Electrical Fundamentals

Electrical
Fundamentals
TCL024
Student Guide
Caterpillar Service Technician Module
TCL024
Electrical Fundamentals
Published by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd.

1 Caterpillar Drive
Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043
Version 4.1, 2006
Copyright © 2006 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. Melbourne, Australia.
All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the
copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be
addressed to the Caterpillar Learning Manager, Australia.
This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. on the understanding that:
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd., its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved in the
preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious, or other form
of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in respect of the publication and
any consequence arising from its use, including any omission made by any person in reliance
upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication.
Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person in
respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done by any
such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of the contents
of this subject material.
Acknowledgements
A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for
this program, in particular:
 Caterpillar engineers and instructors

 Dealer engineers and instructors
 Caterpillar Institutes.
Table of Contents
Included in this Module:
Module Outline Document..........................................1
Topic 1 Electrical Fundamentals............................................21

Fundamentals...............................................................................22
Electrical Terms............................................................................27
Electrical Circuits and Laws ........................................................33
Magnetism....................................................................................36
Magnetic Terminology..................................................................37
Electromagnetic Induction............................................................40
Topic 2 Electrical Components..............................................43

Wire..............................................................................................44
Connectors...................................................................................48
Install a Solderless Connection.................................................... 57
Switches.......................................................................................65
Circuit Protectors..........................................................................68
Resistors.......................................................................................73
Capacitor......................................................................................77
Lamp Bulbs..................................................................................80
Instruments...................................................................................82
Topic 3 Electrical Circuits.......................................................85

Basic Circuit Elements.................................................................86
General Rules of Ohms Law........................................................86
Metric Prefixes..............................................................................90
Power............................................................................................92
Basic Circuit Theory.....................................................................92
Applying the Rules.......................................................................94
Topic 4 Electrical Schematics..............................................103

Schematics................................................................................. 104
Schematic Features................................................................... 104
Electrical F undamentals – TCL024

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Table of Contents Continued . . .
Topic 5 Digital Multimeter.....................................................109

Introduction to Digital Multimeters.............................................. 110
Topic 6 Circuit Faults.............................................................121

Circuit Faults............................................................................... 122
Topic 7 Soldering...................................................................127
Soldering.................................................................................... 128
Properties of Solder.................................................................... 129
Procedure Example.................................................................... 137
E lectrical F undamentals – TCL024

Module Outline Document
Included In This Section:

Learning Outcome Details and Module Information

Module Number: TCL024
Module Name: Electrical Fundamentals
Objective:
This unit identifies the competence required to correctly test and carry out
repairs to vehicle electrical systems
Prerequisites:
 BUS006 Workplace Occupational Health and Safety Procedures
 TCL007 Workshop Tools
Date: 14 September 2006
Version: 4.1
Recommended Delivery
1. As a minimum, personnel delivering this module must have the status of a

Caterpillar Trainer and Assessor Program (CTAP) Level 1 Facilitator, or equivalent.
2. Media, demonstration and practical facilitation, given:

– Notebook Computer
– PowerPoint Presentation
– Video Projector
– Whiteboard
– Various tooling, training aids/models or machines
3. Estimated time of delivery – 34 hours
4. Classroom and Workshop Environment
5. Resources:
– Magnets (Natural / Artificial / Electromagnet)
– Paper and Iron Filings
– Stripped alternator (Field windings and magnets)
– Electrical wirings (solid core and stranded core)
– Machine
– VE connector/s
– Sure seal connector/s
– Deutsch Heavy Duty (HD10) series connector/s
– Deutsch Transportation (DT) series connector/s
– Caterpillar Environmental connector/s (CE)
– Deutsch Rectangular Connector/s (DRC)
– Assortment of electrical terminals (kit)
– Crimping tool/s

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– Switches
• Single pole, single throw
• Single pole, double throw
• Double pole, single throw
• Double pole, double throw
• Common switches
– Circuit protectors
• Fuses
– Blade
– Cartridge
– Ceramic
– In-line
• Fusible link
• Circuit breakers
– Cycling
– Non-cycling
– Selection of relays
– Selection of resistors
– Variable resistor
– Rheostat
– Thermistor
– Capacitor
– Selection of lamp bulbs
– Sealed beam headlight
– Quartz halogen bulbs
– Magnetic temperature gauge
– Magnetic oil pressure gauge
– Voltmeter
– Ammeter
– Thermal fuel gauge
– Thermal temperature gauge
– Constant voltage regulator
– Digital electronic instrument panel
– Mechanical gauge
– Indicators and warning lights
– Battery/ies
– Electrical / Electronic hobby kit or circuit board
– Caterpillar machine schematic
– Digital multimeter/s
– Soldering iron/s
– Solder
– Heat sleeves
– Heat gun
– Insulation tape

TCL024
– Series light
6. References:
– TCL024 Facilitator Guide
– SENR9147 Electrical Schematic 12H, 140H and 160H Motor Grader or
equivalent
– Relevant manufacturer’s specifications
7. Recommended maximum student/teacher ratio

– Classroom – 15:1
– Workshop – 8:1
8. Resources for Student:

– TCL024 Student Guide (one for each student)
– TCL024 Activity Workbook (one for each student)
– SENR9147 Electrical Schematic 12H, 140H and 160H Motor Grader
(or equivalent)
– Relevant manufacturer’s specifications
Revision
Nil
Assessment
This is an underpinning knowledge and practical module. Learning Outcomes should
be assessed using formative and summative assessments. Evidence of achieving
this module’s learning outcomes, at a knowledge level, is attained by oral and written
assessment. The written assessment is closed book and a minimum standard of 80% is
required. Attainment of the student performance at a hands-on level is achieved by the
use of practical activities aligned with marking guides.
The practical activities may be used as a learning activity or as a practical assessment.
If the practical activity is used as a practical assessment, the student must work alone
and be deemed competent in all aspects. The assessment method must confirm
consistency and accuracy of performance together with application of underpinning
knowledge. The assessment must be by direct observation of tasks, with questioning on
underpinning knowledge. Personnel conducting the assessment must be qualified as a
workplace assessor.

TCL024
Learning Outcome 1: Explain Electrical Fundamentals.

_______________________________
At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

1.1 Define fundamental electrical terminology
1.2 Explain electrical terms
1.3 Explain electrical circuits and laws
1.4 Describe the construction of different types of magnets
1.5 Explain magnetic terminology
1.6 Explain electromagnetic induction
1.7 Describe different ways voltage is induced
Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:
1.1 Define fundamental electrical terminology

1.1.1 Matter and elements
1.1.2 Atoms
1.1.2.1 Neutrons
1.1.2.2 Protons
1.1.2.3 Electron
1.1.2.4 Positively charged atoms
1.1.2.5 Negatively charged atoms
1.1.3 Electron flow
1.1.4 Electrical energy
1.1.4.1 Charges and electrostatics
1.2 Explain electrical terms
1.2.1 Potential difference
1.2.1.1 Voltage (EMF)
1.2.1.2 Counter EMF (back EMF)
1.2.2 Coulomb
1.2.3 Current
1.2.3.1 Conventional versus Electron flow
1.2.4 Resistance
1.2.4.1 Unit of electrical resistance (Ohm)
1.2.4.2 Resistance factors
– Materials (atomic structure)
– Length
– Cross sectional area
– Temperature
1.2.5 Farad
1.2.6 Hertz

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1.3 Explain electrical circuits and laws

1.3.1 Interconnecting path
1.3.2 Kirchoff’s law of current
1.3.3 Kirchoff’s law of voltage
1.3.4 Ohm’s law
1.3.5 Electrical Conductors
1.3.5.1 Conductivity of differing materials
1.3.6 Electrical Insulators
1.3.6.1 Insulating effect of differing materials
1.3.7 Semiconductors
1.4 Describe the construction of different types of magnets
1.4.1 Magnetism
1.4.2 Natural
1.4.3 Artificial
1.4.4 Electromagnets
1.5 Explain magnetic terminology
1.5.1 Poles
1.5.2 Magnetic fields
1.5.3 Lines of force
1.5.4 Lines of Magnetic flux
1.5.5 Magnetic force
1.6 Explain electromagnetic induction
1.6.1 Concepts of electromagnetic induction
1.6.2 Strength of induction
1.6.2.1 Strength of magnetic field
1.6.2.2 Speed and motion
1.6.2.3 Number of conductors
1.6.3 Voltage induction
1.6.3.1 Electromagnetic induction
1.6.3.2 Self-induction
1.6.3.3 Mutual induction
1.7 Describe different ways voltage is induced

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Learning Outcome 2: Identify and explain the function of basic electrical

components.
_______________________________

2.1 Identify and explain the function of basic electrical components
2.1 Identify and explain the function of basic electrical components

2.1.1 Wire
2.1.1.1 Solid
2.1.1.2 Stranded
2.1.1.3 Fusible links
2.1.1.4 Twisted/shielded cable
2.1.1.5 Wire gauge
2.1.1.6 Wiring harness
2.1.2 Connectors
2.1.2.1 Purpose
2.1.2.2 General service
2.1.2.3 Plating
2.1.2.4 Contaminants
2.1.2.5 Vehicular Environmental (VE) connectors
2.1.2.6 Sure-seal connectors
2.1.2.7 Deutsch Heavy Duty (HD10) series connectors
2.1.2.8 Deutsch Transportation (DT) series connectors
2.1.2.9 Caterpillar Environmental Connectors (CE)
2.1.2.10 Deutsch Rectangular Connectors (DRC)
2.1.3 Terminals
2.1.3.1 Slide
2.1.3.2 Bullet
2.1.3.3 Crimp and soldered
2.1.3.4 Terminal crimp tool set
2.1.4 Install a solderless connection
2.1.4.1 Safety
2.1.4.2 Processes

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2.1.5 Switches
2.1.5.1 Single pole, single throw
2.1.5.2 Single pole, double throw
2.1.5.3 Double pole, single throw
2.1.5.4 Double pole, double throw
2.1.5.5 Common switches
– Toggle
– Rotary
– Rocker
– Push-on
– Pressure
– Magnetic
– Key start
– Limit
– Cut-out
2.1.6 Circuit protectors
2.1.6.1 Fuses
– Blade
– Cartridge
– Ceramic
– In-line
2.1.6.2 Fusible link
2.1.6.3 Circuit breakers
– Cycling
– Non-cycling
2.1.7 Relays
2.1.8 Solenoids
2.1.9 Resistors
2.1.9.1 Fixed resistors
2.1.9.2 Resistor rating
2.1.9.3 Variable resistors
2.1.9.4 Thermistors
2.1.9.5 Failed resistors
2.1.10 Capacitor
2.1.10.1 Energy storage
2.1.10.2 Smoothing
2.1.10.3 Suppression
2.1.10.4 Capacitor measurement

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2.1.11 Lamps
2.1.11.1 Types of bulbs
– Common
– Festoon
– Panel
– Sealed beams
– Prefocus bulbs
– Quartz halogen bulbs
– Precautions fitting quartz halogen bulbs
2.1.11.2 Bulb wattage
2.1.11.3 Candlepower
2.1.12 Instruments
2.1.12.1 Mechanical
2.1.12.2 Magnetic operation
2.1.12.3 Thermal operation
2.1.12.4 Digital electronic
2.1.12.5 Indicators and warning lights

TCL024
Learning Outcome 3: Describe the operation of a basic electrical circuit.

_______________________________

3.1 Describe the construction of a basic electrical circuit
3.2 Explain the general rules of Ohm’s Law. Solve equations, using Ohm’s Law,
when voltage, current or resistance is unknown
3.3 Define metric prefixes used in electrical circuits
3.4 Calculate power in a circuit
3.5 Explain basic circuit theory
3.1 Describe the construction of a basic electrical circuit

3.1.1 Power source
3.1.2 Protection device (fuse or circuit breaker)
3.1.3 Load
3.1.4 Control device (switch)
3.1.5 Conductors
3.2 Explain the general rules of Ohm’s Law
3.2.1 General rules of Ohm’s Law
3.2.2 Ohm’s Law equation
3.2.3 Ohm’s Law solving circle
3.2.3.1 Voltage unknown
3.2.3.2 Resistance unknown
3.2.3.3 Current unknown
3.3 Define metric prefixes used in electrical circuits
3.3.1 Base units
3.3.1.1 Volts
3.3.1.2 Ohms
3.3.1.3 Amperes
3.3.2 Prefixes
3.3.2.1 Mega
3.3.2.2 Kilo
3.3.2.3 Milli
3.3.2.4 Micro
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3.4 Calculate power in a circuit

3.4.1 Definition of power
3.4.2 Calculate power
3.5 Explain basic circuit theory
3.5.1 Series circuit
3.5.1.1 Applying Ohm’s Law
3.5.2 Parallel circuit
3.5.3 Series-parallel circuit
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TCL024
Learning Outcome 4: Interpret basic electrical schematics.

_______________________________

4.1 Identify component symbols in an electrical schematic
4.2 Identify electrical schematic features
4.3 Trace the flow in an electrical schematic
4.4 Draw a basic electrical schematic
4.1 Identify component symbols in an electrical schematic:

4.1.1 Battery
4.1.2 Ground
4.1.3 Wire
4.1.4 Connectors
4.1.5 Switches
4.1.5.1 Connect/disconnect
4.1.5.2 Toggle
4.1.5.3 Temperature
4.1.5.4 Pressure
4.1.6 Circuit protection
4.1.6.1 Fuses
4.1.6.2 Fusible links
4.1.6.3 Circuit breakers
4.1.7 Relays
4.1.8 Solenoids
4.1.9 Transistor
4.1.10 Resistors
4.1.11 Rheostat
4.1.12 Potentiometer
4.1.13 Alternator
4.1.14 Starter
4.1.15 Motor
4.1.16 Lamps
4.1.17 Gauges
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4.2 Identify electrical schematic features:

4.2.1 Schematic features
4.2.1.1 Colour codes for circuit identification
4.2.1.2 Colour abbreviation codes
4.2.1.3 Symbol descriptions
4.2.1.4 Wiring harness information
4.2.1.5 Schematic notes and conditions
4.2.1.6 Grid design for component location
4.2.1.7 Component part numbers
4.2.2 Dashed coloured lines
4.2.3 Heavy double dashed lines
4.2.4 Thin black dashed line
4.2.5 Machine electrical schematics for old and new format
4.2.5.1 Harness wiring
4.2.5.2 Connectors
4.2.5.3 Components
4.2.6 Features on the back of the schematic
4.2.6.1 Harness and wire identification
4.2.6.2 Symbols and definitions
4.2.6.3 Wire description charts
4.2.6.4 Related electrical service manuals
4.2.6.5 Harness connector location chart
4.2.6.6 Off machine switch identification
4.2.6.7 Machine harness connector and component location
4.2.6.8 Component identifier and flash code conversion
4.2.6.9 Component location chart
4.2.6.10 Resistor and solenoid specifications
4.2.6.11 Failure Mode Identifier (FMI) list
4.3 Trace the flow in an electrical schematic:
4.3.1 Simple circuit
4.3.2 Complex circuit
4.4 Draw a basic electrical schematic:
4.4.1 Simple circuit
4.4.1.1 Series
4.4.2 Complex circuit
4.4.2.1 Series-parallel
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TCL024
Learning Outcome 5: Identify electrical measurements using a Digital

Multimeter.
_______________________________

5.1 Identify the main components of a Digital Multimeter
5.2 Explain how to measure AC/DC Voltage using a Digital Multimeter
5.3 Explain how to measure voltage drop using a Digital Multimeter
5.4 Explain how to measure AC/DC Current using a Digital Multimeter
5.5 Explain how to measure resistance using a Digital Multimeter
5.1 Identify the main components of a Digital Multimeter:

5.1.1 Liquid crystal display
5.1.2 Push buttons
5.1.3 Rotary switch
5.1.4 Meter lead inputs
5.1.5 Overload display indicator
5.1.6 Input terminals and limits
5.2 Measure AC/DC Voltage using a Digital Multimeter:
5.2.1 Voltmeter must always be connected in parallel
5.2.2 Circuit is on
5.2.3 Position of leads in the multimeter
5.2.4 Rotary switch
5.2.5 Position of leads in the circuit
5.3 Measure voltage drop using a Digital Multimeter:
5.3.1 Source voltage
5.3.2 Closed switch contacts
5.3.3 Circuit under power
5.4 Measure AC/DC Current using a Digital Multimeter:
5.4.1 Voltmeter must always be connected in series
5.4.2 Burden voltage
5.4.3 Rotary switch
5.4.4 Position of leads in the multimeter
5.4.4.1 Initial placement to determine current output
5.4.4.2 Buffer
5.4.5 Create an open circuit
5.4.6 Position of leads in the circuit
5.4.7 Apply power to circuit
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5.5 Measure resistance using a Digital Multimeter:

5.5.1 Turn off circuit power
5.5.2 Discharge all capacitors
5.5.3 Isolate the circuit
5.5.4 Test lead resistance
5.5.5 Position of leads in multimeter
5.5.6 Rotary switch
5.5.7 Position of leads in the circuit or on component
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TCL024
Learning Outcome 6: Identify faults in an electrical circuit.

_______________________________

6.1 Identify various faults that may occur in an electrical circuit
6.1 Identify various faults that may occur in an electrical circuit:

6.1.1 Open circuit
6.1.2 Short Circuit
6.1.3 Grounded circuit
6.1.4 High resistance
6.1.5 Intermittent condition
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TCL024
Learning Outcome 7: Identify soldering techniques on electrical equipment.

_______________________________

7.1 Identify personal safety precautions when soldering
7.2 Explain the properties of solder
7.3 Identify types of soldering irons used to solder electrical components
7.4 Identify the requirements for applying solder
7.5 Identify the need for wire preparation when soldering electrical connections
7.1 Identify personal safety precautions when soldering:

7.1.1 Shaking the gun
7.1.2 Insulated handle
7.1.3 Combustible materials
7.1.4 Nylon and plastic clothing
7.1.5 Fume inhalation
7.1.6 Contact with fluids
7.1.7 Live electrical circuits
7.2 Explain the properties of solder:
7.2.1 Types
7.2.2 Wetting action
7.2.3 Flux
7.3 Identify types of soldering irons used to solder electrical components:
7.3.1 Controlling heat
7.3.2 Thermal mass
7.3.3 Surface condition
7.3.4 Thermal linkage
7.4 Identify the requirements for applying solder:
7.4.1 Applying solder
7.4.2 Post solder cleaning
7.4.3 Resoldering
7.4.4 Quality of work
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7.5 Identify the need for wire preparation when soldering electrical
connections:
7.5.1 Stripping away insulation
7.5.2 Nicks, breaks and cuts
7.5.3 Discolouration
7.5.4 Tinning
7.5.5 Mechanical connections
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TCL024
Learning Outcome 8: Perform electrical measurements using a digital

multimeter, diagnose and repair faults to an electrical
circuit.
Prerequisite:
All students must have completed the knowledge assessment prior to attempting
this learning outcome.
At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

8.1 State and follow the safety precautions that must be observed to prevent
personal injury or damage to equipment
8.2 Identify and state the purpose of the parts of a digital multimeter
8.3 Explain how to read the scales and connect the leads to a digital multimeter
8.4 Test and diagnose a fault in an electrical circuit using a digital multimeter
8.5 Conduct minor repairs on an electrical circuit.
Evidence of achieving this module’s learning outcome, at a practical level, is

confirmed if the trainee can:
8.1 State and follow the safety precautions that must be observed to prevent
personal injury or damage to equipment
8.2 Identify and state the purpose of the parts of a digital multimeter:
8.2.1 Liquid crystal display (LCD)
8.2.2 Push buttons
8.2.3 Rotary switch
8.2.4 Test lead jacks
8.3 Explain how to read the scales and connect the leads to a digital
multimeter:
8.3.1 For measuring AC/DC voltage
8.3.2 For measuring voltage drop
8.3.3 For measuring Direct current
8.3.4 For measuring resistance
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8.4 Test and diagnose a fault in an electrical circuit using a digital

multimeter
8.4.1 Tasks include:
8.4.1.1 Diagnosis and repair a fault in an electrical circuit
– Fuse replacement
– Bulb replacement
– Open, short circuits and faulty ground
8.4.1.2 Soldering
– Terminal and wire repairs
8.4.2 Using the Eight Steps to Diagnostics
8.4.2.1 Obtain preliminary information
8.4.2.2 Confirm the problem exists
8.4.2.3 List possible causes and plan tests
8.4.2.4 Conduct tests
8.4.2.5 Analyse root cause
8.4.2.6 Repair the fault
8.4.2.7 Function test
8.4.2.8 Report
8.4.3 Appropriate workshop documentation is completed
8.4.4 Tasks are completed:
8.4.4.1 Without causing damage to components or equipment
8.4.4.2 Using appropriate tooling, techniques and materials
8.4.4.3 According to industry/enterprise guidelines, procedures and
policies
8.4.4.4 Using and interpreting correct information from the
manufacturer’s specifications
8.5 Facilitators are to ensure that the tasks are completed:
8.5.1 Without causing damage to components or equipment
8.5.2 Using appropriate tooling, techniques and materials
8.5.3 According to industry/enterprise guidelines, procedures and policies i.e.
the eight steps to diagnostics
8.5.4 Using and interpreting correct information from the manufacturer’s
specifications.
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TCL024
Topic 1 Electrical Fundamentals
Included in this Topic:

Fundamentals. ................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Electrical Terms.............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Electrical Circuits and Laws ........................................................................................................................ 33
Magnetism............................................................................................................................................................................. 36
Magnetic Terminology........................................................................................................................................... 37
Electromagnetic Induction............................................................................................................................... 40

Student Guide – Topic 1
Fundamentals
Electricity
Figure 1
What is electricity? Electricity is the flow of electrons in a conductor. It is a

phenomenon whose effects are experienced through such things as heat, light
and magnetism. It is said that flashlights, electric drills, motors, etc. are generally
recognised as electric. However, computers and televisions are often referred
to as electronic. What is the difference? Anything that works with electricity
is electric, including both flashlights and electric drills, but not all electric
components are electronic. The term electronic refers to semiconductor devices
known as electron devices. Electron devices are named as such because they
depend on the flow of electrons for their operation.
To better understand electricity, it is necessary to have a basic knowledge of the

fundamental atomic structure of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and
occupies space. It can take several forms, or states, such as the three common
forms; being solid, liquid and gas.
This module will provide a basic understanding of the theoretical principles

needed before studying and working with electrical circuits and components.
Matter and Elements

Matter is anything that takes up space and, when subjected to gravity, has
weight. Matter consists of extremely tiny particles grouped together to form
atoms. There are approximately 100 different naturally occurring atoms called
elements. An element is defined as a substance that cannot be decomposed
any further by chemical action. Examples of natural elements are copper, lead,
iron, gold and silver.
Other elements (approximately 14) have been produced in the laboratory.

Elements can only be changed by an atomic or nuclear reaction. However,
they can be combined to make the countless number of compounds which we
experience every day. The atom is the smallest particle of an element that still
has the same characteristics as the element. Atom is the Greek word meaning a
particle too small to be subdivided.
22
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Atoms
Although an atom cannot be seen, its hypothetical structure fits experimental
evidence that can be measured very accurately. The size and electric charge of
the invisible particles in an atom are indicated by how much they are deflected
by known forces. The present solar system model, with the sun at its centre and
the planets rotating around it was proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913 and known as
the Atomic Model.
Figure 2 – Atom
The centre of an atom (Figure 2) is called the nucleus and is composed of

particles called protons and neutrons. Orbiting around every nucleus are small
particles called electrons, which are much smaller in mass than either the proton
or neutron. Normally, an atom has an equal number of protons and electrons.
The number of protons or electrons indicates the atomic number. The atomic
weight of an element is the total of protons and neutrons.
23
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Figure 3 – Neutron, Proton, Electron.
Figure 3 shows the structure of two of the simpler atoms:

 Hydrogen contains 1 proton in its nucleus balanced by 1 electron in its orbit
or shell. The atomic number for a hydrogen atom is 1 and its atomic weight
is 1 (1 proton).
 Helium has 2 protons in its nucleus balanced by 2 electrons in orbit. The
atomic number for helium is 2 and its atomic weight would be 4 (2 protons +
2 neutrons).
Scientists have discovered many particles in an atom, but for the purpose of
explaining basic electricity, just three need discussion: electrons, protons and
neutrons. An atom of copper is to be used as an example.
Figure 4 – Copper Atom
The nucleus of the atom is not much bigger than an electron, so their size
cannot really be determined. In the copper atom (Figure 4), the nucleus contains
29 protons (+) and 35 neutrons and has 29 electrons (-) orbiting the nucleus.
The atomic number of the copper atom is 29 and the atomic weight is 64.
24
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Electron Flow
Figure 5
If a length of copper wire is connected to a positive and negative source, such

as a battery (Figure 5), an electron (-) is forced out of orbit and attracted to the
positive (+) end of the battery. The atom is now positively (+) charged because
it now has a deficiency of electrons (-). It in turn attracts an electron from its
neighbour. The neighbour in turn receives an electron from the next atom, and
so on until the last copper atom receives an electron from the negative end of
the battery.
The result of this chain reaction is that the electrons move through the battery
from the negative end to the positive end of the battery. The flow of electrons
continues as long as the positive and negative charges from the battery are
maintained at each end of the wire.
Electrical Energy
There are two types of forces at work in every atom. Under normal
circumstances, these two forces are in balance. The protons and electrons exert
forces on one another, over and above gravitational or centrifugal forces. It has
been determined that besides mass, electrons and protons carry an electric
charge, and these additional forces are attributed to the electric charge that
they carry. However, there is a difference in the forces. Between masses, the
gravitational force is always one of attraction while the electrical forces both
attract and repel. Protons and electrons attract one another, while protons exert
forces of repulsion on other protons, and electrons exert repulsion on other
electrons.
25
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Figure 6 – Force between charges
Thus, It appears to be two kinds of electrical charge. Protons are said to be

positive (+) and the electrons are said to be negative (-). The neutron as the
name implies, is neutral in charge. The directional quality of the electricity,
based on the type of charge, is called polarity. This leads to the basic law of
electrostatics which states:
LIKE charges repel each other and UNLIKE charges attract each other
(Figure 6).
Charges and Electrostatics
Figure 7 – Electrostatic field between two charged bodies
The attraction or repulsion of electrically charged bodies is due to an invisible

force called an electrostatic field, which surrounds the charged body. Figure 7
shows the force between charged particles as imaginary electrostatic lines
from the positive charge to the negative charge. The conventional method of
representing the lines of force is for the arrowheads to point from the positive
charge toward the negative charge.
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Figure 8 – Electrostatic field between two negatively charged particles
When two like charges are placed near each other, the lines of force repel each
other as shown in Figure 8.
Electrical Terms
Potential Difference
Because of the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to
move another charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability to attract or repel is
called its potential. When one charge is different from the other, there must be a
difference in potential between them.
Voltage (EMF)
The sum difference of potential of all charges in the electrostatic field is referred
to as electromotive force (EMF). The basic unit of potential difference is the Volt
(E) named in honour of Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist and the inventor of
the Voltaic Pile, the first battery cell. The symbol for potential is V, indicating the
ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the Volt unit is used,
potential difference is called voltage. There are many ways to produce voltage,
including friction, solar, chemical, and electromagnetic induction. The attraction
of paper to a comb that has been rubbed with a wool cloth is an example of
voltage produced by friction. A photocell, such as on a calculator, would be an
example of producing voltage from solar energy.
Counter EMF
Magnetic lines of force radiate out from a wire in concentric circles. This process
is caused by the current flowing in the wire, producing a magnetic field. In a
straight wire these lines of force have little effect since they do not cross any
other conductor. If the wire is formed into a coil, the lines of force self-induct
back into the wire (self-induction). The induced voltage will flow in a direction
opposite to the voltage applied to the wire. This induced voltage is called
back EMF or counter EMF. This is summed up by the following law known as
Lenz’s law:
The polarity of the induced EMF is opposite to and opposes the change
that create it.
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Coulomb
A need existed to develop a unit of measurement for electrical charge. A French
scientist named Charles Coulomb investigated the law of forces between
charged bodies and adopted a unit of measurement called the Coulomb. Written
in scientific notation, one Coulomb = 6.28 x 1018 electrons or protons. Stated in
simpler terms, in a copper conductor, one ampere is an electric current of 6.28
billion electrons passing a certain point in the conductor in one second (motion).
Current
Figure 9 – Current Flow
The drift of electrons or movement constitutes an electric current. In electrostatic

theories, as discussed earlier, the concern was mainly the forces between the
charges. Another theory that needs explaining is that of motion in a conductor.
The motion of charges in a conductor is defined as an electric current (Figure 9).
An electrostatic field will affect an electron in the same manner as any negatively
charged body. It is repelled by a negative charge and attracted by a positive
charge.
The magnitude or intensity of current is measured in Amperes. The unit symbol

is I. An ampere is a measure of the rate at which a charge is moved through
a conductor. One ampere is a coulomb of charge moving past a point in one
second.
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Conventional Versus Electron Flow
Figure 10 – Electron and Conventional Current
There are two ways to describe an electric current flowing through a conductor.
Prior to the use of atomic theory to explain the composition of matter, scientists
defined current as the motion of positive charges in a conductor from a point
of positive polarity to a point of negative polarity. This conclusion is still
widely held in some engineering standards and textbooks. Some examples
of positive charges in motion are applications of current in liquids, gases and
semi‑conductors. This theory of current flow has been termed conventional
current (Figure 10).
With the application of atomic theory, it was determined that current flow through
a conductor was based on the flow of electrons (-) or negative charge. Therefore,
electron current is in the opposite direction of conventional current and is termed
electron current (Figure 10).
Either theory can be used, but the more popular conventional theory describing
current as flowing from a positive (+) charge to a negative (-) charge will be used
in this module.
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Resistance
George Simon Ohm discovered that for a fixed voltage, the amount of current
flowing through a material depends on the type and physical dimensions of the
material. All materials present some resistance to the flow of electrons. If the
resistance is small, the material is a conductor, if the resistance is large, it is an
insulator.
The Ohm is the unit of electrical resistance and the Greek letter omega (W) is its
symbol. A material has a resistance of one Ohm if a potential of one Volt results
in a current of one Ampere.
Electrical resistance is present in every electrical circuit, components, wires and

connections. As resistance opposes current flow, it changes electrical energy
into other forms of energy, such as heat, light or motion. The resistance of a
conductor is determined by four factors:
1. The material (atomic structure)

2. Length of the material
3. Width (cross-sectional area) of the material
4. Temperature of the material
Figure 11 – Atomic Structure
5. Atomic structure (free electrons). The more free electrons a material has,
the less resistance it offers to current flow (Figure 11).
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Figure 12 – Resistance
6. Length. The longer a conductor of the same width, the higher the resistance.
If a length of wire is doubled (Figure 12) the greater the resistance between
the two ends.
Figure 13
7. Width (cross sectional area). The larger the cross sectional area of a
conductor, the lower the resistance (a bigger diameter pipe allows for more
water to flow). Halving the cross section (Figure 13), doubles the resistance
for any given length.
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Figure 14
8. Temperature. For most materials, the higher the temperature, the higher the
resistance. The chart shown in Figure 14 shows the resistance increasing as
the temperature rises.
Farad
The ability of a capacitor to store electrons is known as capacitance.
Capacitance is measured in farads (named after Michael Faraday, the discoverer
of the principle). One farad is the ability to store 6.28 billion electrons at a 1-Volt
charge differential. Most capacitors have much less capacitance than this, so
they are rated in picofarads (trillionths of a farad) and microfarads (millionths of
a farad).
1 farad = 1F
1 microfarad = 1μF = 0.000001F
1 picofarad = 1ρF = 0.000000000001F.
Hertz
Alternators produce alternating current which cycles between positive and
negative.
The number of cycles per second is called frequency and is measured in Hertz.
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Electrical Circuits and Laws
Figure 15
An electrical circuit is a path, or group of interconnecting paths, capable of

carrying electrical current. It is a closed path (closed circuit) that contains a
voltage source or sources.
There are two basic types of electrical circuits, series and parallel (Figure 15).
The basic series and parallel circuits may be combined to form more complex
circuits, but these combined circuits may be simplified and analysed as the two
basic types.
Laws
It is important to understand the laws needed to analyse and diagnose electrical
circuits. They are Kirchoff’s Laws and Ohm’s Law.
Gustav Kirchoff developed two laws for analysing circuits. They are stated as:
1. Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of the currents
at any junction in an electrical circuit is equal to zero. Simply stated, all
the current that enters a junction is equal to all the current that leaves the
junction. None is lost.
2. Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the
electromotive forces and voltage drops around any closed electrical loop is
zero. Simply stated, at a particular point in a closed circuit and going around
that circuit, adding all the individual differences in potential, until the starting
point was reached, there would be no extra voltage, and none would be left
unaccounted for.
George Simon Ohm discovered the relationship between three electrical
parameters – voltage, current and resistance as follows:
NOTE:
The current in an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and
inversely proportional to the resistance.
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The relationship can be summarised by a single mathematical equation:
Electrical Force
Current =
Resistance
or stated in electrical units:
Volts
Amperes =
Ohms
When using mathematical equations to express electrical relationships,

single letters are used to represent them. Resistance is represented by
the letter R or the Omega symbol (Ω), voltage is represented by the letter
E (electromotive force) and current is represented by the letter I (intensity
of charge).
OHMS law is covered in more detail in Topic 3, Electrical Circuits.
Electrical Conductors
In electrical applications, electrons travel along a path called a conductor
or wire. They move by travelling from atom to atom. Some materials make it
easier for electrons to travel and they are called good conductors. Examples of
good conductors are silver, copper, gold, chromium, aluminium and tungsten.
A material is said to be a good conductor if it has many free electrons.
The amount of electrical pressure or voltage it takes to move electrons through
a material depends on how free its electrons are.
Although silver is the best conductor it is also expensive. Gold is also a

good conductor, and will not corrode like copper but again, is too expensive.
Aluminium is less expensive and lighter, but not as good as a conductor as
copper.
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Conductor Conductivity (To Copper)
Silver 1.064
Copper 1.000
Gold 0.707
Aluminium 0.659
Zinc 0.288
Brass 0.243
Iron 0.178
Tin 0.018
Table 1 – Conductivity Chart
The conductivity of a material determines how good a conductor that material is.
Table 1 shows some of the common conductors and their relative conductivity to
copper. When referring to the number in the right column, the higher the number,
the better the conductivity of the material.
Electrical Insulators
Other materials make it difficult for electrons to travel and they are called
insulators. A good insulator keeps the electrons tightly bound in orbit.
Examples of insulators are rubber, wood, plastics, and ceramics. However, it is

possible to make an electric current flow through all materials. If the applied
voltage is high enough, even the best insulators will break down and allow
current flow.
Rubber Plastics
Mica Glass
Wax or Paraffin Fiberglass
Porcelain Dry Wood
Bakelite Air
Table 2 – Common Insulators
Table 2 lists some of the more common insulators.
There is another item that should be considered when discussing insulators.

Dirt and moisture may serve to conduct electricity around an insulator. If an
insulator is dirty or there is moisture present, it could cause a problem.
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The insulator itself is not breaking down, but the dirt or moisture can provide
a path for electrons to flow. It is therefore important to keep the insulators and
contacts clean.
Semi-conductors
Materials which are neither good conductors nor good insulators are known
as semi-conductors. Example of these materials (elements) are Germanium &
Silicon. Semi-conductors will normally act as insulators, however, they will act
as a conductor under certain conditions, such as when an electrical current is
applied to them. These materials are the basis for electronic devices discussed
in the electronic module.
Magnetism
Figure 16 – Magnet
Magnetism is another form of force that causes electron flow or current. A basic
understanding of magnetism is also necessary to study electricity. Magnetism
provides a link between mechanical energy and electricity. By the use of
magnetism, an alternator converts some of the mechanical power developed by
an engine to electromotive force (EMF). Conversely, magnetism allows a starter
motor to convert electrical energy from a battery into mechanical energy for
cranking the engine.
Most electrical equipment depends directly or indirectly upon magnetism.

Although there are a few electrical devices that do not use magnetism, the
majority of our systems, as known today, would not exist.
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There are three basic types of magnets:

 Natural
 Artificial Magnets (Figure 16)
 Electromagnets
Natural Magnets
The Chinese discovered magnets about 2637 BC. The magnets used in the
primitive compasses are called lodestones, and they were crude pieces of iron
ore known as magnetite. Since magnetite has magnetic properties in its natural
state, lodestones are classified as natural magnets.
Artificial Magnets
Artificial Magnets are man-made magnets and are typically produced in the form
of metal bars that have been subjected to very strong magnetic fields.
Electromagnets
A Danish scientist, named Oersted, discovered a relation between magnetism
and electric current. He discovered that an electric current flowing through
a conductor produced a magnetic field around the conductor. From this,
electromagnets can be used in various applications where switching the flow of
electricity on will produce a magnetic field.
Magnetic Terminology
Poles and Fields
Figure 17 – Field Force around a magnet
Every magnet has two points opposite each other that most readily attract
pieces of iron. These points are called the poles of the magnet: the north pole
and the south pole. Just as electric charges repel each other and opposite
charges attract each other, like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike poles
attract each other.
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A magnet clearly attracts a bit of iron because of forces that exists around the
magnet. This force is called magnetic field.
Although it is invisible to the naked eye, sprinkling small iron filings on a sheet of
glass or paper over a bar magnet can show its force lines.
In Figure 17 a piece of glass is placed over a magnet and iron filing are sprinkled
on the glass. When the glass cover is gently tapped the filings will move into a
definite pattern which shows the field force around the magnet.
The field seems to be made up of lines of force that appear to leave the magnet
at the north pole, travel through the air around the magnet, and continue through
the magnet to the south pole to form a closed loop of force. The stronger the
magnet the greater the lines of force and the larger the area covered by the
magnetic field.
Lines of Force
Figure 18 – Lines of Force
To better visualise the magnetic field without iron filings, the field is shown as
lines of force in Figure 18. The direction of the lines outside the magnet shows
the path a north pole would follow in the field, repelled away from the north pole
of the magnet and attracted to its south pole. Inside the magnet, which is the
generator for the magnetic field, the lines are from north pole to south pole.
Lines of Magnetic Flux

The entire group of magnetic field lines, which can be considered to flow
outward from the north pole of a magnet, is called magnetic flux. The flux
density is the number of magnetic field lines per unit of a section perpendicular
to the direction of flux. The unit is lines per square centimetre in the metric
system or lines per square inch in the English system. One line per square
centimetre is called a gauss.
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Magnetic Force
Figure 19 – Lines of small magnetic circles
Magnetic lines of force pass through all materials; there is no known insulator
against magnetism. However, flux lines pass more easily through materials that
can be magnetised than through those that cannot. Materials that do not readily
pass flux lines are said to have high magnetic reluctance or resistance. Air has
high reluctance; iron has low reluctance.
An electric current flowing through a wire creates magnetic lines of force around
the wire. Figure 19 shows lines of small magnetic circles forming around the
wire. Because such flux lines are circular, the magnetic field has no north or
south pole.
Figure 20 – Circular Fields
However, if the wire is wound onto a coil, individual circular fields merge.
The result is a unified magnetic field with north and south poles as shown in
Figure 20.
As long as current flows through the wire, it behaves just like a bar magnet.
The electromagnetic field remains as long as current flows through the wire.
However, the field produced on a straight wire does not have enough magnetism
to do work. To strengthen the electromagnetic field, the wire can be formed into
a coil. The magnetic strength of an electromagnet is proportional to the number
of turns of wire in the coil and the current flowing through the wire. If the coils
are wound around a metal core, e.g. iron, the magnetic force strengthens
considerably.
Types of electromagnets typically used in mobile machines are relays and

solenoids. Both operate on the electromagnetic principle, but function differently.
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Electromagnetic Induction
Figure 21 – Electromagnetic Induction
It is also possible to create current with a magnetic field by inducing a voltage in

the conductor. This process is known as electromagnetic induction (Figure 21).
This occurs when the flux lines of a magnetic field cut across a wire (or any
conductor). When there is relative motion between the wire and the magnetic
field (whether the magnetic field moves or the wire moves), a voltage is induced
in the conductor. The induced voltage causes a current to flow. When the motion
stops, the current stops. If a wire is passed through a magnetic field, such as
a wire moving across the magnetic fields of a horseshoe magnet, voltage is
induced.
If the wire is wound into a coil, the voltage induced strengthens. This method
is the operating principle used in speed sensors, generators, and alternators.
In some cases the wire is stationary and the magnet moves. In other cases,
the magnet is stationary and the field windings (wires) move.
Movement in the opposite direction causes current to flow in the opposite

direction. Therefore, back and forth motion produces Alternating Current (AC).
In practical applications, multiple conductors are wound into a coil.

This concentrates the effects of electromagnetic induction and makes it possible
to generate useful electrical power with a relatively compact device. In a
generator, the coil moves and the magnetic field is stationary. In an alternator,
the magnetic field is rotated inside a stationary coil.
The strength of an induced voltage depends on several factors:

 The strength of the magnetic field
 The speed of the relative motion between the field and the coil
 The numbers of conductors in the coil.
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There are three ways in which a voltage can be induced by electromagnetic

induction:
 Electromagnetic Induction
 Self-Induction
 Mutual Induction
Electromagnetic Induction
Figure 22 – DC Generator
A simple Direct Current (DC) generator in Figure 22 shows a moving conductor

passing a stationary magnetic field to produce voltage and current. A single loop
of wire is rotating between the north and south poles of a magnetic field.
Self-Induction
Figure 23 – Self-Induction
Self-induction occurs in a wire when the current flowing through the wire
changes. Current flowing through the wire creates a magnetic field that builds up
and collapses as the current changes up and down. A voltage is thereby induced
in the core. Figure 23 shows self-induction in a coil.
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Mutual Induction
Figure 24 – Mutual Induction
Mutual induction occurs when the changing current in one coil induces a voltage
in an adjacent coil. A transformer is an example of mutual induction. Figure 24
shows two inductors that are relatively close to each other. When AC current
flows through coil L1 a magnetic field cuts through coil L2 inducing a voltage and
producing current flow in coil L2.
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Topic 2 Electrical Components

Wire................................................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Connectors............................................................................................................................................................................ 48
Install a Solderless Connection................................................................................................................ 57
Switches.................................................................................................................................................................................. 65
Circuit Protectors......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Resistors. ................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Capacitor. ................................................................................................................................................................................ 77
Lamp Bulbs............................................................................................................................................................................ 80
Instruments........................................................................................................................................................................... 83

Wire
Types of Wire
Figure 25
Wires are the conductors for electrical circuits. Wires are also called leads.
Most wires are stranded, made up of several smaller wires that are wrapped
together and covered by a common insulating sheath (Figure 25).
There are many types of wires found in automotive applications, including:

 Copper
The most common type. Copper wires can be single, however are usually
stranded.
 Fusible Links
There are circuit protection devices that are made of a smaller wire than the
rest of the circuit their purpose is to protect against overload.
 Twisted/Shielded Cable
A pair of small gauge wires, normally stranded, insulated against Radio
Frequencies Interference/Electro Magnetic Interference, used for computer
communication signals, electronic control modules and other electronic
components.
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Wire Gauge
In the USA, electrical and electronic circuits are engineered with specific size
and length conductors to provide paths for current flow. The size of a wire
determines how much current it can carry.
Wire sizes can be rated in two different ways:

 According to ‘American Wire Gage’ size (AWG) (usually referred to as the
gauge of the wire)
 By metric size
AWG No Ø (inch) Ø (mm) Ø (mm²) Resistance (Ohm/m)
4/0 = 0000 0.460 11.7 107 0.000161
3/0 = 000 0.410 10.4 85.0 0.000203
2/0 = 00 0.365 9.26 67.4 0.000256
1/0 = 0 0.325 8.25 53.5 0.000323
1 0.289 7.35 42.4 0.000407
2 0.258 6.54 33.6 0.000513
3 0.229 5.83 26.7 0.000647
4 0.204 5.19 21.1 0.000815
5 0.182 4.62 16.8 0.00103
6 0.162 4.11 13.3 0.00130
7 0.144 3.66 10.5 0.00163
8 0.128 3.26 8.36 0.00206
9 0.114 2.91 6.63 0.00260
10 0.102 2.59 5.26 0.00328
Table 3 – AWG to Metric Conversion Chart
When repairing or replacing machine wiring it is necessary to use the correct

size and length conductors. The chart above illustrates the typical resistances
for various size conductors.
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American Cross Nearest * Max.

Cross Resistance Resistance
Wire Section Standard Recommended
Section (Ω/1000ft Metric Size (Ω/1000ft
Gage (Circular Current
(inch) @77˚F) @25˚C)
(AWG) Mils) (mm²) (Amps)
22 0.0005 642 16.5 0.35 50 7
20 0.0008 1,020 10.4 0.5 36 11
- - - - 0.75 21 12
18 0.00127 1,620 6.51 1 18 13
16 0.00203 2,580 4.09 1.5 12.3 15
14 0.00323 4,110 2.58 2.5 7.3 20
12 0.00817 6,530 1.62 4 4.4 24
10 0.00817 10,400 1.02 6 3.2 32
8 0.01296 16,500 0.64 10 1.75 59
6 0.0203 26,300 0.4 16 1.1 87
* Based on 36˚F (20˚C) maximum temperature rise above ambient
Table 4
Table 4 therefore assumes a maximum ambient temperature of 150˚F (65˚C).
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NOTE:
Regard PVC insulated wire as a 185˚F (85˚C) product.
When using the AWG, remember that smaller gauge numbers denote larger wire
sizes, and larger gauge numbers denote smaller sizes.
Wiring Harness
Many wires are bound together in groups with one or more common connectors
on each end. These groups are called wire harnesses. Note that a harness
may contain wires from different circuits and systems. An example would be the
harness that plugs into the headlight switch assembly, which contains wires for
parking lights, tail-lights, and low and high-beam headlights, among others.
Figure 26
Some harness wires are enclosed in plastic or non-conductive fibre conduit

(Figure 26). These conduits are split lengthwise to allow easy access to the
harness wires. Other harness wires are wrapped in tape. Clips (plastic) and
clamps (metal) attach harnesses to the machine.
Caterpillar electrical schematics provide wire harness locations to help you

easily locate a specific harness on a machine. The features of Caterpillar
electrical schematics will be covered later.
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Connectors
Figure 27
The purpose of a connector is to pass current from one wire to another

(Figure 27). In order to accomplish this, the connector must have two mating
halves (plug or receptacle). One half houses a pin and the other half houses a
socket. When the two halves are joined, current is allowed to pass. Connectors
are used to make component disassembly easier.
General Service Comments

With the increased use of electronic systems in automotive applications,
servicing connectors has become a critical task. With increased usage comes
an increase in maintenance on the wiring, connectors, pins and sockets. Another
important factor contributing to increased repair is the harsh environment in
which the connectors operate. Connectors must operate in extremes of heat,
cold, dirt, dust, moisture and chemicals.
Figure 28 – Connectors
Pins and sockets have resistance and offer some opposition to current flow.
Since the surface of the pins and sockets are not smooth (contain peaks and
valleys) a condition known as asperity (roughness of surface) exists. When
the mating halves are connected, approximately one per cent of the surfaces
actually contact each other (Figure 28).
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The electrons are forced to converge at the peaks, thereby creating a resistance
between the contact halves. Although this process seems rather insignificant to
the operation of an electronic control, a resistance across the connector could
create a malfunction in electronic controls.
Plating
In order to achieve a minimum resistance in the pins and contacts, there needs
to be concern with the finish, pressure and metal used in construction of the pins
and contacts. Tin is soft enough to allow for film wiping but it has a relatively
high resistance. Copper has a low resistance but is hard. In striving for minimum
resistance and the reduction of asperity, low resistance copper contacts are
often plated with tin.
Film wiping occurs when pins and contacts are plated with tin and when they are
mated together they have a tendency to wipe together and actually smooth out
some of the peaks and valleys created by the asperity condition. Other metals,
such as gold and silver are excellent plating materials, but are too costly to use.
Contaminants
Contaminants are another factor that contribute to resistance in connectors.
Some harsh conditions that employ chemicals, etc. can cause malfunctions due
to increased resistance.
Technicians need to be aware that connectors can and do cause many

diagnostic problems. It may be necessary to measure the resistance between
connector halves when diagnosing electrical control malfunctions. Also,
technicians need to be aware that disconnecting and reconnecting connectors
during the troubleshooting process can give misleading diagnostic information.
Several types of connectors are used throughout the electrical and electronic
systems on automotive machines. Each type differs in the manner in which they
are serviced or repaired.
The following types of connectors will be discussed in detail:

 Vehicular Environmental (VE) Connectors
 Sure-Seal Connectors
 Deutsch Connectors (HD10, DT, CE and DRC Series).
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VE Connectors
Figure 29
The VE connector (Figure 29) was used primarily on earlier Caterpillar machine
electrical harnesses where high temperatures, larger number of contacts or
higher current carrying capacities were needed.
The connector required a special metal release tool for removing the contacts
that could damage the connector lock mechanism, if the tool was turned during
release of the retaining clip.
Do not use these metal release tools for any other type of electrical connector.
After crimping a wire to the contact it is recommended that the contact be

soldered to provide for a good electrical contact. Use only rosin core solder on
any electrical connection.
Specific information relating to the process required for installing VE connector

contacts (pins and sockets) is contained in Special Instruction:
Use of VE Connector Tool Group (Form SEHS8038).
This type of connector is no longer used on current product, but may still require
servicing by a field/shop technician.
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Sure-Seal Connectors
Figure 30
Sure-Seal connectors are used extensively on Caterpillar machines (Figure 30).
These connector housings have provisions for accurate mating between the two
halves, but instead of using guide keys or key ways, the connector bodies are
moulded such that they will mate correctly.
Sure-Seal Connectors are limited to a capacity of 10 contacts (pins and sockets).
Part numbers for spare plug and receptacle housings and contacts are
contained in Special Instruction: Use of 6V3000 Sure-Seal Repair Kit
(Form SMHS7531).
Use special tool (6V3001) for crimping contacts and stripping wires. Sure-Seal
Connectors require the use of a special tool 6V3008 for installing contacts.
Use denatured alcohol as a lubricant when installing contacts. Special tooling is
not required for removing pin contacts.
Any holes in the housings not used for contact assemblies should be filled with a
9G3695 Sealing Plug. The sealing plug will help prevent moisture from entering
the housings.
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Deutsch Heavy Duty (HD10) Series Connectors
Figure 31
The HD10 connector (see Figure 31) is a thermoplastic cylindrical

connector utilising crimp type contacts that are quickly and easily removed.
The thermoplastic shells are available in non-threaded and threaded
configurations using insert arrangements of 3, 5, 6 and 9 contacts.
The contact size is No 16 and accepts No 14, No 16 and No 18 AWG wire.

The HD10 uses crimp type, solid copper alloy contacts (size No 16) that feature
an ability to carry continuous high operating current loads without overheating.
The contacts are crimp terminated using a Deutsch Crimp tool, Caterpillar part
number 1U5805.
Deutsch termination procedures recommend NO SOLDERING after properly

crimped contacts are completed. The procedure for preparing a wire and
crimping a contact is the same for all Deutsch connectors and is explained
in Special Instruction: Servicing DT Connectors (SEHS9615). The removal
procedure differs from connector to connector and will be explained in each
section.
Kit for Deutsch connector repair is 4C3806.
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Deutsch Transportation (DT) Series Connectors
Figure 32
The DT connector (Figure 32) is a thermoplastic connector utilising crimp

type contacts that are quickly and easily removed and require no special
tooling. The thermoplastic housings are available in configurations using insert
arrangements of 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 12 contacts. The contact size is No 16 and
accepts No 14, No 16 and No 18 AWG wire.
The DT uses crimp type, solid copper alloy contacts (size No 16) that feature
an ability to carry continuous high operating current loads without overheating,
or stamped and formed contacts (less costly). The contacts are crimp terminated
using a Deutsch Crimp Tool, Caterpillar part number 1U5804.
The DT connector differs from other Deutsch connectors in both appearance

and construction. The DT is either rectangular or triangular shaped and contains
serviceable plug wedges, receptacle wedges and silicone seals.
The recommended cleaning solvent for all Deutsch contacts is denatured

alcohol.
For a more detailed explanation on servicing the DT connector, consult Special

Instruction: Servicing DT Connectors (SEHS9615).
Kit for servicing DT connectors is Caterpillar part No 9U7246.
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Caterpillar Environmental Connectors (CE)
Figure 33
The CE connector is a special application connector (Figure 33). The CE Series

connector can accommodate between 7 and 37 contacts, with the 37 contact
connector being used on various electronic control modules. The CE connector
uses two different crimping tools.
The crimping tool for No 4 – No 10 size contacts is a 4C4075 Hand Crimp Tool
Assembly, and the tool for No 12 – No 18 contacts is the same tool as used on
the HD and DT Series connectors (1U5804).
Reference SEHS9065
8T5319 Removal Tool GP
4C4075 Crimp tool GP
1U5804 Crimp Tool GP
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Deutsch Rectangular Connector (DRC)
Figure 35
a. Slide-type
crimp terminals
b. Bullet
Connector
c. Crimp and
soldered
terminals.
Figure 34
The DRC connector (Figure 34) features a rectangular thermoplastic housing

and is completely environmentally sealed. The DRC is best suited to be
compatible with external and internal electronic control modules.
The connector is designed with a higher number of terminals. The insert

arrangements available are: 24, 40 and 70 contact terminations. The contact size
is No 16 and accepts No 16 and No 18 AWG wire.
The connector uses crimp type, copper alloy contacts (size No 16) that feature
an ability to carry continuous high operating current loads without overheating or
stamped and formed contacts (less costly). The contacts are crimp terminated
using a Deutsch Crimp Tool, Caterpillar part number 1U5805.
The connector contains a clocking key for correct orientation and is properly
secured by a stainless steel jackscrew. A 4mm (5/32in) HEX wrench is required
to mate the connector halves. The recommended torque for tightening the
jackscrew is 25in pounds.
NOTE:
The DRC uses the same installation and removal procedures as the HD10 series.
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Terminals
Figure 35 – Examples of wire terminals
There are a number of different types of terminals used. Some terminals, are
shown in Figure 35. Most terminals, whether they are original or a replacement,
are crimped or swaged to the copper wire of the conductor, but some can be
soldered.
Figure 36
Figure 36 shows a Terminal Crimp Tool Set.
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Install a Solderless Connection

When stripping an electrical wire and joining a solderless connector,
the following points are to be considered.
Safety Check
 Never use a sharp blade or knife to remove insulation. A sharp blade may
cut through the wire completely or may cause personal injury.
 Wire stripping pliers have sharp edges and require a tight grip. Be careful
not to trap your skin between the jaws.
 When removing the insulation from wire, push away rather than towards the
body.
Points to Note
 Electrical wire used in automotive wiring harnesses is covered by an
insulating layer of plastic.
 When electrical wire is joined to other wires or connected to a terminal, the
insulation needs to be removed.
 Wire stripping tools come in various configurations. They all perform the
same task. The type of tool used will depend on the amount and type of
electrical wire to be repaired.
 Solderless terminals require a clean, tight connection, so ensure the wire
and the connection are clean before fitting any terminals.
 Use connections that match the size of the wire.
 Do not use side cutters, pliers or a knife to strip the wire. Using these tools
will damage some of the wire strands and may break the wire inside the
insulation.
 To keep the wires together after stripping them, give them a slight twist.
Do not twist the wire too much, otherwise a risk of poor wire-to-terminal
connection may occur.
 Use the correct crimpling tool for the connection. Using the wrong type of
tool will cause the connection to have a poor grip on the wire.
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1. Select the Terminal
Figure 37
There are different types and sizes of wire terminals, but the procedure for
installing all of them is the same.
Figure 37 is showing a bullet type crimp terminal and crimping tool.
Figure 38
Make sure that the correct size of terminal for the wire is selected and that the
terminal has the correct volt/amp rating for the job it will perform (Figure 38).
2. Strip the Wire
Figure 39
Remove an appropriate amount of the protective insulation from the wire

(Figure 39). Always use a proper stripping tool that is in good condition.
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3. Always Use a Proper Stripping Tool
Figure 40
The purpose of a wire stripping tool is to allow for the removal of insulation
from around the copper core of a cable without damaging the cable or causing
personal injury (Figure 40).
Figure 41
Using side cutters or pliers (Figure 41) can also be dangerous; they are also less
effective because they often cut away some of the strands of wire.
Figure 42
This is known as ringing the wire (Figure 42), which effectively reduces the
current carrying capacity of the wire.
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4. Select the Correct Gauge Hole
Figure 43
Using the correct tool is much safer and more effective.
Wire Strippers can remove the insulation from different gauges of cable; select
the hole in the stripper that is closest to the diameter of the core in the cable
to be stripped. On the wire strippers in Figure 43 above, the size of the wire
stripping orifices are indicated on the tool.
5. Cut the Insulation
Figure 44
Place the cable in the hole and close the jaws firmly around it to cut the
insulation.
If you have selected the right gauge the wire stripper will cut through the
insulation but not through the copper core (Figure 44).
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Figure 45
Only remove as much insulation as is necessary to do the job. Too little bare
wire may not achieve a good connection and too much may expose the wire
for potential short circuit with other circuits or to ground. Removing more than
1.2 centimetres (half an inch) of insulation at a time can also stretch and damage
the core (Figure 45).
6. Remove the Insulation
Figure 46
Some strippers automatically cut and remove the insulation.
Others just make the cut and hold the cable tightly (Figure 46). When using this
type of stripper, pull firmly on the wire to remove the insulation.
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Figure 47
To keep the strands together, give them a light twist (Figure 47).
7. Place the terminal on the wire
Figure 48
There will be a better connection if the strands are not twisted together tightly
before placing them through the terminal (Figure 48). When crimped, this gives
the terminal more surface contact area with the wire.
However, it can be difficult to insert the wires into the terminal if they are all just
loose strands...
Figure 49
... so twist them together just enough to help insert them cleanly.
Place the bullet or terminal onto the wire (Figure 49).
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8. Alternative Terminal Types
Figure 50
Some types of crimp terminals do not have an insulation component fixed to

them.
These come in two parts and the insulator is supplied as a separate component
(Figure 50). In these cases, always make sure that the ‘core’ of the wire to be
crimped...
Figure 51
... extends through the ‘core wings’ in the terminal (Figure 51).
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9. Select the Crimping Anvil
Figure 52
Use a proper crimping tool for pin or core crimping. DO NOT use pliers.
They have a tendency to cut through the connection and can give trouble during
service.
Select the proper anvil on the crimping tool for the connector or terminal
selected. These are usually colour-coded so it is easy to match the terminal with
the right size anvil.
10. Crimping
Figure 53
Crimp the ‘core’ section first. Use firm pressure so that a good electrical contact
will be made, but not excessive force as this can bend the pin or terminal
(Figure 53).
Then crimp the insulation wings or section. This crimp is on the wire insulation
to hold the cable in place, not for electrical contact, so there is no need to crimp
this section quite as hard.
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Figure 54
Give a gentle tug on the finished job to ensure that the connection will hold in
service (Figure 54).
Switches
Figure 55
A switch (Figure 55) is a device used to complete or interrupt a current path.

Typically, switches are placed between two conductors (or wires). There are
many different types of switches, such as Single-Pole Single-Throw (SPST),
Single-Pole Double Throw (SPDT), Double-Pole Single-Throw (DPST) and
Double-Pole Double-Throw (DPDT).
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Figure 56
There are also many ways of actuating switches, the switches shown in
Figure 56 are mechanically operated by moving the switch lever or toggle.
Sometimes, switches are linked so that they always open and close at the same
time. In schematics, this is shown by connecting linked switches with a dashed
line (DPST and DPDT in Figure 56).
Other mechanically operated switches are limit switches and pressure switches.
The switch contacts are closed or opened by an external means, such as a lever
actuating a limit switch or pressure actuated.
Some of the more common switches used on Caterpillar machines are:

 Toggle
 Rotary
 Rocker
 Push-On
 Pressure
 Magnetic
 Key Start
 Limit
 Cutout
Some switches are more complex than others. Caterpillar machines use
magnetic switches for measuring speed signals or electronic switches that
contain internal electronic components, such as transistors to turn remote
signals on or off. An example of a more complex switch used on Caterpillar
machines is the key start switch.
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Figure 57
Figure 57 shows the internal schematic of the Key Start Switch. This type of
switch controls several different functions, such as an accessory position (ACC),
Run position (RUN), a start position (START) and an off position (OFF). This
type of switch can control other components and/or deliver power to several
components at the same time.
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Circuit Protectors
Figure 58
Fuses and fusible links are circuit protectors. If there is excess current in a
circuit, it causes heat. The heat causes the circuit protector to open before the
wiring can be damaged and has the same effect as turning a switch OFF.
Note that circuit protectors (Figure 58) are designed to protect the wiring,
not necessarily other components. Fuses and circuit breakers can help diagnose
circuit problems. If a circuit protector opens repeatedly, there is probably a more
serious electrical problem that needs to be repaired.
Fuses
Figure 59
Fuses are the most common circuit protectors (Figure 59). A fuse is made of a
thin metal strip or wire inside a holder made of glass or plastic.
When the current flow becomes higher than the fuse rating, the metal melts
and the circuit opens. A fuse must be replaced after it opens, but only after
eliminating the root cause.
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Fuses are rated according to the amperage they can carry before opening.
Plastic fuse holders are moulded in different colours to denote fuse ratings and
fuse ratings are also moulded or stamped on to the top of the fuse.
A fusible link is a short section of insulated wire that’s thinner than the wire in
the circuit it protects. Excess current causes the wire inside the link to melt. Like
fuses, fusible links must be replaced after they’re blown.
Fusible links are commonly used on the ignition lead from the positive terminal
of the battery.
An indication that a fusible link is blown is conducted by pulling on its two

ends. If it stretches like a rubber band, the wire must have melted and the link
is no longer good. (The insulation of a fusible link is thicker than regular wire
insulation so that it can contain the melted link after it blows.)
NOTE:
When replacing a fusible link, never use a length longer than 225mm (about 9”).
Long wires tend to hold the heat better and may not break at the required
specification.
Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is similar to a fuse, however, high current will cause the breaker
to trip thereby opening the circuit. The breaker may be manually reset after the
over-current condition has been eliminated.
Some circuit breakers are automatically reset. They are called cycling circuit
breakers. Circuit breakers are built into several Caterpillar components, such as
the headlight switch.
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Figure 60
A thermal circuit breaker with a reset button is shown in Figure 60. This has a
bi-metal blade which carries the current when the contacts are closed. However,
if an overload occurs, the heat from the excess current will cause the bi-metal
blade to bend and open the contacts to break the circuit.
The spring toggle, which normally helps to keep the contacts closed, will keep
the contacts open and the circuit broken even though the bi-metal blade will try
to straighten as it cools. The points will only close when the button is pressed
to reset the circuit breaker. These circuit breakers are also referred to as ‘non-
cycling’ circuit breakers.
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Figure 61
A cycling circuit breaker contains a strip made of two different metals. Current
higher than the circuit breaker rating makes the two metals change shape
unevenly. The strip bends, and a set of contacts is opened to stop current
flow. When the metal cools, it returns to its normal shape, closing the contacts.
Current flow can resume (Figure 61). Automatically resetting circuit breakers are
also called cycling because they cycle open and closed until the current returns
to a normal level.
Figure 62
A Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) is a special type of circuit breaker

called a thermistor (or thermal resistor). NTCs are made from a conductive
polymer. In its normal state, the material is in the form of a dense crystal, with
many carbon particles packed together. The carbon particles provide conductive
pathways for current flow. When the material is heated, the polymer expands,
pulling the carbon chains apart. In this expanded state, there are few pathways
for current. A schematic symbol for a NTC is shown in Figure 62.
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An NTC is a solid state device; it has no moving parts. When tripped, the device
remains in the open circuit state as long as voltage remains applied to the
circuit. It resets only when voltage is removed and the polymer cools.
Relay
Figure 63 – Simple Relay
A relay is an electrically controlled switch. It is made up of an electromagnetic

coil, a set of contacts, and an armature. The armature is a moveable device that
allows the contacts to open and close. Figure 63 shows the typical components
of a relay.
When a small amount of electrical current flows in the coil circuit, the
electromagnetic force causes the relay contacts to close, providing a much
larger current path to operate another component, such as, a starter.
Solenoid
Figure 64 – Simple Start Solenoid
A solenoid is another device that uses electromagnetism. Like a relay, the

solenoid also has a coil, as shown in Figure 64. When current flows through the
coil, electromagnetism pushes or pulls the core into the coil thereby creating
linear, or back and forth movements.
Solenoids are used to engage starter motors, or control shifts in an automatic

transmission.
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Resistors
Figure 65
Sometimes it’s necessary to reduce the amount of voltage or current at a

specific point in a circuit. The easiest way to reduce the voltage or current
supplied to a load is to increase the resistance. This is done by adding resistors.
Resistors come in two types:

 Fixed
 Variable
Common uses for resistors in electrical circuits are the audio system and the
climate control circuit, which uses several resistors wired to vary the voltage.
Resistors are rated in both ohms (for the amount of resistance they provide the
circuit) and watts (for the amount of heat they can dissipate).
Figure 65 shows the colour code chart for identifying resistors. The rating of a
resistor is determined by looking at the bands of colour on it. The bands should
be closer to one end of the resistor than the other. The end with the colour
bands should be on the left as it’s read. The bands are read from left to right.
The last colour band indicates the Resistor Tolerance, which refers to how
much the actual resistor value can vary from the specified rating, given as a
percentage of the total rating.
Some resistors have no band in this last position. Such a resistor has a
tolerance of 20 per cent of the resistance value. Some circuits are designed with
very precise resistance values and won’t operate properly otherwise. For this
reason, a resistor should never be replaced with one of a higher tolerance.
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Resistor Ratings
Figure 66
Because a resistor resists current flow, electrical friction builds up. This creates
heat that the resistor must be able to dissipate.
Too much heat could change a resistor so that its rating and tolerance are no
longer in the designed range. Wattage is a measurement of the amount of power
that can be consumed by a resistor. The larger the wattage, the more heat a
resistor can withstand. Figure 66 shows examples of resistor wattages.
In order for a circuit to function properly, the resistors must have the correct
wattage rating as well as the correct resistance rating. The resistors and other
components could be damaged by additional current flow and/or heat if the
resistance or wattage ratings are incorrect.
The wattage of a carbon-composition resistor can be identified by its size. The

most common ratings are 1/10 watt, 1/4 watt, 1/2 watt, 1 watt and 2 watts.
Resistors are also rated by how many Ohms of resistance they create.
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Variable Resistors
Figure 67
The kinds of resistors discussed so far are fixed. This means their rating cannot
be adjusted. Other resistors are variable (Figure 67). This means that their
resistance can be changed by adjusting a control. The control moves a contact
over the surface of a resistance. As current flows through a greater length of
resistor material, the current decreases; as it flows through less resistor material,
current increases.
The amount of variance and the number of resistance positions depend on how
the variable resistor is constructed. Some have only two different resistance
values, while others have an infinite range between their minimum and maximum
values.
Variable resistors can be linear or non-linear. The resistance of a linear resistor

increases evenly. When the control is set at one fourth of its travel, resistance
increases to one fourth of the maximum; when the control is set to half of its
travel, resistance increases to half of its maximum. There are many kinds of
variable resistors. Some are called rheostats, potentiometers or thermistors.
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Figure 68
A rheostat (Figure 68) typically has two terminals and allows current flow in
one path. On Caterpillar machines, a rheostat would be used to control the
brightness of the instrument lights.
Figure 69
Another type of variable resistor is the potentiometer. The potentiometer allows

two paths for current flow and can be controlled both manually or mechanically.
Figure 69 shows a potentiometer being used in a fuel system. The fuel sender
measures a specific system resistance value which corresponds to a specific
system condition. The output resistance is measured at the main display module
and the value corresponds to the depth of fuel in the tank.
A potentiometer, also called a pot, has three terminals and works by dividing the
voltage between two of them. Potentiometers can also be designed to work as
rheostats.
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Thermistors
Thermistors (thermal resistors) are a type of variable resistor that operate
without human control. A thermistor is made of carbon. The resistance of carbon
decreases instead of increasing at higher temperatures. This property can be
useful in certain electrical circuits. Thermistor elements are used extensively in
sensors on Caterpillar machines for measuring system temperatures.
Fixed Resistors
Fixed resistors either work (passing the proper amount of current) or they do not
(they pass no current, or allow too much current to pass). Variable resistors, on
the other hand, can exhibit a flat spot where the moving parts brush against one
another and cause wear. This can become evident as a lack of response through
a portion of the resistor’s travel.
Capacitor
Figure 70
A capacitor is a device that can store an electrical charge, thereby creating an

electrical field which can, in turn, store energy. The measurement of this energy
storing ability is called capacitance.
In Caterpillar electrical systems, capacitors are used to store energy, as timer

circuits (suppression), and as filters (smoothing). Construction methods vary,
but a simple capacitor can be made from two plates of conductive material
separated by an insulating material called a dielectric. Typical dielectric materials
are air, paper, plastic and ceramics.
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Capacitor Energy Storage

In some circuits, a capacitor can take the place of a battery. If a capacitor is
placed in a circuit with a voltage source, current flows in the circuit briefly while
the capacitor charges. That is, electrons accumulate on the surface of the plate
connected to the negative terminal and move away from the plate connected to
the positive terminal. This continues until the electrical charge of the capacitor
and the voltage source are equal. How fast this happens depends on several
factors, including the voltage applied and the size of the capacitor; it usually
happens quickly.
When the capacitor is charged to the same potential as the voltage source,
current flow stops. The capacitor can then hold its charge when it is
disconnected from the voltage source. With the two plates separated by a
dielectric, there is nowhere for the electrons to go. The negative plate retains
its accumulated electrons, and the positive plate still has a deficit of electrons.
This is how the capacitor stores energy.
Capacitor Measurements
Capacitors are rated in units of measurement called farads (represented by the
symbol F). These specify how many electrons the capacitor can store. The farad
is a very large number of electrons. Capacitors are rated in micro-farads (µF)
(a micro-farad is one millionth of a farad).
In addition to being rated in farads, capacitors are also rated according to the
maximum voltage that they can handle. When replacing a capacitor, never use
a capacitor with a lower voltage rating.
Three factors combine to determine the capacitance of a given capacitor:

 The area of the conductive plates
 The distance between the conductive plates
 The material used as the dielectric.
A charged capacitor can deliver its stored energy just as a battery would
(although it is important to note that, unlike a battery, a capacitor stores
electricity, but does not create it). When used to deliver a suitable small current,
a capacitor has the potential to deliver voltage to a circuit for as long as a few
weeks.
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Total Capacitance
Figure 71
The total capacitance of a circuit is dependent on how the capacitors are

designed in the circuit (Figure 71). When capacitors are in parallel, total
capacitance is determined by the following equation:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
When capacitors are in series, total capacitance is determined by this equation:

1
CT =
1 + 1
C1 C2
NOTE:
Always short across the terminals of a capacitor before connecting it to a circuit or
meter. This discharges any residual charge that might be stored.
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Lamp Bulbs
A lamp bulb (globe) is made up of a fine tungsten filament encased in a glass
envelope that has all air completely removed and a small quantity of inert
gas inserted. A current is passed through the filament to produce a white
glow, producing the light required. This filament must work in an exygen-free
environment so that it does not oxidise and burn away rapidly.
Types of bulbs
Figure 72 – Types of bulb
Different types of bulbs used in automotive applications are shown in Figure

72. The most common bulb used has a brass cap fitted on the end (Figure 72a
and b) This brass cap has pins that enable the bulb to be fitted into a bayoet
socket. If the bulb is fitted with two filaments (typically a brake/tail light
combination), the pins will be offset so it can only be fitted one way. This is
to ensure that the proper filament lights up for the correct application. In this
instance, the filaments will be a different Wattage to make a brighter light on one
application (brake light) and a dimmer light for the other application (tail light).
Normally in a brake/tail combination, the brake light is 21W and the tail light is
5W. The single filament bulb is typically used for external turn signal lamps.
Festoon bulbs
A festoon bulb is made up of a glass cylinder with a metal cap on each end.
The filament is attached to each of the metal caps (Figure 72d). These bulbs are
normally used for number plate lamps and intertior lighting.
Panel bulbs
Panel bulbs are small bulbs that are normally used for illumination of instrument
panels, gauges and internal indicating lamps (turn signals). This type of lamp is
shown at Figure 72e and would typically have a bayonet type fitting. Other small
lamps may have small wires on the base of the glass and are used as contacts
(Figure 72f). This type of bulb is pushed directly into the fitting.
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Sealed beams
Figure 73 – Sealed beams
The sealed beam is a common unit used for vehicle headlights. They consist of
a bulb, a reflector, lens and filament, sealed internally within the unit (Figure 73).
This unit prevents moisture entering the lamp unit thus preventing a dulling of the
reflector surface.
Quartz halogen bulbs

The qartz halogen bulb is normally used in headlights or driving lights (not
sealed). They are constructed of a quartz envelope and are filled with a special
gas with halopgen additives (Figure 72c).
Because of their design and the gas used, quartz halogen lamps produce a
large amount of light and consequently operate at very high temperatures.
When fitting quartz halogen bulbs, care must be taken to not touch the glass
with your fingers. Moisture from fingers or any other source, combined with the
high operating temperature tend to make quartz halogen bulbs crack.
Wattage of a bulb
The wattage of a light bulb represents the power of the bulb (1 Watt = 1 Volt
x 1 Amp). As previously mentioned, brake lights are typically 21W and tail
lights are typically 5W. Headlight bulbs tend to be in the range of 55W to 75W,
depending on the manufacturer’s specifications and design rules relating to
the country where the vehicle is used. Higher wattage bulbs burn brighter and
operate at highter temperatures. The wattage of a bulb is normally stamped on
the metal section of the bulb.
Bulb candlepower (CP)

Candlepower is a measure of the bulb’s illumination and can be used as a rating
for small bulbs, e.g. instrument bulbs. This rating will normally be specified on
the bulb.
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Instruments
Instruments (gauges) are used to provide an actual reading, such as pressure
and speed. Indicators (sometimes called warning lights) will provide their
information using a light that is either ‘on’ or ‘off’. Indicators can show if
something is operating or not, or it may indicate a warning to the vehicle
operator. As well as light indicators, some manufacturer’s place sound warning
indicators in their vehicles. These may be in the form of a buzzer (low air
pressure is an example) or a musical note (high engine coolant temperature).
As far as basic operation goes, instruments and gauges may be activated by

magnetism, thermal, electronic or mechanical operation.
Magnetic operation.
Magnetic instruments operate because of the effect of an electric current
through a conductor, or a coil may be used to operate a pointer or a scale.
Ammeters and Voltmeters are dash mounted gauges that have the coil integral
with the instrument. Fuel, temperature and oil pressure gauges have two parts;
the gauge (dash mounted) and a sender unit fitted to an appropriate part of the
vehicle.
Thermal Operation
Many gauges used in an automotive application are a thermal type (also referred
to as bi-metal-type-gauges). These gauges operate by the use of a bi-metal arm
that flexes and bends according to the amount of heat they are subjected to.
Passing a current through a bi-metal strip will produce heat and depending on
how much current is passed through the bi-metal stirip will determine how much
it bends. Thermal gauges have a pointer attached to this bi-metal-strip and the
pointer will indicate the required reading dependent upon how much current
flows thrugh the bi-metal strip. For this to occur a sender unit is required to send
the correct amount of current through the bi-metal strip.
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Digital Electronic Instruments
Figure 74
An instrument panel with digital electronic instruments is illustrated in Figure 74.

This panel may include differing types of gauges previously mentioned. In
Caterpillar machines, most instrument clusters are fully electronic, utilising a
microprocessor, which in turn, provides the appropriate outputs to operate the
instruments.
Mechanical Gauges
Figure 75
The Bourdon tube gauge shown in Figure 75 above is rarely used in automotive
applications today. It is a pressure gauge that operates by means of pressure.
Figure 75 above is depicting an oil pressure gauge. Oil under pressure is sent
through the centre of the Bourdon tube. This pressure will flex Bourdon tube and
the subsequent gear sector will move a pointer. Differing pressure will mean the
pointer will move to alternate positions on the gauge. This type of gauge may
also be used for air pressure systems.
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Topic 3 Electrical Circuits

Basic Circuit Elements.......................................................................................................................................... 88
General Rules of Ohms Law. .......................................................................................................................... 88
Metric Prefixes................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Power........................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
Basic Circuit Theory................................................................................................................................................. 94
Applying the Rules...................................................................................................................................................... 96

Basic Circuit Elements
Figure 77 – Circuit Elements
A circuit is a path for electric current. Current flows from one end of a circuit to
the other end when the ends are connected to positive and negative charges
(closed circuit) of the battery. These ends are called power and ground. If there
is a break somewhere in the circuit current cannot flow. Every electrical circuit
should contain the following components:
 Power Source
 Protection device (fuse or circuit breaker)
 Load such as a light
 Control Device (switch)
 Conductors.
The devices are connected together with conductors to form a complete
electrical circuit.
General Rules of Ohms Law

In 1827 George Simon Ohm established mathematical reasoning to electricity.
Ohms Law is a fundamental law of electricity that relates the quantities of
voltage, current and resistance in a circuit.
Ohms Law states that: Current flow in a circuit is directly proportional to circuit
voltage and inversely proportional to circuit resistance.
This means that the amount of current flow in a circuit depends on how much
voltage and resistance there is in the circuit. As most electrical circuits in mobile
machines use a 12 or 24 Volt source, the resistance in the circuit determines the
current.
Current ‘flow’ does the work. Voltage is the ‘pressure’ that moves the current,
and resistance is opposition to current flow.
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The rules needed to understand, predict and calculate the behaviour of electrical
circuits are grouped under the title Ohms Law. From the Ohms Law equation,
the following general rules are derived:
1. Assuming the resistance does not change:

a. As voltage increases, current increases
b. As voltage decreases, current decreases.
2. Assuming the voltage does not change:
a. As resistance increases, current decreases
b. As resistance decreases, current increases.
Ohms Law Equation

Ohms law is expressed as an algebraic equation in which:
 E stands for electromotive force (Voltage)
 I stands for intensity (Amperage)
 R stands for resistance (Ohms).
Figure 78
If two parts of the Ohms Law Equation are known, the third part can be
calculated.
For example:
 To determine voltage, multiply current times resistance (E = I x R)
 To determine current, divide voltage by resistance (I = E ÷ R)
 To determine resistance, divide voltage by current (R = E ÷ I).
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Ohms Law Solving Circle
Figure 79 – Ohms Law Solving Circle
The Ohms law solving circle is an easy way to remember how to solve any
part of the equation. To use the solving circle cover the unknown letter.
The remaining letters provide the equation for determining the unknown quantity.
Voltage Unknown
Figure 80 – Solving for unknown voltage
In this circuit, the value of the source voltage is unknown. The resistance of
the load is 2 Ohms. The current flow through the circuit is 6 Amps. Since the
voltage is unknown, the equation to solve for voltage is current times resistance.
So, multiplying 6 Amps times 2 Ohms equals 12 Volts. Therefore, the source
voltage in this circuit is 12 Volts.
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Resistance Unknown
Figure 81 – Solving for unknown resistance
In this circuit, the value of the resistance is unknown. The current flow through
the circuit is 6 Amps and the source voltage is 12 Volts. The equation to solve for
resistance is voltage divided by current. So, 12 Volts divided by 6 Amps equals 2
Ohms. Therefore, the resistance in the circuit is 2 Ohms.
Current Unknown
Figure 82 – Solving for unknown current
In this circuit, the current is unknown. The resistance of the load is 2 Ohms
and the source voltage is 12 Volts. The equation to solve for current is voltage
divided by resistance. So, 12 Volts divided by 2 Ohms equals 6 Amps.
Therefore, the current flow in this circuit is 6 Amps.
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Metric Prefixes
When measuring something, a number to express the size or quantity of the item
being measured is found. Numbers are used to express the results of simple
calculations. In addition to using numbers, there are always a unit, or expression
to describe what the number means.
Base Units
Base units are standard units; units without a prefix. Volts, Ohms and Amperes
are the primary base units used in electrical applications. Prefixes are added to
base units to change the unit of measurement. In the metric system there are
only a few basic units used for electrical measurement.
Prefixes
The basic numbers are either multiplied or divided by a factor of 10, depending
on whether a larger number or smaller number is required.
The names are prefixes and are attached to the beginning of the basic unit.
For example:
1500 Volts of electricity would be stated in power of 10 as:
1.5 x 103 or 1.5 x 1000 = 1500.
The prefix k (for kilo) is equal to 1000, so the equation for 1500 Volts is therefore
stated as 1.5kV. (1.5 kilo volts).
In electrical and electronic applications we work with either very large or vary
small quantities, making the use of metric prefixes desirable.
Prefix Symbol Power of 10
mega M 106
kilo k 103
milli m 10 ‑3
micro µ 10 ‑6
Table 5 – Metric Prefixes
The metric system units make up an internationally recognised measuring

system used throughout the world. It is called the International System of Units
(SI). The most common prefixes in the study of basic electrical theory are Mega
(millions), Kilo (thousands), Milli (thousandths) and Micro (millionths) (Table 5).
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Mega ____M x 1,000,000 Example: 8MΩ x 1,000,000 = 8,000,000Ω
Kilo ____k x 1,000 Example: 16kV x 1,000 – 16,000V
Milli ____mV ÷ 1,000 Example: 400mV ÷ 1,000 = .4 V
Micro ____µ ÷ 1,000,000 Example: 36µ ÷ 1,000,000 = .000036A
Table 6 – Electrical Prefixes
Mega
Mega stands for one million and is abbreviated with the capital letter M.
One Megohm equals a million Ohms. To convert any value from Megohms
to Ohms, move the decimal point six places to the right. For example,
3.5 Megohms would convert to 3,500,000 Ohms.
Kilo
Kilo means one thousand and is abbreviated with a lower case letter k.
A kilo‑ohm is equal to 1, 000 Ohms. To convert any value from kilo‑ohm to
Ohms, move the decimal point three places to the right. For example 0.657
kilo‑ohms convert to 657 Ohms.
Milli
Milli stands for one thousandth and is abbreviated by the lower case letter m.
A milliampere is one‑thousandth of one ampere. To convert any value from
milliamperes to Amperes, move the decimal point three places to the left.
For example, 0.355 milliamps would convert to 0.000355 Amps.
Micro
Micro means one millionth and is abbreviated by the symbol µ. A microampere
is equal to one millionth of an Amp. To convert any value from microamperes
to Amperes, move the decimal point six places to the left. For example,
355 microamperes would convert to 0.000355 Amps.
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Power
Power is a measure of the rate at which energy is produced or consumed and
power is another means of measurement in an electrical circuit. The power
formula is similar to Ohms Law formula.
In an engine, the output horsepower rating is a measure of its ability to do

mechanical work. In electrical appliances, power is a measure of the rate at
which electrical energy is converted into heat by the resistive elements within
a conductor. In an electrical circuit, resistance is what uses electrical power.
Recall, however, that many kinds of devices can have resistance such as
conductors, insulators, resistors, coils and motors. Many electrical devices are
rated by how much electrical power they consume, rather than by how much
power they produce. Power consumption is expressed in watts.
 746 Watts = 1 horsepower.
The unit of measurement for power is the Watt. Power is the product of current
multiplied by voltage. One Watt equals one Amp times one Volt. In a circuit,
if voltage or current increases, power increases. If current decreases, power
decreases. The relationship among power, voltage and current is determined by
the Power Formula. The basic equation for the power formula is:
 Power = Current x Voltage (P = I x V)
 Watts = Amps x Volts (W = A x V).
The voltage times the current in any circuit is used to find out how much power
is consumed. For example, a typical hair dryer can draw almost 10 Amps of
current. The normal household voltage is about 240 Volts. Multiplying 10 by
240 shows that the power produced by the hair dryer would be approximately
2400 watts or 2.4 kW.
The most common application of Watts rating is probably the light bulb. Light
bulbs are classified by the number of watts they consume. Common examples
of items with wattage ratings are audio speakers, some motors and most home
appliances.
Basic Circuit Theory

The three basic types of electrical circuits and the laws that apply to each type
of circuit will be reviewed:
 Series Circuits
 Parallel Circuits
 Series‑Parallel Circuits
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Series Circuits
Figure 83 – Series Circuit
A series circuit is the simplest kind of circuit. In a series circuit, each electrical
device is connected to other electrical devices in such a way that there is only
one path for current to flow. In the circuit shown in Figure 83, current flows from
the battery (+) through a fuse (protection device) and a switch (control device)
to the lamp (load) and then returns to frame ground. All circuit devices and
components are connected in series.
The following rules apply to all series circuits:

 At any given point in the circuit the current value is the same
 The total circuit resistance is equal to the sum of all the individual
resistances and is called an equivalent resistance
 The voltage drop across all circuit loads is equal to the applied source
voltage.
A simple way to express these series circuit rules are:
 Voltage is the SUM of all voltage drops
 Resistance is the SUM of all individual resistances
 Current is the SAME at any given point in the circuit.
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Applying the Rules
Figure 84 – Series Circuit
The circuit in Figure 84 is made up of various devices and components,

including a 24 Volt power source. Since two of the circuit values are given,
solving for the unknown value is simple, if the basic laws of series circuits are
applied.
The first step is to determine the total circuit resistance. The following equation
is used for determining total resistance:
 Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
 Rt = 3Ω + 3Ω + 6Ω = 12 Ohms.
Since the value for the power source was given as 24 Volts and the circuit
resistance has been calculated as 12 the only value remaining to calculate is the
current flow. Total circuit current is calculated by using the Ohms Law Circle and
writing the following equation:
 I=E÷R
 I = 24V /12Ω = 2 Amperes.
The remaining step is to plot the value for current flow into each of the resistive
loads. One of the rules for series circuits stated that current was the SAME at
any given point. Using the equation E = I x R for each resistor will determine the
voltage drop across each load. The following voltage drops are:
 E1 = 2A x 3Ω = 6V
 E2 = 2A x 3Ω = 6V
 E3 = 2A x 6Ω = 12V.
All of the circuit values have now been calculated. Using the Ohms Law Circle,
verify each answer.
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Parallel Circuits
Figure 85 – Parallel Circuit
A parallel circuit is more complex than a series circuit because there is more
than one path for current to flow. Each current path is called a branch. Because
all branches connect to the same positive and negative terminal, they will
all have the same voltage; each branch drops the same amount of voltage,
regardless of resistance within the branch.
The current flow in each branch can be different, depending on the resistance.
Total current in the circuit equals the sum of the branch currents. The total
resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in any branch.
In the circuit shown in Figure 85, current flows from the battery through a
fuse and switch, and then divides into two branches, each containing a lamp.
Each branch is connected to frame ground.
The following rules apply to parallel circuits:

 The voltage is the same in each parallel branch
 The total current is the sum of each individual branch currents
 The total equivalent resistance is equal to the applied voltage divided by the
total current, and is ALWAYS less than the smallest resistance in any one
branch.
A simple way to express these parallel rules are:
 Voltage is the SAME for all branches
 Current is the SUM of the individual branch currents
 Equivalent resistance is SMALLER than the smallest resistance of any
individual branch.
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Applying the Rules
Figure 86 – Circuit
The circuit in Figure 86 is made up of various devices and components,

including a 24 Volt power source. The resistance of each lamp is given along
with the value of source voltage. Before applying the basic laws of parallel
circuits it will be necessary to determine an equivalent resistance to replace the
two 4 Ohm parallel branches.
The first step in developing an equivalent circuit is to apply the basic rules for
determining the total resistance of the two parallel branches. Remember that
the total resistance of the combined branches will be smaller than the smallest
resistance of an individual branch. The circuit above has two parallel branches,
each with a 4Ω lamp; therefore, the total resistance will be less than 4Ω.
The following equation is used to solve for total resistance.
 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 = ¼ + ¼ = 0.25 + 0.25 = 0.5
 Rt = 1 ÷ 0.5 = 2 Ohms
As stated earlier, one of the rules for parallel circuits states that the voltage
is the SAME in all parallel branches. With 24 Volts applied to each branch,
the individual current flow can be calculated using Ohms Law. The equation
I = E/R is used to calculate the current in each branch as 6 Amps. In this
particular case, the current flow in each branch is the same because the
resistance values are the same.
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Solving Current Flow in a Parallel Circuit
Figure 87 – Parallel Circuit
The circuit shown in Figure 87 is a typical DC circuit with three parallel branches
and an ammeter connected in series with the parallel branches (all current flow
in the circuit must pass through the ammeter).
Applying the basic rules for parallel circuits makes solving this problem very
simple. The source voltage is given (24 Volts) and each branch resistance is
given (R1 = 4Ω, R2= 4Ω, R3 = 2Ω).
Applying the voltage rule for parallel circuits (voltage is the SAME in all
branches) the unknown current value in each branch can be solved by using the
Ohms Law Circle, whereas:
 I=E÷R
 I1 = E1÷ R1 = 24 ÷ 4 = 6 Amps
 I2 = E2 ÷ R2 = 24 ÷ 4 = 6 Amps
 I3 = E3 ÷ R3 = 24 ÷ 2 = 12 Amps.
Since current flow in parallel branches is the SUM of all branch currents,
the equation for total current is It = I1 + I2 + I3 = 6 + 6 + 12 = 24 Amps. With the
source voltage given as 24 Volts and the total current calculated at 24 Amps,
the total circuit resistance is calculated as 1 ohm. (Rt = Et ÷ It).
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Series‑parallel Circuits
Figure 88 – Series‑parallel Circuit
A series‑parallel circuit shown in Figure 88 is composed of a series section

and a parallel section. All of the rules previously discussed regarding series
and parallel circuits apply when solving unknown circuit values. Although some
series‑parallel circuits appear to be very complex, they are solved quite easily
using a logical approach. The following tips will make solving series‑parallel
circuits less complicated.
 Examine the circuit carefully and then determine the path or paths that
current may flow through the circuit before returning to the source
 Redraw a complex circuit to simplify its appearance
 When simplifying a series‑parallel circuit, begin at the farthest point from the
voltage source. Replace series and parallel resistor combinations one step
at a time
 A correctly redrawn series‑parallel (equivalent) circuit will contain only ONE
series resistor in the end
 Apply the simple series rules for determining the unknown values
 Return to the original circuit and enter the known values. Use Ohms Law to
solve the remaining values
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Solving a Series‑Parallel Problem
The series‑parallel circuit as shown in Figure 89 shows a 2Ω resistor in series

with a parallel branch containing a 6Ω resistor and a 3Ω resistor. To solve
this problem it is necessary to determine the equivalent resistance for the
parallel branch. Using the following equation, solve the parallel equivalent (Re)
resistance.
1 = 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 0.166+0.333=0.5
Re R1 R3 6 3
Re = 1 or Re = 2 Ohms.
0.5
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Applying the Rules
Redraw Figure 90 inserting the equivalent resistance for the parallel branch.
Then solve circuit totals using simple Ohms Law rules for series circuits.
Using the rules for series circuits, the total circuit resistance can now be
calculated using the equation:
 Rt = R1 + Re = 2 + 2 = 4 Ohms.
The remaining value unknown is current. Again using Ohms Law Circle, current
can be calculated by the equation:
 I = V ÷ R = 12 ÷ 4 = 3 Amps.
Consult the original series‑parallel circuit and put in the known values.
Figure 91 – Circuit
Circuit calculations indicate that the total current flow in the circuit is 3 Amps.
Since all current flow that leaves the source must return we know that the
3 Amps must flow through R1. It is now possible to calculate the voltage drop
across R1 by using the equation E = I x R = 3A x 2Ω = 6 Volts.
If resistor R1 consumes 6 Volts, the remaining source voltage (6V) is applied

to both parallel branches. Using Ohms Law for the parallel branch reveals that
1 Amp flows through R2 and 2 Amps flow through R3 before combining into the
total circuit current of 3 Amps returning to the negative side of the power source
(Figure 91).
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Other Methods and Tips for Solving Complex Series‑parallel Circuits
Figure 92 – Complex Series‑parallel Circuits
As stated earlier, carefully examining the path for current flow and then
re‑drawing the circuit can easily solve complex circuits. No matter how complex
a circuit appears, drawing an equivalent circuit and reducing the circuit to its
lowest form (series circuit) will provide the necessary information to plug into the
original circuit.
Follow these steps for reducing the circuit to a simple series circuit.
 Step 1:
Figure 93 – Step 1
Trace current flow from the (+) side of the battery to the (‑) side of the battery.
All the current leaving the source is available at TP1 (test point 1). At TP1 the
current is divided among the two parallel branches and then re‑combined at
TP2 before flowing through the series resistor R3 and returning to ground.
Now that the path of current flow has been identified, the next step is drawing an
equivalent circuit for the parallel branches.
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 Step 2:
Using Ohms Law calculate the equivalent resistance for the parallel branch.
There are two methods (equations) available for solving parallel branch
resistances.
They are:
1 = 1 + 1
or Re = R1 ¥ R2 (called product over sum method)
Re R1 R2 R1 + R2
When the circuit contains only two branches the product over sum method is the
easiest equation.
 Step 3:
93
e‑type
mp terminals
et
nector
mp and
dered
minals.
Redraw the circuit substituting the Re value to represent the equivalent

resistance. The circuit now has two resistors in series, shown as Re and R3.
Further reduce the circuit by combining Re and R3 as a single resistance
called Rt.
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Topic 4 Electrical Schematics

Schematics........................................................................................................................................................................106
Schematic Features...............................................................................................................................................106

Schematics
Figure 69
Schematics are basically line drawings that explain how a system works by
using symbols and connecting lines. Symbols are used to represent devices
or components of both simple and complex electrical and electronic systems.
Schematic symbols are used extensively in Caterpillar publications for
diagnosing electrical concerns.
Schematics are used by technicians to determine how a system works and to

assist in the repair of a system that has failed.
Schematic symbols present a great deal of information in a small amount of

space and the reading of schematic symbols requires highly developed skills
and practice. A logical, step-by-step approach to using schematic diagrams
for troubleshooting begins with the technician’s understanding of the complete
system.
Schematic Features
Caterpillar electrical schematics contain very valuable information.
The information is printed both on the front and reverse side of the schematic.
The technician needs to become very skilled in reading and interpreting all the
information contained on both sides of the schematic.
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Some of the features on the front of the schematic include:

 Colour codes for circuit identification
 Colour abbreviation codes
 Symbol descriptions
 Wiring harness information
 Schematic notes and conditions
 Grid design for component location
 Component part numbers.
Dashed coloured lines represent attachment circuits. Use the colour
identification code located on the schematic to determine the circuit.
The heavy double-dashed lines identify the circuitry and components located in
the operator station.
A dashed (thin black) line is used to identify an attachment, wire, cable or

component.
NOTE:
See the symbol description on the schematic.
Machine Electrical Schematics with New Format
Figure 97
Some Caterpillar machines use a new format for electrical system schematics.
The new format is called PRO/E and provides additional information for wire,
connector, component and splice symbol.
Figure 97 shows the new wire identification format. The label includes the circuit
identification wire label number (169), harness identification code (H), the wire
number in the harness (5), colour code (PK) and the wire size (18).
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NOTE:
The codes shown are examples of the new identification system. Consult the
appropriate electrical schematic for more detailed and accurate information.
Connectors
Figure 98
The new connector identification format (Figure 98) includes the harness
identification code (H), identifies the assembly as a connector (C), identifies
the number of the connector within the harness (7), and lists the connector part
number (3E3382).
NOTE:
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Components
Figure 99
Figure 99 indicates the previous method of component labelling on a schematic

and shows the descriptive name and the component part number. The
schematics drawn in PRO/E format contain a harness identification letter (H), a
serializing code (P-12) where P stands for part and 1 stands for harness position
(number 12 part in harness H, and the component part number (113-8490).
NOTE:
The PRO/E format for splices uses two connection points to indicate which
side a given wire exits. The previous splice symbol used a simple filled-in dot to
indicate a splice.
NOTE:
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Some of the features on the back of the schematic include:

 Harness and wire electrical schematic symbols and identification
 Electrical schematic symbols and definitions
 Wire description chart
 Related electrical service manuals
 Harness connector location chart
 Off machine switch specifications
 Machine harness connector and component locations, identified as a
machine silhouette
 Component Identifier (CID) list and flash code conversion
 Component location chart
 Resistor and solenoid specifications
 Failure Mode Identifier (FMI) list.
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Topic 5 Digital Multimeter

Introduction to Digital Multimeters. ................................................................................................. 112

Introduction to Digital Multimeters
Figure 100 – 9U7330 Digital Multimeter
This topic covers basic functions and operation of the digital multimeter
(Figure 100). Although a service technician may use an analog multimeter and
test light, the digital multimeter performs the more complex measurements
on the newer electronic systems. In order to make it easier to work with large
numbers, digital multimeters use the metric system.
The digital multimeter is highly accurate and used to find the precise value of
any type of voltage, current or resistance. Powered by a 9-Volt alkaline battery,
the metre is sealed against dirt, dust and moisture.
Main parts of the Digital Multimeter
The metre (Figure 101) has four main parts:

 Liquid-crystal-display
 Push buttons
 Rotary dial function switch
 Inputs for the metre leads.
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Liquid Crystal Display
Figure 102 – Liquid Crystal display on Digital Multimeter
The metre’s liquid crystal display, or LCD (Figure 102), uses display segments
and indicators. Digital readings are displayed on a 4000-count display with
polarity (±) indication and automatic decimal point placement.
When the metre is turned ON, all display segments and annunciators appear
briefly during a self-test. The display updates four times per second, except
when frequency readings are taken, then the update is three times per second.
The analog display is a 32-segment pointer that updates at 40 times per

second. The display segments have a pointer that rolls across them indicating
a measurement change. The display also uses indicators to abbreviate various
display modes and metre functions.
Push Buttons
Figure 103 – Push buttons on the digital multimeter
The buttons on the metre (Figure 103) are used to perform additional functions.
This topic will cover only the range button. The additional buttons will be covered
later in the course as they apply to the type of measurement taken.
When it is first switched on and a measurement is made, the metre automatically

selects a range and displays the word AUTO in the upper left. Pressing the
range button will put the metre in manual range mode and display the range
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scale in the lower right. With each additional press of the range button, the next
increment will be displayed. Press and hold the range button to return to the auto
range mode.
The yellow button can be used to back light the metre display.
Rotary Switch
Figure 104 – Rotary Switch
Various metre functions are selected by turning the metre’s rotary switch
(Figure 104). Each time the rotary switch is moved from OFF to a function
setting, all display segments and indicators turn on as part of a self-test routine.
Moving clockwise from the OFF switch, the first three positions on the rotary
switch are used for measuring AC voltage, DC voltage and DC millivolts. The top
position is used for measuring resistance. The next position will allow the metre
to check diodes. The last two positions are used for measuring AC and DC
current in Amperes, milli-Amperes and micro-Amperes.
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Metre Lead Inputs
Figure 105 – Multimeter Input Jacks
Depending on the measurement to be made, the metre leads will have to be

placed in the correct terminals (Figure 105). The insides of the input terminals
are colour-coded red or black. The positive lead can go in any of the red inputs
(A / mA / V – depending on what is to be measured).
The COM or common terminal is used for most measurements. The black or
negative lead will always occupy the COM terminal. The first input terminal,
on the extreme left side of the metre is for measuring Amps. This input is fused
at 10 Amps continuous (20A for 30 seconds).
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The next position to the right is for measuring milliamps or microamps. No more
than 400 milliamps can be measured when the rotary switch is in this position.
If unsure of a circuit’s amperage, start out with the red metre lead in the 10-amp
input jack (highest range).
The input terminal on the right side of the metre is for measuring voltage,
resistance and diode test.
Overload Display Indicator
Figure 106 – Overload Display
While making some measurements the OL may be displayed (Figure 106).

OL indicates that the value being measured is outside the limits for the range
selected. The following conditions can lead to an overload display:
 In auto-range, a high resistance reading indicates an open circuit
 In manual range, a high resistance reading indicates an open circuit or
incorrect scale selected
 In manual range, a voltage reading that exceeds the range selected.
Input Terminal and Limits
Function Min Reading Max Reading Max Input

AC Volts 0.01 mV 1000 V 1000 V
DC Volts 0.0001 V 1000 V 1000 V
mVolts 0.01 mV 400.0 mV 1000 V
Ohms 0.01Ω 40.00 MΩ 1000 V
AC/DC Amps 1.0 mA 10.0 A (cont) 600 V
0.01 mA 400.0 mA 600 V
mA/µA
0.1 µ 4000 µA 600 V
Table 7
Table 7 shows the metre functions, the minimum display reading, maximum
display reading and maximum input for the 9U7330 Digital Multimeter.
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Measuring AC/DC Voltage
When using the multimeter to take voltage measurements it is important to

remember that the voltmeter must always be connected in parallel with the load
or circuit under test. The accuracy of the 9U7330 multimeter is approximately
± 0.01% in the five AC/DC voltage ranges with input impedance of approximately
10 mv when connected in parallel.
To measure voltage perform the following tasks:

 Make sure the circuit is turned ON
 Place the black metre lead in the COM input port on the metre and the red
lead in the Volt/OHM input port
 Place the rotary switch in the desired position AC or DC
 Place the black metre lead on the low side or the return side of the
component or circuit being measured
 Place the red metre lead in the on the high side or the positive side of the
component or circuit being measured.
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Measuring Voltage Drop
Figure 108 – Measuring voltage drop
Observe the circuit in Figure 108. The tests leads are connected in parallel
across the circuit load. With a 12 Volt power source connected to the load,
the metre should read a voltage drop equal to the source voltage or 12 Volts.
If the metre reads a voltage drop less than 12 Volts, it would indicate that an
unwanted resistance was present in the circuit. A logical process would be to
measure the voltage drop across the closed switch contacts. If a voltage reading
were present it would indicate that the switch contacts were corroded, requiring
the switch to be replaced.
NOTE:
In actual measurements the metre reading will not exactly equal the power source
voltage, because the individual wires will offer some small resistance. In most
practical applications, a voltage drop of 0.1 Volts is acceptable for normal circuit
wiring conditions.
The 9U7330 digital multimeter is a high impedance metre. This means the metre
will not significantly increase the current flow in the circuit being measured.
Voltage measurements should always be made with the circuit under power.
The 9U7330 Digital Multimeter is ideal for use in circuits controlled by solid state
devices such as, electronic components, computers and microprocessors.
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Measuring AC/DC Current
When using the multimeter to make current measurements the metre probes
must be connected in SERIES with the load or circuit under test. To toggle
between alternating and direct current measurements, use the BLUE push
button (Figure 109).
When measuring current, the metre’s internal shunt resistors develop a voltage
across the metre’s terminals called burden voltage. The burden voltage is very
low, but could possibly affect precision measurements.
When measuring current flow, the Fluke 87 multimeter is designed with low
resistance to avoid affecting the current flow in the circuit. When measuring
current in a circuit, always start with the red lead of the multimeter in the Amp
input (10A fused) of the metre. Only move the red lead into the mA/µA input after
it has been determined the current is below the mA/µA input maximum current
rating (400 mA).
The metre has a buffer which allows it to momentarily measure current flows
higher than 10A. This buffer is designed to handle the surge current when a
circuit is first turned on. As stated earlier, the metre is capable of reading 20
Amps for a period not to exceed 30 seconds.
NOTE:
The leads must always be connected in SERIES with the load or circuit when
measuring current flow.
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Current Measurements
Figure 110 – Measuring Current Flow
To measure current (Figure 110), perform the following tasks:

 Place the black multimeter input lead in the COM port and the red input lead
in the A (Amp) port.
 Place the Rotary Switch to the mA/A position.
 Create an open in the circuit to be tested, preferably by pulling the fuse,
or by opening the switch.
 Place the leads in SERIES with the circuit, so that the circuit amperage is
flowing through the metre.
 Apply power to the circuit.
WARNING:
If the current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse in the metre, the fuse will open.
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Measuring Resistance
Figure 111 – Measuring Resistance
When using the multimeter for resistance measurements (Figure 111) it is

necessary to turn off the circuit power and discharge all capacitors before
attempting in-circuit measurements. If an external voltage is present across
the component being tested, it will be impossible to record an accurate
measurement.
The digital multimeter measures resistance by passing a known current through

the circuit or component and measures the respective voltage drop. The metre
then internally calculates the resistance using the Ohms Law equation
R = E ÷ I. It is important to remember, the resistance displayed by the metre is
the total resistance through all possible paths between the two metre probes.
To accurately measure most circuits or components it is necessary to isolate the
circuit or component from other paths.
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Additionally, the resistance of the test leads can affect the accuracy when the
meter is in its lowest (400 Ohm) range. The expected error is approximately
0.1‑to‑0.2 Ohms for a standard pair of test leads. To determine the actual
error, short the test leads together and reads the value displayed on the metre.
Use the (REL) mode on the 9U7330 to automatically subtract the lead resistance
from the actual measurements.
To accurately measure resistance, perform the following tasks:

 Make sure the circuit or component power is turned OFF.
 Place the red lead in the jack marked Volt/Ohms and the black lead in the
jack marked COM.
 Place the rotary selector in the position.
 Place the metre leads ACROSS the component or circuit being measured.
NOTE:
It is important that your fingers are not touching the tips of the metre leads when
performing resistance measurements. Internal body resistance can affect the
measurement.
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Topic 6 Circuit Faults

Circuit Faults....................................................................................................................................................................124

Circuit Faults
This topic describes the circuit malfunctions of series, parallel, and series
parallel circuits. Circuit malfunctions can be demonstrated on a training aid or
vehicle.
There are several ways that a circuit can malfunction:

 Opens
 Shorts
 Grounds
 High resistance
 Intermittence.
Opens
Figure 112 – Open Circuit
An open in any part of a circuit results in no current flow in a series circuit or part
of a parallel circuit. An open can be caused by a failed component such as a
switch or fuse, or a broken wire or connector. The physical location of the open
determines how the circuit will react.
Figure 112 shows a switch acting as an open and therefore, no current will flow
through the two loads. Troubleshooting an open circuit is easy with a multimeter
by measuring source voltage. If source voltage is available at the connection
ahead of the switch and not available on the load side of the switch, the contacts
are open. If voltage is available on the load side it would be necessary to
continue checking the circuit until the open is identified.
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In a parallel circuit, identifying an open depends on where it occurs. If it occurs

in the main line, none of the loads or components will work. In effect, all parallel
branches will not operate. Additionally, an open in the return ground path would
have the same effect as an open in the main line.
Figure 113 – Open in Main Line & Parallel Branch
If the open occurs in any of the branches below the main line, only the load on
that specific branch is affected. All other branch loads will operate normally.
Figure 113 shows an example of an open in the main line and in a parallel
branch.
When diagnosing an open in a circuit, the result is normally a component that

fails to operate. Since most circuits are protected with some type of a fuse or
circuit protection device, it is recommended that the fuse or device be checked
visually. If a visual check does not reveal an open condition, remove the device
and perform a continuity check to ensure that the device is okay.
The next most probable place to check for an open is at the component itself.
Using a multimeter and an electrical schematic determine if system or source
voltage is available. If voltage is not present at the component, the next step is
to determine what other electrical devices, such as, switches or connectors are
in the circuit path. Eliminate those devices, starting at the easiest location and
working back toward the voltage source.
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Shorts
A short in a circuit is a direct electrical connection between two points, usually
with a very low resistance to current flow. It most often describes an unwanted
or incorrect electrical connection and may draw higher than expected current.
In describing malfunctions caused by electrical shorts, the types of shorts are
usually identified as a short to ground or a short to power.
A short to ground occurs when current flow is grounded before it was intended to
be. This usually happens when wire insulation breaks and the conductor actually
comes in contact with the machine ground. The effect of a short to ground
depends on the design of the circuit and on its location in relationship to other
circuit components, such as, protection devices, switches, loads, etc.
Figure 114 – Short before circuit load
Figure 114 shows the short occurring after the protection device and switch,
but before the circuit load (lamp). In this example, a low resistance path to
ground occurs whenever the switch is turned on and source voltage is available.
The result of this unwanted path will result in a blown fuse (or tripped breaker)
when the switch is turned on.
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Figure 115 – Short before switch
Figure 115 shows the short to ground occurring before the switch. This condition
is often referred to as a dead short. In this situation, the fuse will blow any time
circuit voltage is applied.
Figure 116 – Short before controlling devices
A short to power or supply occurs when one circuit is shorted to another circuit
(Figure 116). The symptoms of a short to power again depend on the location
of the short. The result of this type of condition generally causes one or both
circuits to operate improperly, such as a component being energised when it is
not supposed to be. Worn or frayed electrical wiring typically causes the root
cause of this condition. Also, this condition rarely causes protection devices to
open or damage to other components.
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Grounds
A grounded circuit usually results in a component failing to operate.
As discussed earlier, a grounded condition indicates that the circuit has an
unwanted path to the machine frame. As stated, the effect on the circuit is
determined by where the ground occurs.
High Resistance
Circuit malfunctions also occur when resistance levels become too high.
The circuit effect usually results in the component failing to operate or the
component does not operate according to specification. A typical cause of high
resistance is a build up of corrosion or dirt on connections and contacts.
Intermittence
An intermittent condition occurs when contacts or connections become loose
or when internal component parts break. The problem usually results in lights
flickering, or components working intermittently. This problem usually appears as
the result of vibrations or machines moving, and is not easily diagnosed because
the condition tends to correct itself when the machine is stopped.
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Topic 7 Soldering

Soldering.............................................................................................................................................................................. 130
Properties of Solder...............................................................................................................................................131
Procedure Example................................................................................................................................................139

Soldering
Soldering is the process of joining two metals by the use of solder alloy.
While an electrical connection might exist between two crimped wires, it may
be incomplete and/or faulty. Soldering creates a solid and dependable electrical
connection.
The soldering process depends upon molten solder flowing into all the surface
imperfections of the metals to be soldered. When two pieces of metal are
soldered together, a thin layer of solder adheres between them and completes
the electrical connection.
Solder is a mixture of tin and lead and usually contains a solder flux.
Safety Precautions
The soldering gun or iron operates at temperatures high enough to cause
serious burns. Observe the following safety precautions:
1. Do not permit hot solder to be sprayed into the air by shaking a hot gun or
iron or a hot-soldered joint.
2. Always grasp a soldering gun or iron by its insulated handle. Do not grasp
the bare metal part.
3. Do not permit the metal part of a soldering gun or iron to rest or come in
contact with combustible materials. An iron should always rest on a soldering
stand when not in use.
4. Don’t wear nylon or plastic clothing. Solder will burn holes in these garments.
5. The soldering iron tip needs to be very hot in order to melt solder.
Contact with the soldering tip will produce skin burns.
6. Do not inhale the fumes that are released during the soldering process;
they will irritate respiratory systems.
7. If the soldering iron is electrically heated, do not use it while standing in water
or engine coolant.
8. Never apply solder to a live electrical circuit.
9. Make sure that all legislative and personal safety procedures are understood
and observed when carrying out soldering tasks.
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Properties of Solder
Solder is a metal alloy, made by combining tin and lead in different proportions.
These proportions are usually marked on the various types of solder available.
With most tin/lead solder combinations, melting does not take place all at once.
Fifty-fifty solder begins to melt at 183°C (361°F), but it’s not fully melted until
the temperature reaches 216°C (420°F). Between these two temperatures,
the solder exists in a plastic or semi-liquid state.
The plastic range of a solder varies, depending upon the ratio of tin to lead.
With 60/40 solder (60% tin / 40% lead) , the range is much smaller than it is for
50/50 solder. The 63/37 ratio, known as eutectic solder has practically no plastic
range, and melts almost instantly at 183°C (361°F).
The solders most commonly used for hand soldering in electrical repair work
are the 60/40 type and the 63/37 type. Due to the plastic range of the 60/40
type, care needs to be taken to avoid moving any elements of the joint during
the cool down period. Movement may cause what is known as a disturbed joint.
A disturbed joint has a rough, irregular appearance and looks dull instead of
bright and shiny. A disturbed solder joint may be unreliable and will probably
require rework.
Wetting action
Figure 117 – Wetting occurs when molten solder penetrates a

copper surface, forming an intermediate bond.
When the hot solder comes in contact with a copper surface, a metal solvent
action takes place. The solder dissolves and penetrates the copper surface.
The molecules of solder and copper blend to form a new alloy, one that’s part
copper and part solder. This solvent action is called wetting and forms the
intermetallic bond between the parts (Figure 117). Wetting can only occur if the
surface of the copper is free of contamination and from the oxide film that forms
when the metal is exposed to air. Solder and work surface need to reach the
proper temperature before attempting to solder.
Although the surfaces to be soldered may look clean, there is always a thin film
of oxide covering it. For a good solder bond, surface oxides must be removed
during the soldering process using flux.
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Flux
Reliable solder connections can only be accomplished with truly cleaned
surfaces. Solvents can be used to clean the surfaces prior to soldering but
are insufficient due to the extremely rapid rate at which oxides form on the
surface of heated metals. To overcome this oxide film, it becomes necessary
to use materials called fluxes. Fluxes consist of natural or synthetic rosins and
sometimes chemical additives called activators.
It is the function of the flux to remove oxides and keep them removed during
the soldering operation. This is accomplished by the flux action which is very
corrosive at solder melt temperatures and accounts for the flux’s ability to rapidly
remove metal oxides. In its unheated state, however, rosin flux is non-corrosive
and non-conductive and thus will not affect the circuitry. It is the fluxing action of
removing oxides and carrying them away, as well as preventing the reformation
of new oxides that allows the solder to form the desired intermetallic bond.
Flux must melt at a temperature lower than solder so that it can do its job prior to
the soldering action. It will volatilise very rapidly; thus it is mandatory that flux be
melted to flow onto the work surface and not be simply volatilised by the hot iron
tip to provide the full benefit of the fluxing action. There are varieties of fluxes
available for many purposes and applications. The most common types include:
Rosin – No Clean, Rosin – Mildly Activated and Water Soluble.
When used, liquid flux should be applied in a thin, even coat to those surfaces
being joined and prior to the application of heat. Cored wire solder and solder
paste should be placed in such a position that the flux can flow and cover the
joints as the solder melts. Flux should be applied so that no damage will occur to
the surrounding parts and materials.
Soldering irons
Soldering irons come in a variety of sizes and shapes. A continuously tinned
surface must be maintained on the soldering iron tip’s working surface to ensure
proper heat transfer and to avoid transfer of impurities to the solder connection.
Before using the soldering iron the tip should be cleaned by wiping it on a wet
sponge. When not in use the iron should be kept in a holder, with its tip clean
and coated with a small amount of solder.
Controlling heat
Controlling soldering iron tip temperature is not the key element in soldering.
The key element is controlling the heat cycle of the work. How fast the work
gets hot, how hot it gets, and how long it stays hot is the element to control
for reliable solder connections. Selection of the correct sized soldering iron,
and consequent tip size, is an important factor in controlling heat.
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Thermal mass
The first factor that needs to be considered when soldering is the relative
thermal mass of the joint to be soldered. This mass may vary over a wide range.
Each joint has its own particular thermal mass and how this combined mass
compares with the mass of the iron tip determines the time and temperature rise
of the work.
Surface condition
A second factor of importance when soldering is the surface condition. If there
are any oxides or other contaminants covering the pads or leads, there will
be a barrier to the flow of heat. Even though the iron tip is the right size and
temperature, it may not be able to supply enough heat to the joint to melt the
solder.
Thermal linkage
Figure 118 – Minimal thermal linkage due to insufficient solder between

the pad and soldering iron tip
A third factor to consider is thermal linkage. This is the area of contact between
the iron tip and the work.
Figure 118 shows a view of a soldering iron tip soldering a component lead.
Heat is transferred through the small contact area between the soldering iron tip
and pad. The thermal linkage area is small.
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Figure 119 – A solder bridge provides thermal linkage to transfer heat into
the pad and component lead
Figure 119 also shows a view of a soldering iron tip soldering a component lead.
In this case, the contact area is greatly increased by having a small amount of
solder at the point of contact. The tip is also in contact with both the pad and
component further improving the thermal linkage. This solder bridge provides
thermal linkage and assures the rapid transfer of heat into the work.
Applying solder
In general, the soldering iron tip should be applied to the maximum mass
point of the joint. This will permit the rapid thermal elevation of the parts to be
soldered. Molten solder always flows from the cooler area toward the hotter one.
Before solder is applied; the surface temperature of the parts being soldered
must be elevated above the solder melting point. Never melt the solder against
the iron tip and allow it to flow onto a surface cooler than the solder melting
temperature. Solder applied to a cleaned, fluxed and properly heated surface
will melt and flow without direct contact with the heat source and provide a
smooth, even surface, filleting out to a thin edge. Improper soldering will exhibit
a built‑up, irregular appearance and poor filleting. For good solder joint strength,
parts being soldered must be held in place until the solder solidifies.
If possible apply the solder to the upper portion of the joint so that the work
surfaces and not the iron will melt the solder, consequently allowing gravity
to aid the solder flow. Selecting cored solder of the proper diameter will aid in
controlling the amount of solder being applied to the joint. Use a small gauge for
a small joint, and a large gauge for a large joint.
Post solder cleaning

When cleaning is required, flux residue should be removed as soon as possible,
but no later than one hour after soldering. Some fluxes may require more
immediate action to facilitate adequate removal. Mechanical means such as
agitation, spraying, brushing, and other methods of applications may be used in
conjunction with the cleaning solution.
The cleaning solvents, solutions and methods used should not have affected the
parts, connections, and materials being cleaned. After cleaning, adequately dry
the soldered area, ensuring fingers and hands to not come into contact with hot
surfaces.
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Resoldering
Care should be taken to avoid the need for resoldering. When resoldering is
required, quality standards for the resoldered connection should be the same as
for the original connection.
A cold or disturbed solder joint will usually require only reheating and reflowing
of the solder with the addition of suitable flux. If reheating does not correct the
condition, the solder should be removed and the joint resoldered.
Quality of Work
Figure 120 – Solder blends to the soldered surface, forming a small contact angle
Solder joints should have a smooth appearance and a satin lustre. The joints
should be free from scratches, sharp edges, grittiness, looseness, blistering,
or other evidence of a poor quality of work. Probe marks from test pins are
acceptable providing that they do not affect the integrity of the solder joint.
An acceptable solder connection should indicate evidence of wetting and

adherence when the solder blends to the soldered surface. The solder should
form a small contact angle; this indicates the presence of a metallurgical bond
and metallic continuity from solder to surface (Figure 120).
Smooth clean voids or unevenness on the surface of the solder fillet or coating
are acceptable. A smooth transition from pad to component lead should be
evident.
When soldering, follow these guidelines:

 Use the soldering tool to heat the terminal or clip. This will transfer heat by
conductance to the wires, which will become hot enough to melt the solder.
Do not heat the solder directly.
 Make sure that there are solder fillets between the core (conductor) and the
terminal or clip, but not on the insulator. If using a clip, make sure that the
solder covers the exposed conductor, and all of the clip.
 If soldering around a terminal, make sure the solder covers the conductor,
but does not extend past the conductor. It may be helpful to tilt the terminal
end of the wire being repaired slightly up to prevent solder from flowing onto
the terminal.
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 Do not apply so much solder that the individual wire strands aren’t visible.
 Do not allow the soldering tool to burn the terminal or insulation.
 Do not leave sharp points of solder; these can tear tape used to insulate the
repair.
 Do not allow individual wire strands to protrude from the repair, or to
protrude over the insulator.
 Do not solder wires in a live circuit. Always disconnect power from wires and
then make the repair.
Tools
The following tools are recommended for use when preparing and soldering
wires or connections:
 Diagonal pliers, commonly called side cutters, are used for cutting soft wire
and component leads. They should not be used for cutting hard metals such
as, iron or steel.
 Long-nose or needle-nose pliers, are used for holding wire so that the
stripped end may be twisted around a terminal post, or inserted into a
terminal eye.
 Wire strippers are used to remove insulation from the hook-up wires.
There are different types of strippers, ranging from the simple type found on
diagonal pliers to the more automatic multi-sized strippers which can handle
different wire diameters.
 A soldering iron is a standard tool in the industry used for soldering wires
together. There are many types of devices used for this purpose, such as
soldering guns, pencil-types, etc. Soldering irons are rated by the amount
of power they dissipate, and thus indirectly by the amount of heat they can
develop. One hundred and one hundred twenty five Watt guns are the most
popular sizes. The type of job determines which size iron should be used.
 Heat sinks are used to prevent overheating during soldering or unsoldering
of heat-sensitive electronic parts. The heat sink is generally a clip that is
attached to the lead between the body of the part and the terminal point at
which the heat is applied. It absorbs heat and reduces the amount of heat
conducted by the component.
 Desoldering tools simplify the job of cleaning etched board solder holes
of solder when component leads are being removed from their holes.
The holes must be free of solder before the terminals of a new component
may be inserted.
Wire Preparation
Two or more wires that provide a conductive path for electricity must be
electrically connected. This means that an uninsulated surface on one wire
must be mechanically connected to an uninsulated surface on the other wire.
To ensure that the wires will not separate or the connection corrode, they are
soldered at the junction.
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Before wires may be connected and soldered, they must be properly prepared.
This involves stripping away the insulation at the ends of the wire, thus providing
terminal leads which may be connected to each other or to a terminal post or
connector contact.
After removing the insulation, examine the wire for nicks or cuts and
discolouration. If the wire has a shiny look and is not nicked or damage,
no further preparation is needed. If the wire has a dull or dark appearance,
it must be cleaned before soldering.
The final step before soldering the wire is to perform a task called tinning.
If using stranded wires, the wire should be twisted and placed on the tip of a
heated soldering device and heated sufficiently so that the wire will melt the
solder.
Mechanical Connections
Figure 121
Some of the more common connectors are posts, terminals and splices.
Figure 121 shows a connection to a terminal post. The wire should be secured
to the post by a three-quarter to a full turn. Do not wind the wire around the post
several times. It is wasteful and also causes problems if the connection needs to
be desoldered.
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Figure 122
Figure 122 shows a typical connection to a terminal strip. Twist the wire to form a
hook and insert the hook into the opening on the terminal strip.
Figure 123
If two wires are to be spliced, the recommended procedure is to twist each wire
in the form of a hook. Combine the two hooks and apply the solder to the joint.
It is recommended that the wires be ‘tinned’ before soldering. Figure 123 shows
a hook splice connection.
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Figure 124
When connecting heat sensitive components to a terminal post or terminal strip

it is recommended that a heat sink device be used. Figure 124 shows a heat sink
connected between a silicon diode and a terminal post. The heat sink acts as a
heat load and therefore reduces the heat transfer to the diode.
Procedure Example
Helpful Hints
Good soldering is part of a technician’s skills. Solder connections must be
mechanically strong, so that they will not shake or vibrate loose causing
electrical intermittence. Electrically, solder contacts must have low resistance for
providing proper signal transfer. Some basic soldering rules are:
 The soldering tip must be tinned and clean.
 Metals to be connected must be clean.
 Support the joint mechanically where possible.
 Pre-tin large surfaces before soldering them together.
 Apply the solder to the joint, not to the gun or iron tip. Solder must flow
freely and have a shiny, smooth appearance.
 Use only enough solder to make a solid connection.
 Where additional flux is used, apply to the joint. Only rosin flux should be
used on electrical connections.
 Solder rapidly and do not permit components or insulation to burn or
overheat.
 Use rosin-core solder or equivalent. Do not use acid-core solder for any
electrical connections.
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Procedure Steps
1. Safety and Care
Figure 125
When using a soldering iron care must be taken to ensure personal burns do not
occur (Figure 125).
The tip of the soldering iron has to be hot enough to melt metal solder...
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Figure 126
... so make sure it is in a safe position and not touching anything (Figure 126).
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2. Splicing: Prepare the wires to be joined
Figure 127
While the soldering iron is heating, remove an appropriate amount of the

protective insulation from the wires. Always use a proper stripping tool that is in
good condition.
If the joint is to be sealed with a heat shrink sleeve, cut a section of this tubular
material long enough to overlap the cable insulation on both sides of the join.
Slide it over the end of one of the wires before joining them (Figure 127).
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3. Join the wires mechanically
Figure 128
Twist the wires together to make a good mechanical connection between them
(Figure 128). If there are impurities in the solder, and the wires are not directly
touching each other, there may be a strong physical connection but there may
not be a good electrical connection.
This is known as a dry joint. It is also very important for the surfaces to be
very clean before soldering or there will be a poor connection. Tinning of the
individual wires before soldering will assist in eliminating dry joints.
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4. Apply solder to splice
Figure 129
Use the soldering iron to gently heat up the wires and melt some solder.
Place the soldering iron onto the joined wires to ensure that just enough solder
runs smoothly into the wires. Be careful not to use too much solder; if too much
heat is applied, the wire insulation will melt (Figure 129).
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Figure 130
When soldering is finished, clean any excess flux from the joint with a rag and
solvent (Figure 130).
5. Sleeve the joint
Figure 131
Once the electrical connection has been made, and it has cooled down enough
place the insulator sleeve cover over the join.
There are different types of sleeves. The most popular type is shrink wrapped
onto the join with a heat source (Figure 131).
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Figure 132
Another type contains a glue which when heated melts into and seals the joint
(Figure 132, left).
If there is no heat shrink sleeve available, then it is possible to seal and protect
the splice with electrical insulating tape (Figure 132, right).
6. Terminals: Check the connection length
Figure 133
To solder a wire to a terminal connector, a better connection will be obtained

if the wire strands are not twisted tightly before placing through the terminal;
this gives the terminal more surface area to come in contact with the wire when
soldered.
However, it can be difficult to insert the wires into the terminal if they are all just
loose strands, so twist them just enough (Figure 133)...
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Figure 134
... to assist in a clean insertion.
Place the bullet or terminal onto the wire (Figure 134) to check that the stripped
part of the wire...
145
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Figure 135
... does not extend beyond the insulated shoulder of the terminal (Figure 135).
Then remove the wire from the terminal.
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7. Apply Solder
Figure 136
Give the wires a thin preparatory coating of solder. This is called tinning the
wires and helps to make the final connection (Figure 136).
By using resin cored solder, it is unnecessary to prepare the surfaces with a flux
material because this is incorporated into the core of the solder.
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Figure 137
Put the wire back in the terminal (Figure 137)...
Figure 138
... and place the iron onto the terminal to get it hot enough to melt some more
solder between the terminal and the tinned wire (Figure 138). Be careful not to
use too much solder, and if the terminal is too hot the wire insulation will start to
melt.
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8. Cover the terminal
Figure 139
Once the electrical connection has been made, and it has cooled down enough
to enable handling, place the insulator cover over the terminal (Figure 139)...
Figure 140
... and place the connection into service (Figure 140).
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Electrical

Published by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd.

Version 4.1, 2006

Copyright © 2006 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. Melbourne, Australia.

 Caterpillar engineers and instructors

Topic 1 Electrical Fundamentals............................................21

Topic 2 Electrical Components..............................................43

Topic 3 Electrical Circuits.......................................................85

Topic 4 Electrical Schematics..............................................103

Electrical F undamentals – TCL024

Topic 5 Digital Multimeter.....................................................109

Topic 6 Circuit Faults.............................................................121

E lectrical F undamentals – TCL024

Included In This Section:

Electrical F undamentals – TCL024

Module Number: TCL024

Module Name: Electrical Fundamentals

Date: 14 September 2006

1. As a minimum, personnel delivering this module must have the status of a

2. Media, demonstration and practical facilitation, given:

3. Estimated time of delivery – 34 hours

4. Classroom and Workshop Environment

7. Recommended maximum student/teacher ratio

8. Resources for Student:

Learning Outcome 1: Explain Electrical Fundamentals.

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

1.1 Define fundamental electrical terminology

1.3 Explain electrical circuits and laws

Learning Outcome 2: Identify and explain the function of basic electrical

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

2.1 Identify and explain the function of basic electrical components

Learning Outcome 3: Describe the operation of a basic electrical circuit.

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

3.1 Describe the construction of a basic electrical circuit

3.4 Calculate power in a circuit

Learning Outcome 4: Interpret basic electrical schematics.

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

4.1 Identify component symbols in an electrical schematic:

4.2 Identify electrical schematic features:

Learning Outcome 5: Identify electrical measurements using a Digital

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

5.1 Identify the main components of a Digital Multimeter:

5.5 Measure resistance using a Digital Multimeter:

Learning Outcome 6: Identify faults in an electrical circuit.

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

6.1 Identify various faults that may occur in an electrical circuit:

Learning Outcome 7: Identify soldering techniques on electrical equipment.

At the completion of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

7.1 Identify personal safety precautions when soldering:

Learning Outcome 8: Perform electrical measurements using a digital

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

Evidence of achieving this module’s learning outcome, at a practical level, is

8.4 Test and diagnose a fault in an electrical circuit using a digital