CHAPTER 15: GRAPHS

• REVISION OF DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS GRAPHS

- Discrete data is data that is counted. Counted data can only be whole
numbers. For example, the number of goals scored by Portugal in each match
played in the recent world cup. Dots are used to indicate the number of goals
scored in the match
- Continuous data is data that is measured. This data can involve real numbers
rather than just whole numbers. For example, suppose that the weight, in
kilograms, of people going to gym is related to the amount of nutrients taken
by those people per day (in grams). The weight and nutrients taken is
measured rather than counted. It is possible for a person to weigh 61,85kg,
which is not a whole number.
- The trends in a discrete or continuous graph can be linear or non-linear.
- Graphs with a linear trend follow a straight-line pattern and graphs with a
non-linear pattern follow a curved pattern.

• REVISION OF PLOTTING POINTS IN THE CARTESIAN PLANE

- A cartesian plane consists of
a horizontal number line
called the 𝒙-axis and a
vertical number line called
the 𝒚- axis
- The two axes intersect at
right angles at 0, which is
called the origin.
- The axes divide the plane
into four different
quadrants.
- A point on the Cartesian
plane is represented in
terms of:
o Its position relative to
the origin, or
o Its distance from the two axes
Page 1 of 16
 ➢ Ordered Pairs
Consider the following points:
𝐴 (3 ; 4), 𝐵 (−2 ; 4), 𝐶(−4 ; −5), 𝐷 (4 ; −4), 𝐸 (0 ; 5), 𝐹(7 ; 0), 𝐺 (0 ; 6)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 (−7, 0)

a) Point 𝐴 (3 ; 4) tells us that

the number 3 is 3 units away
from the VERTICAL axis and
can be read on the 𝑥-axis and
is the 𝒙-coordinate. The
number 4 tells us that the
point is 4 units away from
HORIZONTAL axis and can be
read on the 𝑦-axis and is the
𝒚-coordinate.
b) Point 𝐵 (−2 ; 4), which lies in
the 2nd quadrant, tells us that
the number −2 is −2 units away from the VERTICAL axis and is the 𝒙-
coordinate. The number 4 tells us that the point is 4 units away from the
HORIZONTAL axis and is the 𝒚-coordinate.
c) Point 𝐶 (−4 ; −5), which lies in the 3rd quadrant, tells us that the number −4
is −4 units away from the VERTICAL axis and is the 𝒙-coordinate. The
number −5 is −5 units away from the HORIZONTAL axis and is the 𝒚-
coordinate.

- THEREFORE, an ordered pair is always written in the form:

(𝒙 − 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 ; 𝒚 − 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆)

❖ EXERCISE 1:
Complete the following tables according to the given rules and then:
1. Write down the sets of ordered pairs, and
2. Plot these points and then join them with a line. Plot each set of points
in a different colour

1.1
𝒙 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏

Page 2 of 16
1.2
𝒙 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝒚 = −𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐

1.3
𝒙 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
𝟏
𝒚=− 𝒙
𝟐

➢ SKETCHING LINES: Method 1 – RANDOM POINTS

- In the previous exercise, you completed tables and then plotted the ordered
pairs. Each of the relations in the last exercise resulted in a set of points that
were collinear – the points were all in a straight line.
- When drawing lines, it is not necessary to choose more than three 𝑥-values –
you can choose any values for 𝑥- but the sensible choices are 𝒙 = −𝟏; 𝒙 = 𝟎
and 𝒙 = 𝟏
- Using those 𝑥-values, substitute them into the given equation to find their
corresponding 𝑦-value, giving you your ordered pair. Once you have those
points, you can use them to plot them on the Cartesian plane.
o EXAMPLE 1: Plot the following graph, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3, using the random
point method.
→ Let 𝑥 = −1 ; 0 ; 1 and find their corresponding 𝑦-values

𝒙 = −𝟏: 𝒙 = 𝟎: 𝒙 = 𝟏:
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
𝑦 = 2(−1) + 3 𝑦 = 2(0) + 3 𝑦 = 2(1) + 3

𝑦 = −2 + 3 𝑦 = 0+3 𝑦 = 2+3

𝑦=1 𝑦=3 𝑦=5

∴ (−1 ; 1) ∴ (0 ; 3) ∴ (1 ; 5)

Page 3 of 16
❖ EXERCISE 2:

For each of the following relations, use the random point method to plot the
following lines on the same set of axes. Use a different colour for each line.

2.1 𝑥+𝑦 =5
2.2 2𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5
2.3 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 6
2.4 𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 6
2.5 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 12

➢ SKETCHING LINES: Method 2 – DUAL INTERCEPT

- When using the table method, the points are random, and it does not
necessarily give us the important (critical) point on the graph.
- Critical points on any graph include the 𝒙- and 𝒚-intercepts – the points
where the graph cuts (intersects) the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes.
- The dual intercept method gives us this information:
o 𝒙-intercept: where the line cuts the 𝒙-axis (horizontal axis). At this
point, the value of 𝑥 can change BUT the value of 𝑦 is ALWAYS 0 (zero)
o 𝒚-intercept: where the line cuts the 𝒚-axis (vertical axis). At this point,
the value of 𝑦 can change BUT the value of 𝑥 is ALWAYS 0 (zero)
- To find the 𝒚-intercept, we let 𝒙 = 𝟎 in the equation and then solve for 𝒚
- To find the 𝒙-intercept, we let 𝒚 = 𝟎 in the equation and then solve for 𝒙

o EXAMPLE 1: Draw the graph of 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 6

𝑦 - intercept: When 𝑥 = 0:
2(0) + 3𝑦 = 6 ∴ 3𝑦 = 6 ∴𝑦=2
∴ (𝟎 ; 𝟐)
𝑥 - intercept: When 𝑦 = 0:
2𝑥 + 3(0) = 6 ∴ 2𝑥 = 6 ∴𝑥=3
∴ (𝟑 ; 𝟎)

Page 4 of 16
 o EXAMPLE 2: Draw the graph of 4𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 10
𝑦 - intercept: When 𝑥 = 0:
−10 1
4𝑦 = 5(0) − 10 ∴ 4𝑦 = −10 ∴𝑦= ∴ 𝑦 = −2
4 2
𝟏
∴ (𝟎 ; −𝟐 )
𝟐

𝑥 - intercept: When 𝑦 = 0:
−10
4(0) = 5𝑥 − 10 ∴ −5𝑥 = −10 ∴𝑥= ∴𝑥=2
−5
∴ (𝟐 ; 𝟎)

You can now plot the

𝒙- and 𝒚- intercepts
and then join the
points to get the
lines. Remember to
label your points and
your graph.

❖ EXERCISE 3:
Use the dual intercept method to draw the following straight line graphs.
Write down the 𝑥- intercept and 𝑦-intercept next to each equation.
3.1 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
3.2 𝑥+𝑦 =5
3.3 2𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 5
3.4 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 6
3.5 𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 6
3.6 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 12

Page 5 of 16
➢ When shouldn’t you use the DUAL INTERCEPT method?

- If the equation has an 𝒙, 𝒚 and a constant, use the dual intercept method.
- HOWEVER, it has an 𝒙, 𝒚 and NO constant (in other words the constant = 0), it
will ALWAYS go through the ORIGIN (0 ; 0) – which leads us to the POINT
INTERCEPT METHOD

➢ SKETCHING LINES: Method 3 – POINT INTERCEPT

- Remember, we use this method when the graph goes through the ORIGIN –
so there will be NO constant
- Remember we only need two points to draw our function – we already have
one because we know that the function goes through the origin which is point
(0 ; 0). Therefore, to find another point on the line, simply let 𝒙 = 𝟏 in the
equation and find the corresponding 𝒚-value → you know have a second
point for the line
o EXAMPLE: Draw the graph of 2𝑦 = 3𝑥
▪ NOTE: NO constant, so the line goes through the ORIGIN
▪ Therefore, point 1 = (0 ; 0)

→ Point 2: Let 𝑥 = 1
3 1
∴ 2𝑦 = 3𝑥 ∴ 2𝑦 = 3(1) ∴𝑦= =1
2 2
1
∴ (1 ; 1 )
2

Page 6 of 16
➢ Other exceptions:
- If the equation only contains ONE variable, there is no need to use the dual
intercept method
o EXAMPLE: How do you draw (1) 𝑦 = 6 and (2) 𝑥 = 2 ?
→ If you use METHOD 1 – Random Points to draw these lines, simply
choose 2/3 𝑥-values and substitute them into the equation to find their
corresponding 𝑦-values

∴ 1) Let 𝑥 = 2 then 𝑦 = 6 point (2 ; 6)

Let 𝑥 = 9 then 𝑦 = 6 point (9 ; 6)
→ Therefore you should see that the value of 𝑥 doesn’t affect the value
of 𝑦 and when you plot these points and join them you get a horizontal
line with a 𝒚-intercept of 6

∴ Similarly, line (2) is the same – the value 𝑦 won’t affect the value of 𝑥
and you will get a vertical line with a 𝒙-intercept of 2

Page 7 of 16
➢ SUMMARY of Sketching Lines:

• If the line equation has an 𝒙, 𝒚 and a constant, use the DUAL INTERCEPT
method (where the graph hits the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis. Let 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 )
• If the line equation has an 𝒙, 𝒚 and NO constant, use the POINT INTERCEPT
method (line goes through the origin, point (0 ; 0) and substitute 𝑥 = 1)
• If the line equation has a 𝒙, a constant and NO 𝒚, draw a VERTICAL line
• If the line equation has a 𝒚, a constant and NO 𝒙, draw a HORIZONTAL line

❖ EXERCISE 4:
Draw each of the following lines on the same set of axes.
4.1 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
4.2 𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 4
4.3 𝑦 = −4
4.4 2𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 8
4.5 3𝑦 = −2𝑥
4.6 𝑥+3=0

➢ THE GRADIENT (m):

- Any line has a gradient. The angle which the line makes with the horizontal is
called the inclination. The greater the angle, the steeper the slope.
- The gradient measures the change in the 𝑦-value with respect to the change
in the 𝑥-value, and is written as:

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒚 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆

𝒎= = = =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒏

- A straight line has a constant gradient, i.e. the gradient between any two
points on the line is the same

Page 8 of 16
- To calculate the gradient of a line, we need two points which we read off the
graph or will be given.
o EXAMPLE:
Point A: (−3 ; 2) Point C: (2 ; 4)

𝑦𝐴 −𝑦𝐶 2−4 −2 2
∴ 𝒎𝑨𝑪 = = = =
𝑥𝐴 −𝑥𝐶 −3−2 −5 5

𝑦𝐶 − 𝑦𝐴 4−2 2
∴ 𝒎𝑪𝑨 = = =
𝑥𝐶 − 𝑥𝐴 2 − (−3) 5

- From the above example, we can see that it makes NO DIFFERENCE whether
you go from A to C or from C to A.
- NOTE: If two lines have the SAME gradient, that means that the lines are
PARALLEL to each other

❖ EXERCISE 5:
1. Find the gradient of lines AB, AD, BC, CD, DE and CE, using the following
points:

𝐴 (−3; 2) 𝐵 (4; −1) 𝐶 (2; 4) 𝐷 (−5; −3) 𝐸 ( 2; −3)

Page 9 of 16
 2. For each of the following lines:
a) Determine the gradient by using any two points on the line.
b) Write down the equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
c) State whether the lines are increasing or decreasing.

2.1 2.2

2.3 2.4

➢ THE LINEAR FUNCTION:

- Standard form of the linear function: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Where:
▪ 𝒎 = The gradient
→ 𝑚 is POSITIVE ∴ INCREASING function
→ 𝑚 is NEGATIVE ∴ DECREASING function
▪ 𝒄= The 𝑦-intercept i.e. where the graph touches the 𝑦-axis
- If 𝑦 = 𝑐, then the line has no term in 𝑥 and therefore the gradient is 0.
This means that the line is horizontal and passes through 𝑐 on the 𝑦-axis
- If 𝑥 = 𝑐, then the line has an undefined gradient.
This means that the line is vertical and passes through 𝑐 on the 𝑥-axis.
- If 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, then the line slopes
Page 10 of 16
 o How to write the equation in standard form:
▪ Standard form = 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
▪ Once it is in standard form, it is easy to see the value of the
gradient (𝑚), as well as the 𝑦-intercept (𝑐)
• EXAMPLE’S: Write the following equations in standard form:
1. 2𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 6
2𝑦 42 𝑥 63
∴ = +
2 2 2
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑

2. 2𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 8
∴ 2𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 8
2𝑦 −3𝑥 84
∴ = +
2 2 2
𝟑
∴𝒚=− 𝒙+𝟒
𝟐

➢ SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINE

GRAPHS AND FINDING THEIR GRADIENTS:

Lines of the form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄:

• The 𝑦-intercept is 𝑐 (or let 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑦).
• The 𝑥-intercept is obtained by letting 𝑦 = 0 and solving for 𝑥.
• The gradient of the line is the coefficient of 𝑥 (value of 𝑚).
• The gradient of a line is constant between any two points on the line.
• If the gradient is positive (𝑚 > 0) then the line is increasing (slopes up)
as read from left to right.
• If the gradient is negative (𝑚 < 0) then the line is decreasing (slopes
down) as read from left to right.

Page 11 of 16
 Lines of the form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙:

• The 𝑦-intercept is 0 and so is the 𝑥-intercept (goes through the origin)

• Use the point- intercept method (or table method) to determine another
point on the line
• The gradient of the line is the value of 𝑚 and the same information
applies as before

Lines of the form 𝒑𝒙 + 𝒒𝒚 = 𝒓𝒙:

• Use the dual-intercept method to obtain the intercepts with the axes:
o To get the 𝑦-intercept let 𝑥 = 0 and solve for 𝑦
o To get the 𝑥-intercept let 𝑦 = 0 and solve for 𝑥
• To get the gradient, rewrite the equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

Lines of the form 𝒙 = number and 𝒚 = number

• A vertical line as the equation 𝑥 = number and the gradient is undefined

• A horizontal line has the form 𝑦 = number and the gradient is zero

❖ EXERCISE 6: For each of the following linear functions:

1. Determine the gradient and then state whether the line is increasing or
decreasing.
2. Write down the co-ordinates of the 𝑥 and 𝑦-intercepts.
3. Draw the graph of the line on a set of axes.
a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 8
b) 𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 8
5
c) 𝑦 = − 𝑥
2

d) 𝑦 = 6𝑥
e) 7𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 14
f) 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 24
g) 𝑥 = 6
h) 𝑦 = −4
i) 2𝑥 = 14
j) 6𝑦 + 1 = 19

Page 12 of 16
➢ FINDING THE EQUATIONS OF LINES:
- If the line is HORIZONTAL, it will have an equation of the form 𝑦 = 𝑐
- If the line is VERTICAL, it will have an equation of the form 𝑥 = 𝑐
- If the line SLOPES, you will have to work out the 𝑦-intercept and gradient to
get the equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
- You will always be given at least two points on the graph

o Given the 𝒚-intercept and a point

EXAMPLE: Determine the equation of the line in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
→ 1. Find the 𝒚-intercept (𝒄):
The 𝑦-intercept is 3 (Given)
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝟑
2. Find “𝒎":
We can use the points
(−2; 1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0; 3)
1−3 −2
∴𝑚= = =1
−2 − 0 −2
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝒙 + 𝟑 OR 𝒚=𝒙+𝟑

o Given the 𝒚-intercept and the 𝒙-intercept

EXAMPLE: Determine the equation of the line in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
→ 1. Find the 𝒚-intercept (𝒄):
The 𝑦-intercept is 2 (Given)
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝟐
2. Find “𝒎":
We can use the 𝑥 and 𝑦-intercepts
∴ (4; 0)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0; 2)
0−2 −2 1
∴𝑚= = =−
4−0 4 2
𝟏
∴𝒚=− 𝒙+𝟑
𝟐
Page 13 of 16
❖ EXERCISE 7: Find the equations of the following linear functions in the

form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

❖ EXERCISE 8: Find the equations of the following linear functions in the

form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Page 14 of 16
 o Given two random points

EXAMPLE: Determine the equation of the line in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

→ This time, we cannot start with the 𝒚-intercept since we don’t know
what it is. Instead we start with the gradient.

1. Find the Gradient:

Points given: (−2; 4) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−5; −3)
4 − (−3) 7
∴𝑚= =
−2 − (−5) 3
7
∴𝑦 = 𝑥+𝑐
3
2. Find the value of “𝒄”:
7
Remember our equation at the moment is 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐. We therefore can
3

substitute in any point that has been given, remembering that a point is in
the form (𝑥; 𝑦), and then solving for 𝑐
• Using the point (−2; 4)

7 14 14 26 2
4 = (−2) + 𝑐 ∴4=− +𝑐 ∴𝑐 =4+ ∴𝑐= =8
3 3 3 3 3

• Using the point (−5; −3)

7 35 35 26 2
−3 = (−5) + 𝑐 ∴ −3 = − + 𝑐 ∴ −𝑐 = 3 − ∴ −𝑐 = − =8
3 3 3 3 3

NOTE: we can substitute in either point – both give the same value for 𝑐
𝟕 𝟐
∴ our equation is 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝟖
𝟑 𝟑

Page 15 of 16
❖ EXERCISE 9: Find the equations of the following linear functions in the
form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄

Page 16 of 16