Electronic

Fundamentals
TCL002

Student Guide
Caterpillar Service Technician Module
TCL002
Electronic Fundamentals

Published by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

1 Caterpillar Drive
Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043

Version 4.1, 2006

Copyright © 2006 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. Melbourne, Australia.

All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the
copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be
addressed to the Caterpillar Learning Manager, Australia.

This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. on the understanding that:

Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd., its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved in the
preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual, tortious, or other form
of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not) in respect of the publication and
any consequence arising from its use, including any omission made by any person in reliance
upon the whole or any part of the contents of this publication.

Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd. expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person in
respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be done by any
such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or any part of the contents
of this subject material.

Acknowledgements

A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for
this program, in particular:

 Caterpillar engineers and instructors

 Dealer engineers and instructors
 Caterpillar Institutes.
 Table of Contents
Included in this Module:
   Module Outline Document..........................................1

Topic 1 Semiconductors......................................................... 11
Introduction................................................................................... 12

Topic 2 Diodes.........................................................................19
Introduction...................................................................................20

Topic 3 Transistors..................................................................35
Introduction...................................................................................36

Topic 4 Electronic Systems....................................................53

Introduction...................................................................................54
Using Electronic Signals..............................................................54

Electronic Fundamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Table of Contents

ii
TCL 0 02
© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd
    Module Outline Document

Included In This Section:

Learning Outcome Details and Module Information

Electronic F undamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Module Number: TCL002

Module Name: Electronic Fundamentals

Objective:
This unit identifies the competence required for the underpinning
knowledge of Electronic Fundamentals and testing of basic electronic
components

Prerequisites:
 BUS006 Occupational Health and Safety
 TCL024 Electrical Fundamentals

Date: 20 October 2006

Version: 4.1

Recommended Delivery
1. As a minimum, personnel delivering this module must have the status of a
Caterpillar Trainer and Assessor Program (CTAP) Level 1 Facilitator, or equivalent.

2. Media, demonstration and practical facilitation, given:

– Notebook
– Computer
– PowerPoint Presentation
– Video Projector
– Whiteboard
– Various training aids/models

3. Estimated time of delivery – 14 hours

4. Classroom and Workshop Environment

5. Resources
– Qty of standard diodes/transistors
– Digital Multimeter/s (number depends on class size)
– Container for water and heat source
– Light dependent resistor
– Light emitting diode (LED)
– Zener diode
– Temperature sensor
– Analog and digital sensors
– Electronic Control Module
– Alternator and rectifier


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

– Solid state relay

– Thyristor
– Silicon-controlled Rectifier
– SCR components
– Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
– Induction pulse generator

6. References:
– TCL002 Facilitator Guide
– TCL024 Facilitator Guide
– Manufacturer’s specifications

7. Recommended maximum student/teacher ratio:

– Classroom – 15:1
– Workshop – 8:1

8. Resources for Student:

– TCL024 Student Guide
– TCL002 Student Guide (one for each student)
– TCL002 Activity Workbook (one for each student)
– Manufacturer’s specifications

Revision
 TCL024 – Electrical Fundamentals
– Potential difference
– Current
– Resistance
– Volts
– Conductors
– Insulators
– Magnetism
– Wires
– Switches
– Resistors
– Measuring resistance, amperes, volts

Assessment
This is an underpinning knowledge and practical module. Learning Outcomes should
be assessed using formative and summative assessments. Evidence of achieving
this modules learning outcomes, at a knowledge level, is attained by oral and written
assessment. The written assessment is closed book and a minimum standard of 80% is
required. Attainment of the student performance at a hands-on level is achieved by the
use of practical activities aligned with marking guides.
The practical activities may be used as a learning activity or as a practical assessment. If
the practical activity is used as a practical assessment, the student must work alone and
be deemed competent in all aspects. The assessment method must confirm consistency
and accuracy of performance together with application of underpinning knowledge. The
assessment must be by direct observation of tasks, with questioning on underpinning
knowledge. Personnel conducting the assessment must be qualified as a workplace
assessor.

TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Learning Outcome 1: Demonstrate knowledge of semiconductors used in

heavy vehicle applications

_______________________________

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

1.1 Identify semiconductor materials and their characteristics

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

1.1 Identify semiconductor materials and their characteristics:

1.1.1 Applications
1.1.2 Semiconductor characteristics
1.1.2.1 Doping
1.1.2.2 Free electrons
1.1.2.3 ‘N’ type
1.1.2.4 ‘P’ type
1.1.3 PN junction
1.1.3.1 Characteristics
1.1.3.2 Current flow through semi-conductors
– Positive and negative charged electronic transfer
1.1.4 Depletion region
1.1.5 Barrier voltage
1.1.6 Photonic semi-conductors
1.1.6.1 Optical light spectrum
1.1.6.2 Devices


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Learning Outcome 2: Demonstrate knowledge of diodes used in heavy vehicle

applications

_______________________________

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

2.1 Identify diode materials and their characteristics
2.2 Explain diode operation
2.3 Identify diode ratings and testing diodes

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

2.1 Identify diode materials and their characteristics:

2.1.1 What is a diode
2.1.2 Applications
2.1.3 Diode characteristics
2.1.3.1 Anode
2.1.3.2 Cathode
2.1.3.3 Diode bias
– Forward bias
– Reverse bias
– Threshold voltage
2.1.3.4 Diode leakage current
2.1.3.5 Zener point
2.1.4 Uses
2.2 Explain diode operation:
2.2.1 Zener diodes and voltage regulation
2.2.2 Zener diode applications
2.2.3 Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and illumination
2.2.3.1 LED versus incandescent lamps
2.2.4 Diodes as rectifiers
2.2.4.1 Alternator rectifier
2.2.4.2 Power diodes
2.2.4.3 Heat sink
2.2.5 Diodes in circuit protection
2.2.6 Photo diode
2.3 Identify diode ratings and testing diodes:
2.3.1 Heat
2.3.2 Forward and reverse voltage
2.3.3 Wattage
2.3.4 Current
2.3.4.1 The Zener
2.3.5 Testing diodes
2.3.6 Replacing diodes

TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Learning Outcome 3: Demonstrate knowledge of transistors used in heavy

vehicle applications

_______________________________

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

3.1 Identify transistor types, construction, function and operation

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

3.1 Identify transistor types, construction, function and operation:

3.1.1 What is a transistor
3.1.2 Applications
3.1.3 Types
3.1.3.1 Bipolar
3.1.3.2 Unipolar
3.1.4 Construction
3.1.4.1 Emitter
3.1.4.2 Base
3.1.4.3 Collector
3.1.5 Basic function
3.1.5.1 Base path
3.1.5.2 PNP or NPN transistors
3.1.6 Operation
3.1.7 Solid state relays
3.1.8 Thyrister
3.1.9 Silicon-controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)
3.1.9.1 SCR operation
3.1.9.2 Types of SCRs
3.1.9.3 SCR symbol
3.1.9.4 SCR use
3.1.10 Darlington pair
3.1.11 Resistors in transistor circuits
3.1.12 Transistor terminology
3.1.13 Other applications
3.1.14 Testing transistors and SCR


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Learning Outcome 4: Demonstrate knowledge of electronic systems used in

heavy vehicle applications

_______________________________

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

4.1 Identify a basic electronic system in block diagrams
4.2 Explain the use of electronic signals
4.3 Describe data retention in vehicle Electronic Control Modules

Attainment of the performance is confirmed if the student can:

4.1 Identify a basic electronic system in block diagram

4.1.1 Basic electronic system
4.1.1.1 Block diagram
4.1.1.2 Sensor
4.1.1.3 Signal processor
4.1.1.4 Display device
4.1.1.5 Actuator
4.2 Explain the use of electronic signals
4.2.1 Using electronic signals
4.2.1.1 Classifications
– Analogue
– Square wave digital
– Varying frequency
– Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
– Square wave low frequency
– Square wave high frequency
– Sine wave low frequency
– Sine wave high frequency
4.2.2 Sensors
4.2.2.1 Temperature sensor
4.2.2.2 Testing
4.2.3 Signal processor
4.2.4 Displays
4.2.4.1 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
4.2.5 Actuators
4.2.6 Microprocessors
4.2.7 Data input
4.2.7.1 Thermistors


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

4.2.8 Variable capacitance sensor

4.2.8.1 Potentiometers
4.2.8.2 Piezo-resistive pressure sensor
4.2.8.3 Hall effects sensors
4.2.8.4 Induction pulse generator
4.2.8.5 Switches
4.2.8.6 Data processing
– Control process unit (CPU)
4.3 Describe Integrated Circuits
4.3.1 Integrated circuits


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

Learning Outcome 5: Conduct tests on basic electronic components

Prerequisite:
All students must have completed the knowledge assessment prior to attempting
this learning outcome.

At the end of this learning outcome, students should be able to:

 State and follow the safety precautions that must be observed to prevent personal
injury or damage to equipment
 Identify the scope and nature of work requirements
 Source procedures and information, such as, Service Information System (SIS)
workshop manuals and specifications
 Analyse method options and the most appropriate to the circumstances are selected
and prepared
 Tasks include:
– Inspection of components for serviceability
– Reading of component value
– Measurement of wire resistance
– Individual testing for serviceability of a:
• Diode
• Transistor
 Tasks are completed:
– Without causing damage to components or equipment
– Using appropriate tooling, techniques and materials
– According to industry/enterprise guidelines, procedures and policies
– Using and interpreting correct information from the manufacturer’s
specifications

Evidence of achieving this module’s learning outcome, at a practical level, is

confirmed if the trainee can competently complete the following tasks:

5.1 Conduct
5.1.1 Inspection of components for serviceability
5.1.2 Reading of component value
5.1.3 Measurement of wire resistance
5.1.4 Individual testing for serviceability of a:
5.1.4.1 Diode
5.1.4.2 Transistor


TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Module Outline Document

5.2 Facilitators are to ensure that the tasks are completed:

5.2.1 Without causing damage to components or equipment
5.2.2 Using appropriate tooling, techniques and materials
5.2.3 According to industry/enterprise guidelines, procedures and policies
5.2.4 Using and interpreting correct information from the manufacturer’s
specifications.

10
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Topic 1 Semiconductors

Included in this Topic:

Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................12

Electronic F undamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

Introduction
This module introduces the fundamentals of electronics and solid state
components.

Electronics is the component of electrics that deals with the behaviour of

electrons. With the use of semiconductor materials in what is called ‘solid-state
devices’, for example; diodes and transistors, the term electronics has been
applied generally to systems and units that use these components.

Electronic components are utilised in a vast majority of day to day systems

and units such as televisions, radios, computers, iPODs, control systems and
certainly in a number of earthmoving machinery and automotive, such as:
 Electronic engine control
 Electronic fuel injection
 Electronic instruments
 Electronic monitoring
 Electronic transmission control
 Electronic hydraulic control
 Electronic retarding systems
 Traction control.
The development of semiconductor materials and the manufacture of the silicon
chips has ensured the growth of electronics in many areas. The silicon chip is
the basis of most electronic components.

Some elements are good conductors (such as copper), while other elements are
poor conductors (wood, rubber), but are in fact good insulators. There are other
elements that are neither good conductors nor good insulators. If an element
is part of this group, but can be changed into a useful conductor – it is called a
semiconductor. Gernamium and silicon are the most commonly used elements
for semiconductors.

Diodes, Transistors and Integrated Circuits are good examples of

semiconductors and are used extensively throughout the automotive industry,
often to replace mechanical switches.

A semiconductor is a ‘solid-state device’. A solid-state device controls current

flow without the use of moving parts, filaments or bulbs. A transformer is a
solid‑state device, but is not a semiconductor.

12
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

How Semiconductors Work

Figure 1 – The PN junction of a diode

Pure semiconductors have a firm electron bonding; subsequently there’s no

place for electrons to move. In this natural state, these elements will not conduct
electricity.

Semiconductors are made into good conductors through doping. Doping implies
that there is an addition of impurities that will effect how many free electrons
there are in the semiconductor. The resulting material will have either an excess
of free electrons or a shortage of free electrons, depending on which impurity is
added.

If the additional material generates a surplus of free electrons, the

semiconductor is negative or ‘N’ type. If it generates a deficiency of free
electrons, the semiconductor is positive or ‘P’ type.

Semiconductors are made from at least one slice of ‘N’ type material and at least
one slice of ‘P’ type material. These slices may be mounted inside a plastic or
metal housing. The area where the ‘N’ type material and ‘P’ type material meet
is called the ‘PN’ junction (Figure 1).

Current Flow Through Semiconductors

The flow of electric current through a semiconductor is referred to a little
differently to other electrical devices. Normally, the movement of electricity is
described as the movement of free electrons, bumping each other from the
positive of the voltage source, through a conductor, toward the negative.

When considering semiconductors, not only is the flow of electrons described,

but also the flow of holes, that is, the spaces in an electron shell to which an
electron will be attracted.

The flow of electrons is quite easy to visualise. Think of a group of marbles

running through a pipe and each marble represents an electron. The flow of
gaps is slightly harder to visualise.

13
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

Figure 2 – Movement of holes

A group of pipes are filled with marbles, as shown in Figure 2. One marble
moves ahead, leaving a gap (hole) in its place. The next marble then shifts into
the position vacated by the first marble. At the same time, it can be said that the
gap is moving from the position that the first marble had held to the position that
the second marble had held. As the marbles move in one direction in the pipe, it
can be said that the gaps will be moving in the opposite direction.

Now visualise this concept with a semiconductor. When no voltage is applied to

a semiconductor, the free electrons at the ‘PN’ junction are attracted to the holes
in the ‘P’ type material. Some electrons drift across the junction from the ‘N’ type
material to fill the holes.

Similarly, holes from the ‘P’ type material can be said to be ‘attracted’ to the
free electrons in the ‘N’ type material. Holes, although they are not particles
themselves, can be visualised as crossing the ‘PN’ junction to combine with
electrons.

Depletion Region

Figure 3 – Formation of depletion region

As long as there is no external voltage applied to a semiconductor, there is a

peak as to how many electrons and holes will cross the ‘PN’ junction. Each
electron that crosses the ‘PN’ junction leaves behind an atom that is lacking a
negative charge. This atom is termed as a ‘positive ion’. Alternatively, each hole
that crosses the ‘PN’ junction leaves behind a ‘negative ion’.

14
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

Positive ions will accumulate in the ‘N’ type material and they will exert a force
(a potential) that prevents any more electrons from leaving. Negative ions will
accumulate in the ‘P’ type material and they will exert a potential that keeps any
more holes from leaving. Ultimately, this will result in a stable condition, leaving
a deficiency of both holes and electrons at the ‘PN’ junction. This zone is called
the Depletion Region (Figure 3).

Barrier Voltage

Figure 4

When there is a voltage applied to a ‘PN’ semiconductor (accepting that the

semiconductor is placed in the circuit to allow electricity to flow); electrons flow
from the ‘N’ side, across the ‘PN’ junction, and through to the ‘P’ side. Holes
flow in the opposite direction. The effect of the ‘PN’ junction on current flow in a
circuit depends upon where it is positioned and on the layout of the ‘P’ and ‘N’
type materials.

This voltage potential across the ‘PN’ junction is called the barrier voltage
(Figure 4). Doped Germanium has a barrier voltage of approximately 0.2 Volts.
Doped Silicon has a barrier voltage of approximately 0.7 Volts.

Photonic Semiconductors
A unit of light energy is called a photon. Photonic semiconductors emit and
detect light. Photons are created electrically when certain electrons are excited
to a higher than normal energy level and then return to a more normal state.
Light energy (photon) behaves like waves. A wavelength is the distance between
the wave crests and valleys (nodes and anti-nodes). Electrons, excited to higher
energy levels emit photons with shorter wavelengths than electrons excited to
lower levels. Photons may not be visible and can only be described as light only
when they are visible.

All visible light is categorised as electromagnetic radiation. The specific

wavelength of light rays will designate their characteristics. Light wavelengths
are designated in nanometers (billionths of a metre).

15
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

The Optical Light Spectrum

Figure 5

The optical light spectrum includes ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation.
Figure 5 is a graphic representation of the optical light spectrum. Photonic
semiconductors either emit or can detect near-infrared radiation frequencies.
Near-infrared means that the frequency is a little greater than the visible red end
of the visible light spectrum and is therefore usually defined as light.

Figure 6

Figure 6 shows the full optical light, or electromagnetic, spectrum. Note the
portion of the spectrum that is classified as visible light.

Devices
There are numerous devices that change their resistance value when light falls
on them.

Some detect only ultraviolet light or infrared light; others detect broad spectrum
or white light.

16
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

The list includes photo resistors (light dependent resistors-LDR’s) photo diodes;
Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (LASCR’s), infrared receiving diodes,
photo transistors, photo darlington transistors and others.

Figure 7

When they are put into a circuit, they all operate in a similar manner. When no
light is present, they have a high resistance. When light falls on their active
surface, their resistance decreases.

But the amount of change varies for each device and to determine which is most
suitable for a particular application there is a need to place each into a circuit
and supply it with a varying intensity light to see how it reacts.

Figure 8

Possibly the most sensitive device on the list is the photo darlington transistor
as it is really a photo transistor with an amplifying transistor to increase the
sensitivity about 50-100 times.

17
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 1

Figure 9

The least sensitive device is the photo resistor as it does not have any
amplifying properties at all.

Each device has its own application and the right one will depend on cost,
sensitivity, availability and capability to withstand the applied voltage. Some
photo resistors can withstand 50-250 Volts whereas the photo darlington
transistor can only withstand 25V max.

18
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Topic 2 Diodes

Included in this Topic:

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 20

Electronic F undamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Introduction
The simplest kind of semiconductor is a diode. It is made of one layer of ‘P’
type material and one of ‘N’ type material. Diodes allow current flow in only one
direction. On a schematic, the triangle in the diode symbol points in the direction
current is permitted to flow using conventional current flow theory. Diodes are
used for many purposes in electrical circuits, including illumination, rectification
and voltage spike protection.

Anode/Cathode

Figure 10 – Diode Diagram and Schematic Symbol

Current flows from left to right in Figure 10. This is indicated by a positive (plus)
sign to the left and a negative (minus) sign to the right of the diode. The positive
side of the diode is the anode and the negative side is the cathode.

There’s an easy way to remember the names ‘anode’ and ‘cathode’. Associate
‘anode’ with A+ (it’s the positive side) and ‘cathode’ with C‑ (the negative side).
The cathode is the end with the stripe. Current flows through a diode when the
anode terminal is more positive than the cathode terminal.

20
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Diode Bias

Figure 11 – Forward Biased Diode

The term ‘bias’ is used to refer to a diode’s ability to allow or prevent the flow of
current in a circuit.

A forward biased diode (see Figure 11) is connected to a circuit in such a way as
to allow the flow of electricity. This is done by connecting the N side of the diode
(the cathode) to the negative voltage, and the P side (the anode) to the positive
voltage. When the diode is connected in this way, both electrons and holes are
being forced into the depletion zone, connecting the circuit. Current flows in the
direction of the arrowhead indicating that the diode is forward biased.

When a forward biased diode is connected to a voltage source in this way, it acts
as a switch closing a circuit. Voltage is forcing both electrons and holes into the
depletion region, which allows current to flow.

A diode will not conduct (current flowing) until the forward voltage (bias) reaches
a certain threshold. The type of material used to construct the diode determines
the threshold voltage. A germanium diode usually starts conducting when the
forward voltage reaches approximately 300 milli‑volts while a silicon diode
requires approximately 600 milli‑volts.

A diode is limited to how much current can flow through the junction. The internal
resistance of the diode will produce heat when current is flowing. Too much
current produces too much heat, which can destroy the diode.

21
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Figure 12 – Reverse Biased Diode

A diode that is connected to voltage so that current cannot flow is reverse biased
(Figure 12). This means that the negative terminal is connected to the P side
of the diode, and the positive terminal is connected to the N side. The positive
potential is on the cathode terminal and, as such, current is being blocked
(against the arrowhead).

When voltage is applied to this circuit, the electrons from the negative voltage
terminal combine with the electron holes in the ‘P’ type material. The electrons
in the ‘N’ type material are attracted towards the positive voltage terminal.
This enlarges the depletion area. Since the holes and electrons in the depletion
area don’t combine, current can’t flow.

When a diode is reverse‑biased, the depletion region acts like an open switch,
blocking current. With the negative terminal connected to the P material,
holes are attracted away from the depletion region. With the positive terminal
connected to the N material, electrons are likewise attracted away from the
depletion region. The result is an enlarged zone, that contains neither holes nor
electrons that cannot support current flow.

Diode Leakage Current

In reality, a very, very small amount of current can flow through a reverse biased
diode. If the supply voltage becomes high enough, the atomic structure inside
the diode will break down, and the amount of current that flows through it will
rise sharply. If the reverse current is large enough and lasts long enough, the
heat will damage the diode.

In summary, if a diode is forward biased, it acts like a small resistance, or a short

circuit. If the diode is reverse biased, it acts like a very large resistance or open
circuit.

Zener Point
The applied voltage at which the diode fails is called the maximum reverse
voltage or Zener Point. Diodes are rated according to this voltage. Circuits are
designed to include diodes with a rating high enough to protect the diode and
the circuit during normal operation.

22
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Uses
Common uses for diodes in electrical circuits include:
 Voltage regulation (using Zener diodes)
 Indicators (using LEDs)
 Rectification (changing AC current to DC current)
 Clamping to control voltage spikes and surges that could damage solid state
circuits (acting as a circuit protector).

Zener Diodes and Voltage Regulation

Figure 13 – Zener Diode and Voltage Regulation

A Zener diode (Figure 13) is a special kind of diode that’s heavily doped during
manufacture, resulting in a high number of free electrons and electron holes.
These additional current carriers permit reverse current flow when a certain
reverse bias voltage is reached (avalanche point or Zener point).

In forward bias, the Zener diode acts like a regular diode. A common Zener
diode won’t conduct current in the reverse direction if the reverse bias voltage is
below the rate voltage. It will conduct reverse current if the reverse bias voltage
reaches or exceeds the rated voltage. This Zener diode is often used in voltage
control circuits.

An example of Zener diodes is inside the alternator in a charging system. These

diodes act as a safety mechanism to limit the output. The Zener diodes in 24 V
alternators are rated to turn on at approximately 28 Volts.

23
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Zener diode applications

In a 24 volt system

A Zener diode can be used as a voltage‑dependent switch. This has an

application in transistorised voltage regulators, which are fitted to alternators,
the Zener diode being used as a limiting device to prevent excess alternator
output.

Figure 14 – Zener diode in parallel with a voltmeter is used as a protective device

A Zener Diode may be used as a switch in a voltage dependent circuit. Figure 14

above has a voltmeter connected to a circuit. A Zener Diode is connected in
parallel to the voltmeter and is used as a voltage protection device.

In this instance, the Zener Diode is specified to break down at a maximum

safe voltage for the instrument, allowing voltage to pass through the Zener
Diode circuit and not the voltmeter. This prevents damage to the instrument.
Once voltage drops to a pre‑determined level, the Zener Diode closes, allowing
voltage to again pass through the voltmeter.

24
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) & Illumination

Figure 15 – Schematic Symbol for LED

Figure 16 – Light‑emitting diode (LED)

Another type of diode commonly used is a Light Emitting Diode (LED)

(Figure 15) which is used for indicator lamps. Like all diodes, LEDs allow current
flow in only one direction. The difference is that when forward voltage is applied
to an LED, the LED radiates light. Many LEDs connected in series can be
arranged to light as numbers or letters in a display.

While most silicon diodes need about 0.5 or 0.7 Volts to be turned on, LEDs
need approximately 1.5 to 2.2 Volts. This voltage results in currents high enough
to damage an LED. Most LEDs can handle only about 20 to 30 mA of current.
To prevent damage to an LED, a current‑limiting resistor is placed in series with
the LED.

LEDs versus Incandescent Lamps

In complex electrical circuits, LEDs are an excellent alternative to incandescent
lamps. They produce much less heat and need less current to operate.
They also turn on and off more quickly.

25
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Diodes as Rectifiers

Figure 17 – Simple Diode Rectifier Bridge

Rectifiers change alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). Several diodes
can be combined to build a diode rectifier, which is also called a rectifier bridge
(Figure 17).

Alternator Rectifier
The most common use of a rectifier in electrical systems is in the alternator.
The alternator produces alternating current (AC). Because electrical systems use
direct current (DC), the alternator must somehow convert the AC to DC. The DC
is then provided at the alternator’s output terminal.

Alternators use a Diode Rectifier Bridge to change AC current to DC current.

The use of diodes in an alternator will be covered in more detail in the next level
unit.

Study Figure 17 in terms of conventional theory. The stator voltage is alternating.

That means the voltage at A alternates between positive and negative. When
the voltage at A is positive, current flows from A to the junction between diodes
D1 and D2. Notice the direction of the arrows on each diode. Current can’t flow
through D1, but it can flow through D2. The current reaches another junction,
between D2 and D4, but again the current cannot flow through D4, nor can it
return through D2. The current must pass through the circuit load because it
can’t flow through D4 or D2.

NOTE:
The circuit load in this simplified example is a resistor; in a real charging system,
the load would be the battery, plus any electrical systems in use, such as ignition
system and lights.

26
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

The current continues along the circuit until it reaches the junction of D1 and D3.

Even though the voltage applied to D1 is forward biased, current can’t flow
through it because there’s positive voltage on the other side of the diode; in
other words, there is no voltage potential. Current flows through D3, and from
there to ground at B.

When the stator voltage reverses so that point B is positive, current flows along
the mirror‑opposite path. Whether the stator voltage at point A is positive or
negative, current always flows from top to bottom through the load (R1). This
means the current is DC.

Figure 18 – AC Input to Full‑wave Pulsating DC Output

The rectifiers in generators are designed to have an output (positive) and an

input (negative) diode for each alternation of current. This type of rectifier is
called a full wave rectifier. In this type of rectifier, there is one pulse of DC for
each pulse of AC. The DC that’s generated is called full‑wave pulsating DC as
shown in Figure 18.

27
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Power Diodes

Figure 19

Power diodes carry reasonably large currents, consequently, the heat generated
is considered harmful to the diode.

To prevent, or at least reduce overheating damage, power diodes may be

enclosed in a metal case and then fitted into a heat sink. A diode in a metal case
and a heat sink is shown in Figure 19. A heat sink is normally made of aluminium
and is large enough to absorb and dissipate heat. This action prevents the diode
from reaching high temperatures.

28
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Diodes in Circuit Protection

Figure 20 – Voltage spike generated in coil as field collapses

Electromagnetic devices like solenoids and relays have a unique characteristic

that can cause voltage spikes if not controlled. The coil in such a device sets
up a magnetic field as current flows through it. When the circuit is abruptly
opened and the supply voltage is removed, the collapsing magnetic field actually
generates its own voltage potential. The voltage potential may be high enough to
damage some circuit components, especially sensitive solid state controllers.

To protect against sparks or surges, Clamping Diodes are added in parallel

with the coil (Figure 20). While voltage is applied to the circuit, the diode is
reverse‑biased and doesn’t conduct electricity.

When voltage is removed and the induced current is flowing, the diode is forward
biased and does conduct. The current flows in a circular path through the diode
and coil until it dissipates. Induced current can cause problems other than
sparks. The computers in today’s earthmoving machines make decisions based
on circuit voltages. The computers make the wrong decisions if electromagnetic
devices cause abnormal voltages.

29
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Photo Diodes
All diodes produce an electrical response when exposed to light. A photo diode
is specifically designed to detect light and has a clear window through which
light can enter. Silicon is the normal semiconductor crystal medium provided for
photo diodes.

Photo diodes are used as switches e.g. night lights.

Diode Rating
Diodes will fail if excess heat or voltage is applied.

Excess voltage comes in the form of reverse voltage (called peak inverse voltage
or PIV). A diode can withstand a PIV voltage of 120% of the forward voltage.

Above this, the voltage will spike or puncture the junction and failure will occur.

Excess current will also destroy a diode. This is due to the heat generated when
a current flows.

The heat generated is Watts (volts x amps) and can be determined by measuring
the two values for a range of current flow.

As the current increases the voltage across a diode also increases and will vary
from one diode to another. The product (multiplication) of the two creates Watts
(or heat) and this will damage the junction by overheating it.

30
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Figure 21

It can be seen in Figure 21 that the wattage, which must be dissipated by the
diode, rises faster than the current. This heat is generated in the junction and
can even melt the silicon material or cause an explosion to physically blow the
diode apart.

The Zener
The current flow through a Zener must be kept within a maximum and minimum
value for it to operate.

For instance, if the current falls below 5mA, for a 400mW Zener, it may drop put
of regulation.

If the flow is greater than the dissipation of the Zener, it may be damaged
through overheating.

Here are some specific examples:

 Small glass Zener diodes are rated at 400mW (.4 Watt). This means the
maximum current flow will vary according to the voltage rating. This is
because the product of Volts x Amps must equal .4 Watts.

31
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Testing Diodes
When a diode is functioning properly in a circuit, it acts as a large voltage drop
in one direction, and as a very small voltage drop in the other. Unfortunately,
testing diodes is not always this simple.

1. Take the diode out of the circuit (sometimes this is not possible), or isolate it
from the circuit.
2. Testing with an analog ohmmeter.

Figure 22 – Testing a diode in forward bias

Figure 23 – Testing a diode in reverse bias

a. Diode should have a low resistance in one direction and a high

resistance in the other.
b. Check the low resistance on the lowest ohmmeter scale and the high
resistance on the high ohmmeter scale.
c. The high resistance should be at least 100 times the low resistance.
d. Steps b and c also apply to Zener diodes and full‑wave rectifiers.

32
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

3. Testing with digital multimeter.

a. Some meters have a special diode testing function and may have an
audible or visible continuity alarm for quick diagnosis
b. Always follow the actual meter’s instructions, as for example, forward
and reverse readings are voltage drop readings, not resistance with
some meters.
c. A typical diode will have approximately 0.6 to 0.9 Volts voltage drop
in the forward direction and should read ‘OL’ (overload) in the reverse
direction.

Replacing a Diode
Diodes, like any other electronic component, should be replaced with a diode
having the same part number to the original. This way the characteristics will be
the same and the diode’s operation will be compatible with circuit operation.

Diode characteristics vary tremendously from one type to another. For example,
the maximum continuous forward current that a 1N4001 diode can handle is 1
ampere, while the BYV22 can handle 60 amperes continuously. Other diodes
may take up to 400 amperes, but they are rarely used in the type of electronic
circuits that we are interested in here.

33
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 2

Figure 24 – Sample diodes

Figure 24 shows some of the most common packaging styles used in

electronics. The band on the end of the small, cylindrical diodes indicates the
cathode. The cathode of the larger devices is usually the end with the screw
thread, but not always. If unsure, check the manufacturer’s data sheets for the
diode being used.

34
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Topic 3 Transistors

Included in this Topic:

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 36

Electronic F undamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Introduction
A diode is only one type of semiconductor. By combining several kinds of
semiconductor material, transistors are created. Like diodes, transistors control
current flow.

Transistors can perform practically all the functions which were once performed
by vacuum tubes (used to amplify radio signals), but in much less space and
without creating as much heat. Transistors are used in many applications,
including radios, electronic control modules and other solid-state switches.

Transistor Types
There are many kinds of transistors. They can be divided into two major groups:
 Bipolar
 Unipolar (also called Field Effect Transistors or FETs)
While there are several differences between the two types, the most important
difference for our purposes is this:
 Bipolar transistors vary current in order to control voltage
 FET transistors vary voltage in order to control current
Bipolar transistors are more common in Caterpillar electrical circuits, so we’ll
concentrate on them.

Transistor Construction

Figure 25 – Bipolar Transistor

Like diodes, transistors contain a combination of ‘N’ type and ‘P’ type material.
However, transistors contain three materials instead of two. The three materials
are arranged so that ‘N’ type and ‘P’ type materials alternate (either as an NPN
or a PNP group). In practical terms, this means that diodes have two leads
while transistors have three. Figure 25 (above) is a symbolic representation of
transistor construction.

36
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Emitter, Base and Collector

In Figure 25, the material on the left is called the emitter. The material
sandwiched in the middle is the base. The material on the right is the collector.

The symbols are the schematic symbols for a transistor. The arrow indicates
current flow direction (using conventional theory), and is always on the emitter.
The arrow points in a different direction depending on whether the transistor is
PNP or NPN.

FETs also have three sections; they are referred to as the gate (which
approximates the function of the base), the source (similar to the emitter), and
the drain (similar to the collector).

Basic Function

Figure 26 – Action of an n-p-n transistor

A transistor works by using the base to control the current flow between the
emitter and the collector. When the transistor is turned on current can flow in the
direction of the arrow only. When the transistor is off current can’t flow in either
direction.

Base Paths
It’s important to realise that the base leg of a bipolar transistor controls the flow
of current. Although it accounts for only a small amount of the total current flow
(typically around 2% of the total), it is current flow through the base that allows
current to flow from emitter to collector.

37
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

PNP or NPN Transistors?

There is an easy way to identify the kind of transistor without thinking about the
movement of electrons or electron holes. Just remember that the arrow always
points towards the N material and away from the P material. So, for a PNP
transistor, the arrow points inward towards the base. For an NPN transistor, the
arrow points away from the base. In Caterpillar designed electrical circuits, NPN
transistors are much more common than PNP.

Transistor Operation

Figure 27 – Action of an n-p-n transistor

When trying to understand how a transistor functions in a specific circuit, there

are two facts that must be remembered. First, an NPN transistor is turned on by
applying voltage to the base leg, and turned off by removing voltage from the
base leg. This is very similar to the operation of a relay, which is turned on and
off by applying and removing voltage to the coil.

Second, the current through the base circuit is always much smaller than the
current across the collector circuit. Changing the base current a little results in
a big change in the collector current. The current through the emitter circuit is
always the largest of all. In fact, the emitter current must be equal to the base
current added to the collector current. Put another way, the current in the emitter
circuit is split between the base circuit and the collector circuit.

38
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Solid State Relays

Figure 28 – Solid State Relay

In some circuits, it’s desirable to have transistors function like relays. For
example, in Figure 28, a switch with a very small current controls a light
that consumes a large amount of current. This ‘solid state relay’ has several
advantages over a mechanical relay. It can switch faster, it is smaller, and it
won’t wear out.

Transistor ‘relays’ are very different from mechanical relays in one important
aspect. A mechanical relay acts as a switch that turns current completely on
or completely off. A transistor varies the current flow according to how much
current is flowing through the base.

39
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Thyristor

Figure 29

Thyristors are semiconductor devices with three leads. A small current at one
lead will allow a much larger current to flow through the other two leads. The
controlled current is either ON or OFF. Therefore, thyristors do not amplify
fluctuating signals like transistors do, instead they are solid-state switches.
There are two families of thyristors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) and
TRIACs. SCRs switch direct current and TRIACs switch alternating current.

40
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Silicon-controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)

Figure 30

SCR is a switch.

The SCR is similar to a bipolar transistor with a fourth layer and therefore three
PN junctions. It is sometimes called a 4-layer PNPN diode since it passes a
current in only one direction.

SCR Operation

Figure 31

If the anode of an SCR is made more positive than the cathode the two
outermost PN junctions are forward biased. The middle PN junction, however, is
reverse biased and therefore, current cannot flow. A small gate current forward
biases the middle PN junction and allows a much larger current to flow through
the device. The SCR stays ON even if the gate current is removed. (Until power
is disconnected.)

41
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Types of SCRs
SCRs are categorised according to the current they can switch. Here are three
general categories (many other case styles are available):

Figure 32 – Low current

Low current SCRs include those that switch up to 1 ampere at up to 100 volts.

Figure 33 – Medium current

These SCRs switch up to 10 amperes at up to several hundred volts. One

common use is solid-state switching for auto engines.

42
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 34 – High current

These SCRs can switch up to 2,500 amperes at up to several thousand volts.

They control motors, lights, appliances, etc.

SCR Symbol

Figure 35

How SCRs are Used

Figure 36

This arrangement shows how an SCR is used to switch on an incandescent

lamp. Other devices can also be controlled.

43
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Darlington Pairs

Figure 37 – Darlington Pair

A Darlington pair (named after the inventor Sidney Darlington) consists of

two transistors wired together so the emitter of one supplies the base signal
to a second. A large current flows through the second transistor (Figure 37).
The objective once is to use a small current to switch a much larger current.
This type of application is known as amplification. Darlington pairs are used
comprehensively in vehicle computer control systems and in ignition modules.

Resistors in Transistor Circuits

Resistors are used with transistors for several purposes. For example, using
resistors, the voltage supplied to a transistor can be precisely controlled, which
in turn produces precise output currents. Resistors used in this way are placed
on the base circuit.

The second function is transistor protection. If resistors or other resistances

are not placed in the emitter and collector parts of the circuit, high currents can
destroy the transistor.

Transistor Terminology
There are many terms that make it easier to talk about the characteristics of
a specific transistor. For example, transistor current gain describes how much
bigger the collector circuit current is than the base circuit current. If a transistor
has a gain of 100 and a base current of 10mA, then the current in the collector
circuit is 100 multiplied by 10, which equals 1000mA, or 1A.

Transistors have many other ratings similar to those for diodes. There are ratings
to tell how fast the transistor can turn on and off, how much heat the transistor
can handle, and how much current leaks through a transistor when it’s supposed
to be turned off.

44
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Other Applications
Transistors are useful as switching devices. If a transistor is in an electrical
circuit, it’s likely functioning as a switch. However, transistors can also be used
to amplify or oscillate current, or as dimmers.

Testing a Transistor and SCR

Figure 38

 Step 1:
Using a diode, determine which ohmmeter lead is positive and which is negative.
The ohmmeter will indicate continuity through the diode only when the positive lead
is connected to the anode of the diode and the negative lead is connected to the
cathode.

Figure 39

 Step 2:
If the transistor is an NPN, connect the positive ohmmeter lead to the base and the
negative lead to the collector. The ohmmeter should indicate continuity. The reading
should be about the same as the reading obtained when the diode was tested.

45
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 40

 Step 3:
With the positive ohmmeter lead still connected to the base of the transistor, connect
the negative lead to the emitter. The ohmmeter should again indicate a forward
diode junction.

NOTE:
If the ohmmeter does not indicate continuity between the base-collector or the
base-emitter, the transistor is open.

Figure 41

 Step 4:
Connect the negative ohmmeter lead to the base and the positive lead to the
collector. The ohmmeter should indicate infinity or no continuity.

46
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 42

 Step 5:
With the negative ohmmeter lead connected to the base, reconnect the positive lead
to the emitter. There should again be no indication of continuity.

NOTE:
If a very high resistance is indicated by the ohmmeter, the transistor is ‘leaky’ but
may still operate in the circuit. If a very low resistance is seen, the transistor is
shorted.

47
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 43

 Step 6:
To test the PNP transistor, reverse the polarity of the ohmmeter leads and repeat the
test. When the negative ohmmeter lead is connected to the base, a forward diode
junction should be indicated when the positive lead is connected to the collector or
emitter.

Figure 44

 Step 7:
If the positive ohmmeter lead is connected to the base of a PNP transistor, no
continuity should be indicated when the negative lead is connected to the collector
or the emitter.

48
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Testing an SCR

Figure 45

 Step 1:
Using a junction diode, determine which ohmmeter lead is positive and which
is negative. The ohmmeter will indicate continuity only when the positive lead is
connected to the anode of the diode and the negative lead is connected to the
cathode.

Figure 46

 Step 2:
Connect the positive ohmmeter lead to the anode of the SCR and the negative lead
to the cathode. The ohmmeter should indicate no continuity.

49
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 47

 Step 3:
Using a jumper lead, connect the gate of the SCR to the anode. The ohmmeter
should indicate a forward diode junction when the connection is made.

NOTE:
If the jumper is removed, the SCR may continue to connect or it may turn off. This
will be determined by whether the ohmmeter can supply enough current to keep
the SCR above its holding current or not.

Figure 48

 Step 4:
Reconnect the SCR so that the cathode is connected to the positive ohmmeter lead
and the anode is connected to the negative lead. The ohmmeter should indicate no
continuity.

50
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

Figure 49

 Step 5:
If a jumper is used to connect the gate to the anode, the ohmmeter should indicate
no continuity.

NOTE:
SCRs designed to switch large currents (50 amperes or more) may indicate some
leakage current with this test. This is normal for some devices.

51
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 3

52
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Topic 4 Electronic Systems

Included in this Topic:

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Using Electronic Signals..................................................................................................................................... 54

Electronic F undamentals – TCL002

© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Introduction
There are two ways in which the operation of electronic systems can be
considered. Either the complete circuit diagram is used, with all the components
shown as symbols together with their connections, or block diagrams. The latter
method is often referred to as a systems approach. In this case, the system as a
whole is considered but broken into basic blocks, which represent subsystems.
The blocks can also be referred to as black boxes.

Figure 50

A block diagram for a basic electronic system is shown in Figure 50. This has
three parts:

1. A sensor, which collects some form of information and provides this as an

electrical signal.
2. A signal processor, which receives the electrical signal as an input, processes
it, and then provides an output in a more useful form.
3. A display device, which converts the signal from the processor into a readable
form, or an actuator, which performs some useful function as a result of the
output signal from the processor.
While all the above can be accomplished by mechanical means, by
electromechanical means, or even pneumatically or hydraulically, the use of
electronic and electric controls has been increasingly applied to automotive
systems.

Using Electronic Signals

Electricity is primarily used to transmit power, but can be used to transmit
signals or information. Electronic signals operate using high speed on‑off
signals or signals operating for differing durations. Low current and low voltage
circuits are generally used when an electronic circuit is manufactured to manage
information. These electrical signals are classified as analog or digital.

54
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 51 – Analog signal

Above shows a graphic representation of an analog signal.

Figure 52 – Square wave digital signal

Digital signals operate on specific voltage values, usually by the presence of or

a lack of voltage. Simple electronic circuits can be designed to transmit complex
data by the use of digital signals. A digital signal produces a square wave, as
shown in Figure 52 (diagramatic form).

NOTE:
A square wave is a train of high and low/no voltage pulses. Some types of digital
sensors use varying square wave frequencies to transmit information.

55
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 53 – Varying frequency

A square wave is a series of voltage pulses that have specific low and high
values. If the high and low values do not change from programmed specific
values, then the elements that can be changed are the frequency and duty
cycle. Frequency is the number of pulses per second and is expressed in Hertz.
As shown in Figure 53, information can be transmitted by varying the frequency
of the signal.

Figure 54 – Pulse width modulation

The variance in the duty cycle is used to transmit information. A square wave
of fixed frequency, but variable duty cycle, is accomplished by changing the
proportion of ‘on’ time. This process is known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
and is a terminology extensively used in digital electronics. PWM is used to
control a circuit and could be used to replace a switch, especially if a light in
circuit needed to be turned on and off at regular or irregular times. The pulsing
may be controlled to immediately vary current flow within a circuit. Ideally, the
on/off or voltage control in a circuit would be instantaneous and this is shown in
Figure 54 above.

56
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 55 – Diagram of theoretical square sine wave compared with actual square sine wave
shown with ringing

Pulse ‘shaping’ occurs in a graduated rise when the circuit is switched on and
in a graduated fall when the circuit is switched off. Realistically the square wave
will not be truly square when displayed on a scope. The deviation from the
square is called ‘ringing’ and is displayed on a scope as shown in Figure 55.

Figure 56 – Waveforms

Rhythmic fluctuations in circuit current or voltage flows are called waves and are
described and graphically represented by their shapes as shown in Figure 56.

Signal is a terminology used to describe electrical impulses and wave forms

that are shaped or spaced to transmit data. Modulation (digital signalling) is the
mechanism and process used to shape data signals. A good example of this in a
Caterpillar electronic engine is the signal sent by the Electronic Control Module
(ECM) is used to control the solenoid of an electronic unit injector in a EUI or
HEUI fuel system.

A PWM signal is divided into two specific areas – primary modulation that
controls the amount of time and secondary (sometimes called sub‑modulation)
that controls the current flow.

Another element of an electronic signal is the frequency. An example of this

is a signal modulated at a frequency of 60 Hz will complete 60 cycles per
second. In simple terms, this means that if a voltage is the electrical signal
being modulated at 60 Hz, then each second is divided into 60 segments in
which the voltage will be turned ‘on’ for a portion of time. The portion of ‘on’

57
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

time is expressed as a duty cycle or pulse width (PW). At 100% duty cycle, the
maximum ‘on’ time signal is sent and at 0%, the minimum or no signal time is
indicated.

Figure 57 – Diagram of theoretical square sine wave compared with actual square sine wave
shown with ringing

Signals can be ‘scrambled’ by electronic noise (unwanted pulse or wave

from interference). Electromagnetic fields are produced by all electrical and
electronic components and all electronic circuits are susceptible to magnetic
and electromagnetic field effects. The ‘ ringing’ shown in the Figure 57 above
depicts a diagrammatic form of electronic noise. If electronic noise becomes
excessive, signals can become corrupted, which means that the intended signal
may become interrupted and consequently will become inaccurate. To alleviate
this problem, most electronic circuits are shielded to protect against electronic
‘noise’.

Sensors
A device that has a reaction to particular physical quantities and subsequently
provides a small electrical current is called a sensor. The small electrical
current provided is called a signal. A good example of this is a pressure sensor.
This sensor senses changes in pressure then sends a signal that changes
in relation to variations in pressure. A pressure sensor in a turbocharged air
induction system will detect variations in pressure and may send a signal to
other pressure sensitive related devices, to diagnostic tooling or the Electronic
Control Module (ECM), which may alternatively send a signal to the wastegate of
the turbocharger.

58
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Temperature Sensor

Figure 58

Figure 58 shows a resistive‑type sensor which is used to sense fluid

temperatures. The resistance of the sender is typically in the range of 70 to
800 ohms. The resistance output varies with the temperature of the fluid and
the signal is sent to the main display module for display on the gauge cluster
module.

If a sensor failure occurs, the main display module will alert the operator to a
Category 2 warning and log a fault in the main display module. The gauge will
read in the high temperature range. The following diagnostic information will be
stored in the display memory. The information available for the torque converter
temperature system is: MID 30, CID 177, FMI 04. The probable cause is:
 Signal circuit is shorted to ground
The temperature sensor operates on a negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) principle which results in a decrease in resistance when the measured
temperature increases. Diagnostically, the only condition that the control can
determine is a high temperature (low resistance). The result is a gauge operating
in the high range. If the sensor element opened, the control could not determine
if the measured temperature was in the low (cold range) or the high resistance
was caused by an open circuit. The resulting indication would be a gauge
operating at the far left side of the scale.

59
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Testing

Figure 59 – The sensor for the temperature gauge of a cooling system has less resistance when
hot than when cold

Figure 59 shows a method of testing a coolant sensor. Normally this sensor is

fitted into the cylinder block in a location where contact is maintained with the
engine coolant. Variations in coolant temperature are sensed and an electrical
signal is sent to an electronic processor, a gauge or a warning light system.
In this instance the temperature sensor is placed in water and the water is
heated. An ohmmeter is connected to the sensor. As the water is heated, the
pointer on the meter will move down the scale to indicate less resistance in the
sensor when it is hot compared to a reading when cold.

Signal Processor

Figure 60 – Basic electronic system as a simple block diagram

The signal processor is designed and fitted into the system to receive input
signals from one or more sensors. If the signal from the sensor is weak, the
processor is designed to boost the signal. The processor can be designed
to change signals in some way to make them more suitable for various
applications, that is, it may change an input signal to provide an output signal
that will register a display or even operate a component or actuator.

60
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Displays

Figure 61 – Digital displays

Digital displays are normally used in electronic systems because they have the
capability to receive weak signals and convert them into readings on digital
instruments. These are produced by passing weak signals through light emitting
diodes (LEDs), liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or vacuum fluorescent displays.

Liquid‑crystal display (LCD)

LCDs use a liquid crystal that has the capacity of polarising light. The numbers
on the face of the instrument are arranged in segments and depending on
the signal are made visible by the polarised light. Voltage applied to different
segments of the crystal produce different displays and may be letters or
numbers.

This type of display has a distinct advantage over analog instruments (those with
pointers) because analog instruments will not accurately display weak electrical
signals.

61
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Actuators

Figure 62 – Examples of actuators

Actuators are designed to receive signals from the signal processor (e.g. ECU
– electronic control unit / ECM – electronic control module) and consequently
perform a function. Examples of actuators are shown in Figure 62.

Signals can be used to trigger an event in the turbocharger (boost pressure), fuel
injector (correct amount of fuel at the right time), air conditioning unit or even be
used for diagnostic purposes.

62
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit on a silicon chip that contains
thousands or millions of very small on/off switches (transistors). The transistors
are laid out along microscopic lines made of superfine traces of aluminum that
store or manipulate data. These circuits manipulate data in certain patterns,
patterns that can be programmed by software to make machines do many useful
tasks.

One of the biggest tasks microprocessors perform is acting as the brains inside
a personal computer. The number of transistors on a chip has grown from
2,300 on the 4004 in 1971 to 5.5 million on today’s Pentium® Pro processor.
These advances have made today’s microprocessors 1,000 faster than their
predecessors.

Computers are not the only way in which microprocessors are used.
Microprocessors are used in many devices – telephones, vehicles or a traffic
light for instance.

Many vehicles today, including cars, on‑highway trucks and earthmoving

equipment use microprocessors. Differing manufacturers refer to these
microprocessors as ECUs (electronic control unit) or ECM (engine/electronic
control module) as examples. These units normally contain microprocessors,
data retention media and output or switching devices.

Increasingly, the ECM is used to control a number of vehicle systems,

for example; transmissions, Anti‑lock Braking Systems (ABS) and engine
performance management. With the advent of technology, these systems can
be controlled by one ECM mounted in the cab and allows easy access for
diagnostic tooling.

Some manufacturers have a number of ECMs connected to one main ECM.

Multiplexing is a terminology used to refer to vehicle management systems with
multiple, interconnected ECMs.

Warning:
Static discharge is the main reason for destruction of sensitive computer
equipment. If any work is conducted on or around ECMs, a ground strap should
be worn.

63
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 63 – Information processing cycle

Any service technician must have a basic knowledge of vehicle and personal
computers to effectively interact with vehicle technology of today. System
management is a set of electronically connected components that enable an
information processing cycle to function and it will comprise of those stages
shown in Figure 63 above.

Data Input
When referring to microprocessors, data is raw, factual information. In vehicle
applications, signals are sent to the ECM from monitoring sensors and command
sensors. An example of this a vehicle fitted with an automatic transmission.
Signals from tailshaft speed sensors and engine load sensors are sent to the
ECM. The ECM deciphers the information and sends signals to operating
mechanisms that change gears at the appropriate speed and load ratings of
the vehicle. Sensors may be simple operator controlled switches or switches
that operate by modulation of a reference voltage (V‑Ref), or devices that are
powered up by either a V‑Ref or battery voltage (V‑Bat). In Caterpillar equipment
and most other manufacturers, V‑Ref voltage sent from the ECM is almost
always 5 Volts.

64
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Thermistors

Figure 64 – NTC‑type thermistor

A schematic of a thermistor is shown in Figure 64.

Thermistors measure precise temperatures and there are two distinct types.

As temperatures increase, resistance through a thermistor may decrease. In

this case it is known as a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. In
a thermistor where the resistance increases as temperature increases is known
as a positive temperature coefficient (PTC). The ECM receives temperature
data from the thermistors in analog voltage values. Examples of thermistors are
coolant temperature sensors, ambient temperature sensors and oil temperature
sensors.

65
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Pressure Sensor

Figure 65 – Variable Capacitance‑type Sensor

Pressure sensors (shown diagrammatically in Figure 65) are also known as

Variable Capacitance Sensors. These sensors are supplied a reference voltage
and are designed to measure pressure values. The return signal from this sensor
to the ECM is dependent on the construction of the sensor.

Pressure sensors are used in such applications as; oil pressure, turbocharger
boost pressures, barometric pressure sensing and fuel pressure sensing.

66
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Potentiometers

Figure 66 – Potentiometer as used in a throttle position sensor

A schematic diagram of a potentiometer is shown in Figure 66.

A potentiometer is a three wire sensor using a V‑Ref wire, a ground wire and a
signal wire and is designed to vary its resistance in proportion to mechanical
travel. The V‑Ref voltage is received from the ECM. The return signal to the
ECM will always be less than V‑Ref voltage, consequently this sensor will
sometimes be called a voltage divider. As the mechanical device moves,
resistance values in the potentiometer will change. Common potentiometers are
Throttle Positioning Sensors (TPS). As the throttle is depressed or released, the
resistance changes and the signal to the ECM will alter. The ECM will then send
a signal to the engine throttle control to alter the fuel settings.

67
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Hall Effect Sensors

Figure 67

Hall effect sensors (Figure 67) operate by generating a digital signal as timing
windows (or vanes) on a timing sensor disc pass through a magnetic field.
The timing sensor disc may also be called pulse wheel or tone wheel. The
frequency and width of the signal provides the ECM with speed and position
data. Hall effects sensors are used to input engine position data to allow timing
computations. The camshaft position sensor, timing reference sensor and
engine position sensors are examples of a Hall effect sensor.

68
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Induction Pulse Generator

Figure 68 – Induction pulse generator

An induction pulse generator is shown in Figure 68. A reluctor (toothed disc),

known as a pulse or tone wheel, with evenly spaced teeth, is rotated through
a magnetic field of a stationary permanent magnet. As the teeth of the reluctor
pass through the magnetic field, the field build and collapses. The result is a
pulse of AC voltage that is relayed to the ECM. This type of induction pulse
generator is used as an ABS wheel sensor, vehicle speed sensors and engine
speed sensors.

Switches
Switches are used to open and close circuits. They may be operated manually or
be ‘grounded out’.

Data Processing
This is termed as the ‘thinking function’ of a microprocessor. This involves
receiving inputs, consulting program parameters and memory and then
producing outputs. The most important part of a microprocessor is the CPU
(central processing unit). This unit contains a control function that executes
program functions and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU performs numeric
calculations and logic processing – like comparing data, as well as clocking and
processing frequency. The higher the frequency, the faster the processing speed
of the microprocessor. Most vehicle microprocessors run at 5 Volts.

69
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 69 – Types of ECM input signals

The job of the CPU is to control the processing cycle. For this to occur, there
is a need to receive data and locate it in the processing cycle. Various input
components discussed previously are included in Figure 69 above. The CPU
also obtains and carries information from the ECM memory and loads this
information into the processing cycle. Random Access Memory (RAM) is data
that is electronically retained in the ECM and only this data can be operated by
the CPU. Input data and magnetically retained data in the read‑only memory
(ROM), programmable read‑only memory (PROM) and electronically erasable
programmable read‑only memory (EEPROM) are transferred to RAM for
processing.

Be aware that RAM data is electronically retained and will be lost when electrical
power is switched off. A point to note is that signal to the ECM processing cycle
are analog signals. These signals need to be converted to digital signals and
the component required to fulfil this task is the analog to digital converter (ADC).
A digital to analog converter (DAC) is used to change a digital to analog signal.
This is used when an ECM output signal needs to be converted to analog to
operate a component.

70
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
 Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Figure 70 – The ECM processing cycle

Figure 70 is a simplified schematic of an ECM, showing the basic processing

cycle. The ECM functions are:

1. Use a CPU clock to manage the processing cycle.

2. Contains the data required to manage the system in memory banks
3. Conditions the processor circuit voltage
4. Manages reference voltage

5. Coverts analog input data to digital signals using the ADC

6. Converts digital outputs to analog voltage when required to actuate
components

71
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd
Electronic Fundamentals
Student Guide – Topic 4

Integrated Circuits

Figure 71 – Integrated circuit

Integrated circuits or I/Cs consist of resistors, diodes, and transistors arranged

in a circuit on a chip of silicon (Figure 71). The number of electronic components
that comprise the I/C vary from a handful to hundreds of thousands, depending
on the function of the chip. Integrated circuits have innumerable household,
industrial, and automotive applications and are the basis of digital watches,
electronic pulse wipers, and all computer systems.

NOTE:
A chip is an integrated circuit. One chip can be smaller than a fingernail and
contain many thousands of resistors, diodes, and transistors.

Integrated circuits fall into two general categories. Analog integrated circuits
operate on variable voltage values. Electronic voltage regulators are a good
vehicle example of an analog WC. Digital integrated circuits operate on two
voltage values only, usually presence of voltage and no voltage. Digital 1/Cs
are the basis of most computer hardware including processing units, main
memory, and data retention chips. Integrated circuit chips can be fused into a
motherboard (main circuit) or socketed. The latter has the advantage of easy
removal and replacement. A common chip package used in computer and
vehicle engine/electronic control modules (ECMs) is the dual in‑line package
(DIP). This package consists of a rectangular plastic‑enclosed VC with usually
14 to 16 pins arranged evenly on either side. DIPs may be fused (not removable)
or socketed to the motherboard.

72
TCL002
© Caterpillar of Australia P ty Ltd