Tambora 19 Februari 2015 Inggris
Tambora 19 Februari 2015 Inggris
Tambora 19 Februari 2015 Inggris
Authors
Adjat Sudrajat
Heryadi Rachmat
Editors
Hawe Setiawan
A. Djumarma Wirakusumah
Cover Ilustration
Ayi R Sacadipura
Photographs
Heryadi Rachmat and others
ISBN 978-602-1704-43-1
Printed in Indonesia
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Greetings From Tambora
PREFACE
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Heryadi Rachmat
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Greetings From Tambora
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Contents
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Preface iii
Contents iv
The eruption that shook the earth 1
The deadliest eruption 2
The global impacts 6
The death toll 8
The nightmare 15
Chronology of the eruption 16
The magnitude of the eruption 20
The eyewitness 21
Sounds and air vibrations 29
Tsunamis 30
The years without a summer 34
An abrupt change of the climate 35
The depressed situation in Europe 38
In the United States and Canada 40
In Asia 41
The epidemic disease of Bengal 42
Folklore and the Pompeii of the East 49
Three kingdoms surround Tambora 50
The folklore of the dog entering a mosque 52
The tale of a Golden Palace 53
The Pompeii of the East 54
The end of the world: three kingdoms instantly 59
perished
Tambora changed the world 63
Tambora eruption and Napoleon 64
The financial crises of America 66
The invention of bicycle 66
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Fig 3. Tambora caldera seen from the satellite showing the di-
ameters of about 7 kilometers and the depth of 1,200 meters
produced by 1815 eruption.
Tambora Caldera
North
Tambora Caldera
South
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the island of Madura causing three days and nights fell pitch-
dark. Further, ash fell down in Jakarta 1,250 kilometres west
of Tambora.
The sounds of Tambora explosion were heard at large
distances. To the west, people in Jakarta located 1,250 kilo-
metres from Tambora heard the detonations of the eruption.
Further to the West, a residence of Bangka Island some 1,500
kilometres distance from Tambora reported the sound of the
explosion. Similarly in Bengkulu 1,775 kilometres distance,
people heard the explosions. The air vibration shook the in-
habitants of Surabaya, in East Java, 600 kilometres west of
Tambora. To the east the explosions were heard in Ternate
located at a distance of 1,400 kilometres from Tambora.
The continuing detonations seemed to Lieutenant Gov-
ernor Raffles and many others as the sounds of the firing can-
nons in a sudden ambush to the Island of Java. The garrison in
Yogyakarta took the initiative to approach the coming enemy
in the northern coastal area of Central Java. Later, it appeared
that it was a fallacy. Raffles and many others should have
been embarrassed because mistakenly interpreted the sound
of volcanic eruption to the explosion of the cannon. Similarly
in Makassar, 380 kilometres north east of Tambora, the cap-
tain of a vessel by name of “Benares” issued an alert against
the firing cannon of the pirate. An armed boat was dispatched
from Makassar to look for the warring pirates. They returned
hand empty. The explosions of Tambora obviously deceived all
of them.
During those days no telecommunication means was
available in Java until 1856 when the first cable was installed
connecting Buitenzorg (Bogor) and Batavia (Jakarta). The
sounds heard by the people in Java remained a mystery for
months until finally Raffles received the report from Owen Phil-
lips. Augmented with other information collected from many
sources, Raffles in 1816 firmly explained to the scientific com-
munity forum in Jakarta about the gigantic eruption of Tambora.
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the social unrest. The farmers flocked the cities for food. Many
industries closed their activities creating jobless. In turn it re-
sulted in riot and robbery that occurred in places. The malaise
swept the continent of Europe. In France the situation had
lead to the new social revolution against the King. The people
in Europe might remember the suffering as “the great subsis-
tence crisis in European’s history.”
The Tambora eruption had changed the monsoon pat-
tern yielding wet and dry weather in different part of the
globe. Cool weathered killed the forests. Combined with the
torrential rain, the flood flushed down Yangtze and Yellow Riv-
ers in China and Bangladesh. The epidemic cholera broke in
Bengal, India and quickly spread over many parts of the world
including Europe and America.
Following the Tambora eruption the wet weather ex-
isted in Europe. It was said that Napoleon Bonaparte after
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to die. Some of them fled the Island or become the cheap la-
bour to work in plantations in Java or other islands. In Bali Is-
land where the blanket of volcanic ash was less, the situation
did not differ very much. The ash cover of 25 cm destroyed
the crops and caused people and animals died.
In Sanggar peninsula where Tambora is located, the
eruption destroyed forest and took 10,000 lives instantly.
Tsunami generated by the pyroclastic flows entering the sea,
claimed more lives. In Lombok Island the total number of vic-
tims due to starvation and diseases outnumbered to 44,000
persons, while in Bali Island about 25,000 persons died.
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area. The work unveiled the buried materials with the help of
the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), which enabled to detect
the foreign objects in the pile of volcanic ashes or pyroclastic
flow deposits.
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“…. And war, which for a moment no more, did glut him-
self again; …. A meal was brought with blood and each
sate sullenly apart ….. no love was left.” (Lord Byron)
Fig 5. The cover of the novel about Frankenstein written by Mary Shelley
inspired by the darkness caused by the Tambora 1815 eruption
(http://thelitquest.blogspot.com/2011/10/frankenstein.html)
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THE NIGHTMARE
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Tambora volcano has been inactive during the last four centu-
ries before the 1815 eruption. During the quiescence period,
the accumulation of pressure took place. In 1812 Tambora
volcano seemed to wake up, billowing black ash column. The
activity took place several days. Since then no sign of activity
were seen. However local people reported rumblings originat-
ed from the volcano. Finally on April 5, 1815, Tambora sent
black cloud accompanied by strong explosion. The detonation
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to the south and arrived in the safer place. The king became
the eyewitness and the main source of information for Owen
Phillips. The chronology of the eruption whereupon was con-
structed. The following table (Table 2) summarizes the course
of the eruption from the initial stage until the termination basi-
cally based on Owen Phillips’ report. Other sources of eyewit-
nesses were also added. Comments were given by the present
authors to give highlight on the volcanological process taking
place during the course of the observed phenomena.
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Fig 8. The magtitude of the volcanic eruption based on the exploded ma-
terials (VEI) accordig to Newhall and Self, 1982. Tambora eruption is
measured 7 on the scale (www.volcanoes.usgs.gov).
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The eyewitness
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Fig 12. The stratified south inner caldera rim showing the alterna-
tions between pyroclastics and lava flows. The lower slope shows
the intentive debris sliding. (Photo by Wahibur Rahman)
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and finally took the roof and destroyed them. The wind also
blew people, animals and trees and everything to the air and
finally sent them to the sea. The seawater rose to the height
of 4 meters and destroyed the houses, farms and everything
not only in Sanggar area but also everywhere reached by the
whirlwind. The story mentioned above described the char-
acteristics of the pyroclastic flow that usually generated the
whirlwind.
According to Lieutenant Owen Phillips who came to
the scene on April 18, 1815 or seven days after the eruption,
people in Sumbawa told him that Tambora volcano had never
shown any indication of the activity. In 1812, however, clouds
permanently hang at the top of the volcano. The cloud grew
bigger and darker. Finally detonations were heard. The cloud
remained in the summit while the rumbling sounds constantly
increased.
Another eyewitness by name of John Crawfurd shared
his experience on his voyage to Makassar which passed trough
the route rather close to Tambora. He wrote as follows:
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Fig 13. The distributions of volcanic ash during the 1815 eruption of Tam-
bora. Figures show the thickness of the volcanic ash deposits
(Sigurdsson et al. 1986)
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the window glasses. The letter further informed that the day
turned pitch-dark and many people lit lamp.
From Bangka Island the Resident of Bangka report-
ed that the explosions were heard on April 11. The sounds
alternated and resembled the sound of firing cannons at a
great distance. He further wrote that the phenomena were
also heard from places in Kalimantan. The information was a
few years later confirmed by a European by name of George
Zimmer who happened to receive the information from an old
lady living in Kalimantan that she heard the frightening sounds
and the earth shook. Following the sounds, ash fell down from
the sky. It was interesting to note that the ashes were sold
because people believed that it might cure sickness.
Collecting the information from the eyewitnesses,
many authors wrote that the volcanic ashes predominantly
distributed in the direction of west-northwest. It covered al-
most the whole Java, SE parts of Kalimantan and the south-
ern tip of South Sulawesi. Eastwardly, the ashes travelled as
far as Sumba and Flores islands which are a close distance
from Sumbawa. The east-southeast prevailing wind blowing in
dry monsoonal season of April confirmed the conclusion. The
thickness of the ash deposits exceeded 1 cm at a distance of
1.200 kilometres west of Tambora and more than 50 cm in
Lombok Island.
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Tsunamis
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gases and steam rushed down the slope to all directions. Ar-
riving at the sea, the flows generated secondary eruption due
to the contact with sea water. The surrounding seas therefore
covered by ashes and the steam. The rocks mass of the py-
roclastic flow predominantly composed of pumice; this type
of rock contained many holes left by the gases during the
solidification, therefore the rock floated on the sea. The large
amount of these rocks assembled with plants and other mate-
rials swept by the flow, formed the floating islands.
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The Moti Lahalo lake’s bottom of Tambora caldera filled with mud.
(Photo by Wahibur Rahman)
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River froze, snow fell in the months of July and August. The
weather changed dramatically.
Many people in the eastern side of the continent mas-
sively moved to the West seeking for warmer climate. This
situation made the western frontier became the final destina-
tion of the immigrants. The people in California might be parts
of the exodus triggered by Tambora eruption. The political
turmoil happened in the United States following the establish-
ment of new states in the mid-west namely Illinois, Indiana,
Kentucky, Alabama and Missoury.
The impact of the extreme depressed agriculture pro-
ductions caused America suffering from the economy crises.
Panic of 1819 spread over the continent. As many as 100 banks
failed to overcome the financial commitments and finally went
bankrupt. The crises that occurred during the President Jef-
ferson administration were known as “the great economic de-
pression.”
In Asia
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Fig 20. Doro Ncanga at the levels 1850 m. asl as the last stop point
before climbing the caldera’s rim from the south.
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Fig 21. Philologist Dr. Hj. Maryam S. Salahudin opens an ancient manu-
script telling about Tambora 1815 eruption in Melayu language written in
Arabic characters.
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Fig 23. Excavation in one of the locations suspected as the buried artefacts.
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dy. It was said that while digging the land, a farmer suddenly
found a ruin of houses buried under a thick pumice layer in
Doropeti area. Some other findings were unearthed in Pan-
casila and Kedindi villages. Intensive excavation by the Arche-
ological and Geological Authorities of Indonesia were carried
out. The survey collected some more artifacts and the ruin of
a village. These findings were preserved. The target area for
further excavations is Pancasila and Kedindi.
Fig 24. Roof of the ancient Tambora house excavated from Oibura village.
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Fig 25. The Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) survey found the artefact
buried 2-3 meters under the ground (Photo by Kun Ds)
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Fig 27. The observation on the rice grains that already changed into char-
coal found in Oibura village.
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TAMBORA CHANGED
THE WORLD
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Fig 29. Sketch shows the panic situation of the inhabitants during
the Tambora 1815 eruption (www.smithsonianmag.com)
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food shortages. It was said that horse to draw the cart was
scarce, because of cold weather and no grass to feed. Many
horses died. It became worst because people ate horseflesh
and caused the number of horses depleted.
In such a condition, transportation was very critical. In
1816 a German by name of Baron Karl von Drais constructed a
wooden vehicle with two wheels which was moved by kicking
foot backward against the ground. It was called the draisine
adopted from his name. This mode of transportation was then
developed into velocipede in 1855 and finally to the bicycle
in 1885. Earlier in 1790 Chevelier de Sivrac a Frenchman in-
troduced the same type of vehicle called celerefere. However
this type of vehicle was not popular and not accepted by the
people. Instead, draisine was recognized as the first prototype
of the bicycle and Baron Karl von Drais was recognized as the
“father of bicycle.” It is hard to believe that Tambora eruption
had triggered the development of the bicycle. However the
circumstances related to Tambora eruption might very condu-
cive for people to accept the draisine.
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published in 2012.
The government later arranged the new shape of the
territory involving the existing Kingdoms to cover the vacant
area around Tambora. The Kingdom of Dompu extended its
territory to the former territory of Pekat and part of Tambora
Kingdoms. Bima Kingdom received the new territory left by
Sanggar and part of Tambora Kingdoms. Sanggar, Pekat and
Tambora Kingdoms were officially dissolved. The consequenc-
es of the new administrative arrangement were among others
involved the socio-demographic and cultural aspects.
Normally the dissolution of a kingdom or a state must
have taken a considerable time taking into account the le-
gal and administrative processes. The people’s opinion should
also be accommodated. The mega-disaster such as the case of
Tambora however has totally crosscut the procedure. The his-
tory was changed within an overnight. Such a calamity should
always be the warning for all the citizens that a state might
be abolished and the history might be terminated. In larger
scale the collision of a huge meteor from the outer space had
changed the course of the history. A caesura in Jurassic age,
200 millions years ago occurred causing dinosaurs and oth-
er big animals vanished. Food shortages were suspected to
be the reason. In this case the popular theory explained that
a gigantic calamity occurred caused by a huge meteor that
crashed down the earth in Yucatan and Mexico bay area.
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The occurrence of the fire out of the volcano has long been
the attention of the people. The Romans believed that the God
of War by name of Vulkan used to make the weapon out of
iron using fire. His black smith was located under the Vulkan
volcano in Italy, thereupon the name of volcanology derived.
Further as science progresses, people believe that the fire
came from the radioactive minerals located under the mantle
of the earth’s crust.
With the advance of technology, in the middle of last
century people found that the earth’s crust was laterally
moved, though it was extremely slow of less than 6 cm annu-
ally. The collision between the segments of the earth’s crust
produced heat manifested in the fire of the volcano. Such a
theory called plate tectonic theory explains the distribution of
volcanoes along the line called volcanic belt.
Tambora is located at about the middle of the volcanic
belt of Indonesia which extends from Aceh to North Sulawe-
si through Java, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. The collision of
Indo-Australia tectonic plate from the south and the Eurasian
plate in the north generates the molten rock of magma. It is
believed that Tambora is located in a very complicated tectonic
position, taking account the existence of Sumba Island which
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Tambora had been quiescence for 4,000 years before the gi-
gantic eruption of 1815. In the past the eruption was predom-
inated by lava flowing down from the central of the volcano.
The oldest lava was dated back to 690,000 years ago which
was followed by younger lava flows. As many as 10 lava flows
with different age were found. The youngest lava flow pouring
down from the central vent was age dated 9000 years ago.
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Fig34. shows the bird’s eye view on Tambora. The upper slope consisted
of alternation between lava flows and pyroclastic deposit forming strato
volcano which was characterized by steep slope. The middle slope was
predominated by lava flows which were reflected in the Hawaiian-like type
shield morphology. The relatively flat lower slope consisted of fragments
of the eroded upper slope and the head of the lava flows. The figure was
derived from the processed satellite 94
image (Illustration by Adjat Sudradjat)
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Fig 36. Demonstrates the mechanism of pyroclastic flow (nuée ardénte or glowing cloud) in Tambora
1815 eruption. (a) the case with pyroclastic flow directed to Pekat, where this city was not buried
(above). Hot strong wind (hurricane) destroyed the kingdom. (b) The steam jet produced by contact
between pyroclastic flow heading north (Tambora Kingdom) and East (Pekat Kingdom)
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The 1815 eruption of Tambora volcano had left the area with-
out occupancy for quite sometimes. Therefore the volcano had
been declared as the reserved site under the management of
the forestry institution. The Tambora heritage consist of the
proper Tambora and the back ups at the surrounding. The hik-
ing to the crater is the real adventure. The observation on the
deadliest pyroclastic deposits at the slope of Tambora volcano
might be interesting for the geo-lovers because it contains
scientific materials. The visit to Pompeii of the East where
buried houses with human corpses were excavated might be
recommendable.
The 1815 eruption was considered extra ordinary geo-
logical phenomena. It was the biggest and deadliest erup-
tion in modern human history and the impact to the weather
that changed the world. The unique culture had also perished.
Three kingdoms vanished. The impact on weather needs fur-
ther study particularly for human being to cope with the prob-
lem of global warming.
The back ups consists of various tourist destination. Sa-
tonda Island located some 30 kilometres North West of Tam-
bora preserved the pioneer of life in our planet in the form
of bacteria which able to produce oxygen and carbon dioxide
favourable for living. Moyo Island, West of Tambora was said
to be chosen by Princess Diana of Great Britain to retreat from
the “paparazzi” hunters.
The other back up is a visit to the deepest hole in South-
east Asia, namely the gold-copper mining in Batu Hijau (Green
Stone) 120 kilometres southwest of Tambora. A large number
of copper and gold deposits have been mined from this site
leaving a gigantic hole about the same size with Tambora cal-
dera. The environment was managed in such a professional
and unique way. The tailing was deposited deep in the sea
floor.
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the tropical forest. The island is also famous with the tropical
honey.
Water falls are found in many places. Underground wa-
ter is kept in the porous limestone at the hilly parts in the
middle of the island. The limestone with its typical karst to-
pography provides caves for geo-adventure. Marine adventure
in the coastal area is similarly attractive. Fresh coral reefs and
colourful fishes are readily admired.
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INTRODUCING THE
BEAUTY OF INDONESIAN
VOLCANOES
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Post-caldera volcanism I
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Dikes
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Altered dikes on the lower part of the eastern caldera wall, in-
truding YTV I or YTV II eruption products may belong to dikes
during YTV I or YTV II.
Sector collapses
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Geodiversity
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Geopark
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Tambora Geoheritage
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2. Kajian Geologi
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B. Saran
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Sungai......................................
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What is geoheritage?
Even though nature protection is primarily based on protecting
living organisms and ecosystems, the protection of geological
and geomorphological natural resources, also called non-liv-
ing nature, has a long-standing tradition and is becoming in-
creasingly interesting. The records in the rocks allow us to
take a peek back into the Earth’s past: fossil plant and animal
remains teach us of the development of the living world over
millions of years; wrinkles and rifts tell us of what happened
to the Earth’s core; minerals surprise us with their crystallisa-
tion in proper geometric forms, amazing colours and fantastic
brilliance; volcanoes continue to prove to us that the heated
Earth’s interior is powerful and fickle.
The geological foundation determines what the soil will be
like, where water will appear, how streams and rivers will
flow, where the mountains will rise up, and where caves and
pits will form. And in doing so, it affects all the life on Earth.
Through the protection of geoheritage, we are able to protect
a most representative slice of the history of our planet that is
4.5 billion years old, we can admire the forces of the past and
learn for the future.
Geodiversity is the diversity of the geological foundation,
such as rocks, minerals, fossils, relief and the processes that
created these distinctive formations over the Earth’s history.
Studying the rocks allows us to follow the development of
life on Earth, track the climatic changes, the processes that
formed the mountains, oceans and continents. Every country
has geological and geomorphological values that make up its
geoheritage.
Literature: Zwicker, G., Žeger Pleše, I., Zupan, I.(2008):
Zaštićena geobaština Republike Hrvatske, Državni zavod za
zaštitu prirode, Zagreb
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as it relates to the
establishment and effective management of protected areas;
2) provide specific advice on the conservation and effective
management of geoheritage in
protected areas and to prepare guidance material as appro-
priate;
3) identify significant geoheritage areas that could be formally
reserved as protected areas by
nations;
4) provide specialist geoheritage advice for the assessment of
World Heritage Site
nominations;
5) provide a mechanism for integrating geodiversity into all
relevant IUCN programmes and
activities;
6) provide, as appropriate, a professional interface for IUCN
between geodiversity and
geoheritage stakeholders such as UNESCO, the mining indus-
try and others.
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GEOHERITAGE OF INDONESIA
Yunus Kusumahbrata
INTRODUCTION
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REFERENCES
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Government
of West Nusa Tenggara Province for the support extended in
the preparation of this book. Vote of thanks is due to the Gov-
ernment of Dompu Residence and Bima Residence for their
special efforts to initiate and realize the event of the bicenten-
nial commemoration of Tambora eruption, to which this book
is dedicated.
The appreciation goes to Head of the Geological Muse-
um who provides funds and financial support for the prepara-
tion and publication of this book particularly to duly meet the
schedule of the commemoration. Similarly to all the staffs who
made this publication possible.
To Padjadjaran University, Bandung Institute of Tech-
nology and Pasundan University where the authors attached,
vote of thanks are addressed. Finally the authors would like to
express their thanks to the contributors for the impressive and
beautiful photographs that make this book lively.
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Contact : [email protected]
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Contact : [email protected]
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