 23
17 tight-fitting, 24, 30–31
safety and industrial hygiene professionals, 12 Facial hair, 32, 43
Employers, 31, 119, 130 Fatigue failure, 245, 246, see Wire ropes
Employment situations Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
role Act (FIFRA), 164
industrial hygiene, 11–12 Fiberglass, 157
safety professional, 9–11 FIFRA, see Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
supervisor safety training, 12–15 Rodenticide Act
Empowerment, safety continuum, 1–2 Filter, 22, see also Individual entries
Enclosed structure, 72 Filter lenses, 19, 20
End-of-service-life indicator (ESLI), 22, 27 Fire
Energized, 103, 210 compressed gas, 146
Energy, stored, 110–111 hazard and paint, 163
Energy control procedure, 105–106 protection regulations, 70–75
Energy control program, 104 safety policy, 76
Energy-isolating device, 103, 210 Fire brigade, 72
Fire extinguishers, 75–81 pesticides, 168

Fire protection, 193 reactives, 170–171
First-aid procedures, 128–129 refractories, 173
Fit factor, 22, 55–56 solvents, 177
Fit test, see also Qualitative fit testing; toluene/xylene, 181
Quantitative fit testing waste, 184–185
definition, 22 Hardware, 106–107
general requirements, 42–45 Hazard Communication Program, see Hazardous
new protocols, 60 Communication
qualitative protocols, 45–53 Hazard warning, 120
quantitative protocols, 53–60 Hazardous atmosphere, 83, 87, 194
record keeping, 41 Hazardous chemical, 120
respiratory protection, 30–32 Hazardous combustion products, 160
Fixed extinguishing system, 72 Hazardous Communication (HazCom)
Flame resistance, 73 audit checklist, 195
Flammability, 166, 169, 175 compliance standards for chemicals, 137
Flammable, definition, 119–120 definitions, 118–122
Flammable gases, 143 employee information and training, 131–132
Flammable liquids, 151–154 hazard determination, 122–123
Flash point, 120, 154 insulation, 157
Foam, 73 labeling and other warning forms, 125–127
Food, labeling, 117 material safety data sheets, 127–131
Foot, protection, 69–70 paint, 160–161
Footwear, 69 purpose, scope, and application, 113–118
Foreseeable emergency, 120, see also refractories, 171
Emergencies trade secrets, 132–136
Fracture break, 245, 246 waste, 181
Fuel oil, 3 written program, 123–125
Fuels, 154–156 Hazardous energy, control (lockout/tagout)
additional requirements, 112–113
application, 109–111
G employees, 111–112
general information, 104–109
Gas, flammable, 119 scope, application, and purpose, 101–102
Gas propellants, 139 Hazardous substances, 116
Gaseous agent, 73 Hazardous waste, 116, 181
Goals, 14, 225 Hazards
Groundwater contamination, 173 assessment, 17–18, 19, 26
Group authorized employee, 210, see also determination, 122–123
Employees health, 120, 128
Group lockout, 112–113 physical, 121, 128
safety standard operating manual, 209
HazCom, see Hazardous Communication
H Head, protection, 69
Hearing protection, 199
Halon 1211, 73 Helmet, 22, 73
Halon 1301, 73 HEPA, see High-efficiency particulate air filter
Handling High strand, 247
aerosols, 142–143 High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter, 22,
compresses gases, 145–147 27, 51–53
corrosives, 150 Historical events, 2–4
flammable liquids, 153–154 Hood, 22
fuels, 156 Hostile witnesses, 227
insulation, 160 Hot tap, 103
paint, 163–164 Hot tap repair, 210–211
Index 361
Hot work limit, 83 refractories, 172

Hydrostatic testing, 78–81 solvents, 175, 176
toluene/xylene, 179, 180
Injuries, investigations, 224
I Inspection
compressed gas cylinders, 145
Identity, definition, 120 confined space entry, 86
IDLH, see Immediately dangerous to life or health control of hazardous energy, 107–108
Ignition, sources, 153 definition, 73
IH, see Industrial hygiene professionals fire extinguishers, 77
Immediate use, 120 respirators, 35–36
Immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH), safety standard operating manual, 217
23, 26, 33, 83 wire ropes, 245–248
Importer, 120 Instrumentation, fit-testing, 53
Incident commander, 34 Insulation, 157–160
Incipient stage fire, 73 Interior structural fire fighting, 23, 73
Industrial hygiene (IH) Interior structural fires, 34
historical events, 2–4 Internet sites, 138, 249
professionals role, 11–12 Irritant smoke protocol, 51–53
relationship and safety, 9 Isoamyl acetate protocol, 45, 46–47
Industry leaders, 5 Isobutane, 3
Inerting, 83–84 Isolation, 84
Information
employee and hazard communication, 131
mandatory for employees using respirators, 68 K
respirator use and protection, 39–40
sharing and benchmarking, 6 Kinked wire rope, 248
sources
aerosols, 139
compressed gases, 143 L
corrosives, 147
flammable liquids, 151 Labeling, 36, 115–116, 153, 163
fuels, 154 Labels, 121, 125–127, 165
insulation, 157 Laboratories, 114–115
paint, 160–161 Ladders, 196
pesticides, 164 Lapple’s particle size distribution chart, see
reactives, 168 Particle size distribution chart
refractories, 171 Leaks, 149, 153, 156
solvents, 174 Learning, 5
toluene and xylene, 178 LFL, see Lower flammable limit
waste, 181 Line breaking, 84
Ingestion Lining, 73
aerosols, 140 Liquid, flammable, 119
corrosives, 150 Lists, chemicals, 137
insulation, 158 Local application system, 74
paint, 162, 163 Localized wear, 247, see also Wire ropes
refractories, 172 Lockout, 103
solvents, 175 Lockout devices
toluene/xylene, 180–181 control of hazardous energy, 106, 107, 110,
Ingredients, labeling, 116 111, 112
Inhalation definition, 103
aerosols, 140, 141 procedures for removing, 213
corrosives, 150 Lockout equipment, issuing, 211
insulation, 160 Lockout locks, 213–214, 218, 219
paint, 162, 163 safety standards, 209
Lockout/tagout, see also Hazardous entry, control Negative-pressure checks, 60–61, see also User
control of hazardous energy, 104 seal check
nonstandard situations, 212–213 Negative-pressure respirator, 23, 31
procedures and responsibilities for multiple, Niche heroes, 5
214–215 Noise protection, 199
standard situations, 211–212 Nonemergencies, 133
Loose-fitting facepiece, see Facepiece Normal production operations, 103
Lower flammable limit (LFL), 83 NTP, see National Toxicology Program
Nuisance particulates, 117
M
O
Machine guarding, checklist, 197
Machines, restoring, 213 Objectives, safety standard operating manual, 210
Maintenance, 74, 77–78, see also Fire Occupational exposure limits, 162
extinguishers Odor threshold screening, 45–46
Management, 1, 14 Organic peroxide, 121
Mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMAD), Organizations, 1, 10, see also Safety manuals
28 Outer shell, 74
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Out-of-service tags, 220
aerosols, 141 Oxidizer, 121
compliance with HazCom, 137–138 Oxygen, 144
compressed gas, 144, 146 Oxygen-deficient atmosphere, 23, 26, 84
confined space entry, 100 Oxygen-enriched atmosphere, 84
corrosives, 148–149, 150
definition, 121
flammable liquids, 151, 152, 154 P
fuels, 155, 156
hazard communication, 114, 127–131 Paint, 160–164
insulation, 157, 158, 159, 160 Particle size distribution chart, 240
paint, 162, 163, 164 Peak penetration, 55–56
pesticides, 167, 168 Peening, 246, 247
reactives, 168, 169, 170 PELs, see Permissible Exposure Limits
refractories, 172, 173 Pensky-Martens Closed Tester, 120
solvents, 176, 177, 178 Periodic Table of Elements, 241
toluene and xylene, 178, 179, 180, 181 Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), 147–148,
waste, 181, 183, 184, 185 175
Medical emergencies, 132, see also Emergencies Permit-required confined space program, 84
Medical evaluations Permit space, 88, 89, 90
questionnaire, 62–68 program, 85, 88, 89, 92–93, see also Confined
respiratory protection, 28–30 space entry
Mentors, 6 Permit system, 84, 93
Methyl isocyanate, 3 Personal hazards
Metric system, 233–234 aerosols, 140
Mixture, 121, 127 compressed gases, 144
MMAD, see Mass median aerodynamic diameters corrosives, 148
Moisture, content, 38 flammable liquids, 151
Monitoring, 86, 91–92 fuels, 154
Motivation, 2 insulation, 157–158
MSDS, see Material Safety Data Sheet paint, 161–162
pesticides, 165
reactives, 169
N refractories, 172
solvents, 175–176
National Toxicology Program (NTP), 138 toluene and xylene, 178–179
Index 363
waste, 182–183 definition, 23

Personal protection equipment (PPE) general protocols, 45–53
aerosols, 140–141 respiratory protection, 31–32
audit checklist, 200 Quantitative fit test (QNFT), see also Fit test
compressed gas, 144, 147 definition, 23
confined space entry, 99 general protocols, 53–60
corrosives, 148, 150 respiratory protection, 31
flammable liquids, 152 Quick disconnect valve, 74
fuels, 155, 156
insulation, 158, 160
paint, 162 R
pesticides, 166
reactives, 169–170, 171 Radiant energy, 20
refractories, 172 Rainbow Passage, 44
regulations, 17–19 Reactives, 168–171
solvents, 176, 177, 178 Record keeping, 41, 216
toluene and xylene, 179 Reference materials
waste, 183, 185 Certified Industrial Hygienist, 229–231
Personal skills, safety training, 13 Certified Safety Professional, 231–232
Pesticides, 115, 164–168 environmental, health, and safety
Peter Principle, 12 practitioners, 229
Physical hazards, 121, 128 Refractories, 171–174
Physical tools, 226 Regulations
Physician or other licensed health care confined space entry, see Confined space entry
professional (PLHCP), 28–30, 31 control of hazardous energy, see Hazardous
Pigments, 161, see also Paint energy, control (lockout/tagout)
PLHCP, see Physician or other licensed health eye and face protection, 19–21
care professional fire extinguishers, 75–81
Poison skull/crossbones symbol, 165 fire protection, 70–75
Poisoning, 166 fit-testing procedures (mandatory), see Fit test
Policy, safety standard operating manual, 210 foot protection, 69–70
Polyethylene, 4 hazard communications, see Hazard
Portacount fit test, 56–57, see also Fit test Communication (HazCom)
Positive-pressure checks, 60–61 head protection, 69
Positive-pressure breathing apparatus, 74 information for employees using respirators,
Positive-pressure respirator, 23, 34 68
Powered platforms, 201 OSHA respirator medical evaluation, 62–68
PPE, see Personal protective equipment personal protective equipment, 17–19
Predischarge employee alarm, 74 respirator cleaning procedures, 61–62
Prescription lenses, 19 respiratory protection, see Respiratory
Process Safety Management (PSM), 4 protection
Produce, 121 user seal check procedures, 61–62
Program evaluation, respiratory protection, 40–41 Regulators, 146
Prohibited condition, 84 Repairs, 36–37
Propane, 3 Rescue equipment, 91
Protective materials, 106–107 Rescue service
PSM, see Process Safety Management definition, 84
Pyrophoric, 121 summoning and confined space entry, 92, 94,
97, 98–100
Respirators
Q cleaning procedures, 61–62
care and maintenance, 34–37
QLFT, see Qualitative fit test definition of types, 22, 23
QNFT, see Quantitative fit test selection, 25
Qualitative fit test (QLFT), see also Fit test use, 32–34
Respiratory inlet covering, 23 Setaflash Closed Tester, 120

Respiratory protection Setting up, definition, 104
breathing air quality and use, 37–39 Shutdown, 109–110
compliance dates, 42 Signal words, 165–166
definitions, 21–24 Simulated rescues, 100
fit testing, 30–32 Skin
maintenance and care of respirators, 34–37 aerosols, 140, 141
medical evaluation, 28–30 corrosives, 148, 149
program, 24–25, 29 insulation, 159
program evaluation, 40–41 paint, 162
record keeping, 41–42 refractories, 172
selection of respirators, 25–28 solvents, 175, 176
training and information, 39–40 toluene/xylene, 179, 180
use of respirators, 32–34 Small hose system, 75
Responsibility, safety continuum, 1 Sodium chloride aerosols, 54
Responsible party, 121 Solid, flammable, 119
Retraining, 40, 109, see also Training Solvents
Retrieval harnasses, 100 chemical profile, 174–178
Retrieval system, 84, 100 paint, 161
Revision numbers, 205, 207 Specific chemical identity, 121
Risks, reactives, 169 Specific gravities/densities, 238–239
Routes of entry, 157 Spills, 141, 156
Sprinkler alarm, 74
Sprinkler system, 74
S Standards, selection, 6
Standpipe system, 75
Saccharin solution aerosol protocol, 47–49 Stannic chloride, see Irritant smoke protocol
Safety Starmark Engineering, 138
benchmarking, 4–7 Storage
continuum, 1–2 aerosols, 141–142
historical events relevant to safety/industrial compressed gases, 144–145
hygiene, 2–4 corrosives, 148
role of professional, 9–11 flammable liquids, 152
standard operating manual fuels, 155
exhibits, 218–222 insulation, 159
lockout/tagout, 208–217 paint, 162–163
sample table of contents, 207 pesticides, 167
training, 12–15 reactives, 170
Safety manager, 1 refractories, 173
Safety manual, see Safety, standard operating respirators, 35
manual solvents, 176–177
Sampling, fit testing, 32 toluene and xylene, 179–180
Sampling instrument, 54 waste, 183–184
SAR, see Supplied-air respirator Strand nicking, 246
Scaffolds, checklist, 202 Supplied-air respirator (SAR), 24
SCBA, see Self-contained breathing apparatus Symptoms, poisoning/exposure, 166
Scorecard, 138
Screening, 55
Seal check, see User seal check T
Seed, labeling, 116
Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 23, Tagiabue Closed Tester, 120
34, 155 Tagout, 104
Sensitivity screening check, 52–53 Tagout device
Service life, 23 control of hazardous energy, 105, 106, 107,
Servicing, 104 110, 111, 112
Index 365
definition, 104 U
Taste aversion, 49
Taste threshold screening, 49–51 Unconfined vapor cloud explosions (UVCE), 3
Tensile load, 245 Unstable, 121
Test agents, 55 Use, definition, 121
Test chamber, 53–54, 55 User seal check, 24, 32, 43, 60–61
Test exercises, 44–45, 59 UVCE, see Unconfined vapor cloud explosions
Test instrument, 60
Test respirators, 54
Test subject, 42–43 V
Testing
Value, safety continuum, 2
confined space entry, 86, 91 Vapor, 154, 174
control of hazardous energy, 112 barrier, 75
definition, 84 breakthrough, 33
fire extinguishers, 77, 78, 79, 80 Ventilation, 90, 152, 167
Threshold limit value-time weighted average forced-air, 87
(TLV-TWA), 162 VOCs, see Volatile organic compounds
Tight-fitting facepiece, see Facepiece Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 139
TLV-TWA, see Threshold limit value-time Voluntary Protection Program Association
weighted average (VPPA), 6
Toluene, 178–181 VPPA, see Voluntary Protection Program
Tool pouch, 12 Association
Total flooding system, 75
Toxic substances, labeling, 116
Toxicity, 165, see also Pesticides W
Trade secret
definition, 121 Walking surfaces, 203
hazard communication, 132–136 Warning labels, 165
Training Waste, 181–185
Water-reactive, 121
confined space entry, 95, 99
Weights and measures, 235–237
control of hazardous energy, 108–109
Wire rope, 245–248
definition, 75
Wood products, 117
fire extinguisher, 81
Work area, 121
hazard communication, 115, 131–132
Workmen’s Compensation Act, 3
individual chemical, 138
Workplace, 11, 17–18, 122, 124–125
personal protective equipment, 18–19
respirator use and protection, 39–40
safety standard operating manual, 215–216 X
Trends, safety, 10
Triangle Fire, 3 Xylene, 178–181

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The

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

O’Brien, Daniel Patrick, 1955–

T55 .O24 2001

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com

© 2002 CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Chapter 2 Employment Situations ........................................................................9

Chapter 4 Chemical Profiles .............................................................................137

Chapter 5 Helpful Audit Checklists..................................................................187

Chapter 6 Safety Manuals.................................................................................205

Chapter 7 Accident Investigations ....................................................................223

Chapter 8 Reference Materials .........................................................................229

Chapter 9 Glossary: Terms of Interest to Environmental, Safety,

2 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

1.2 HISTORICAL EVENTS RELEVANT TO SAFETY

industrial hygiene, safety, or worker’s compensation perspective. The following is

4 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

1.3.1 WHY DOES ONE BENCHMARK?

1.3.2 WHO SHOULD BE BENCHMARKED?

1.3.3 WHERE DOES ONE START?

6 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

professional development conferences, such ASSE, the American Conference on

Another pitfall of benchmarking is pushing the benchmark harder than the

10 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

micromanaged organization, as effective management is impossible. On the other

2.2 THE ROLE OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

12 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

paramount interest to the industrial hygienist. While safety professionals must be

2.3 SUPERVISOR SAFETY TRAINING

2.3.1 THE BASICS

2.3.2 PERSONAL INTERACTION SKILLS

14 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

2.3.3 MANAGEMENT SKILLS

2.3.4 CLEAR UNDERSTANDING OF DIRECTIONS AND GOALS

• Bringing the supervisor “up to speed” on company goals

3.1 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

18 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

3.2 EYE AND FACE PROTECTION

20 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

Filter Lenses for Protection against Radiant Energy

Filter Lenses for Protection against Radiant Energy

may be used when the arc is hidden by the workpiece.

3.3 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

22 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

“Atmosphere-supplying respirator” means a respirator that supplies the respirator

“Immediately dangerous to life or health” (IDLH) means an atmosphere that

24 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

“Supplied-air respirator” (SAR) or airline respirator means an atmosphere-sup-

26 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

28 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

the employee. The medical questionnaire shall be administered in a manner that

30 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

32 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

34 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

36 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

38 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

40 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

42 The Safety Officer’s Concise Desk Reference

APPENDIX A TO §1910.134: FIT-TESTING PROCEDURES (MANDATORY)