CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEM

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1. To describe the basic organization of computer systems

2. To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating systems
3. To give an overview of the many types of computing environments
4. To explore several open-source operating systems

LESSON 1.1 INTRODUCTION

Think of an operating system as the conductor of a grand orchestra, orchestrating the harmony
between your computer's hardware and the applications you love. It's the unsung hero, the maestro behind
the scenes, ensuring everything runs smoothly while you navigate the digital symphony of your device.
In this lesson, we'll unravel the mysteries of operating systems, exploring their role, functions,
and how they shape our digital experiences. From the humble beginnings of punch cards to the sleek
interfaces of modern-day devices, join me in uncovering the secrets that make our computers tick. Get
ready to dive into the core of computing and discover the dynamic world of operating systems!
OPERATING SYSTEM

No universally accepted definition

Operating systems covers many roles and functions.
A program that manages a computer’s hardware.
It provides a basis for application programs and acts as an intermediary between the computer user
and the computer hardware.
Operating system is the one program running at all times on the computer—usually called the kernel.
 Along with the kernel, there are two other types of programs: system programs, which are
associated with the operating system but are not necessarily part of the kernel, and
application programs, which include all programs not associated with the operation of the
system.
Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
An amazing aspect of operating systems is how it vary in accomplishing tasks. Example, mainframe
operating systems are designed primarily to optimize utilization of hardware. Personal computer (PC)
operating systems support complex games, business applications, and everything in between. Operating
systems for mobile computers provide an environment in which a user can easily interface with the
computer to execute programs. Thus, some operating systems are designed to be convenient, others to be
efficient, and others to be some combination of the two.

WHAT OPERATING SYSTEMS DO

Four Components of Computer System (Computer System Structure)

1. Hardware - the hardware—the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the input/output (I/O)
devices—provides the basic computing resources for the system
2. Operating System - the operating system controls the hardware and coordinates its use among the
various application programs for the various users. An operating system is like a government it
performs no useful function by itself. It simply provides an environment within which other programs
can do useful work.
3. Application Programs - the application programs—such as word processors, spreadsheets,
compilers, and Web browsers—define the ways in which these resources are used to solve users’
computing problems.
4. Users - an individual who interacts with a computer system, utilizing its hardware and software to
perform various tasks.
 ABSTRACT VIEW OF THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

THE TWO VIEWPOINTS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. User View
The user’s view of the computer varies according to the interface being used.
Most computer users sit in front of a PC, consisting of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and system
unit. Such a system is designed for one user to monopolize its resources.
In other cases, a user sits at a terminal connected to a mainframe or a minicomputer. Other users
are accessing the same computer through other terminals. These users share resources and may
exchange information.
In still other cases, users sit at workstations connected to networks of other workstations and
servers. These users have dedicated resources at their disposal, but they also share resources such
as networking and servers, including file, compute, and print servers; therefore, their operating
system is designed to compromise between individual usability and resource utilization.
Recently, many varieties of mobile computers, such as smartphones and tablets, have come into
fashion. Most mobile computers are standalone units for individual users.

2. System View
From the computer’s point of view, the operating system is the program most intimately involved
with the hardware. In this context an operating system view as a resource allocator.
The operating system acts as the manager of these resources. Facing numerous and possibly
conflicting requests for resources, the operating system must decide how to allocate them to
specific programs and users so that it can operate the computer system efficiently and fairly.
An operating system is a control program. A control program manages the execution of user
programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer. It is especially concerned with the
operation and control of I/O devices.

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

A computer is composed of a set of hardware modules properly connected to interact in such a

way that the total system is reliable and performs its duty in a correct manner. The operating system sits
on top of the computer hardware. It uses hardware facilities to do what it is supposed to do.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION encompasses the functional components and their connections that bring
architectural designs to life. Its characteristics involve hardware intricacies that remain unseen by
programmers, such as control signals, interfaces connecting the computer and peripherals, and the
employed memory technology. This field also delves into the configuration and performance of digital
computers, addressing the fundamental structure of computer hardware, which includes peripheral
devices.

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE encompasses the features of a system that a programmer can observe
directly or, in other words, those features that directly influence the logical execution of a program. It
constitutes a collection of regulations and approaches defining the operation, structure, and realization of
computer systems. This field involves the design of instruction set architecture, microarchitecture, logic
design, and implementation.
BREAKDOWN OF COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

1. Architectural Specifications: Computer organization starts with architectural specifications, which

define the basic functionalities and components of the computer system.
2. Operational Units: It involves the study of operational units like the central processing unit (CPU),
memory, input/output devices, and how they function to process information.
3. Interconnections: Understanding how these operational units are connected and communicate with
each other is crucial. This includes data paths, control signals, and buses that facilitate information
flow.
4. Memory Technology: Computer organization deals with the memory hierarchy, including RAM
(Random Access Memory) and storage devices, and how data is stored and retrieved.
5. Control Signals: Control signals are like the traffic signals inside a computer, coordinating the flow of
data between different components. Computer organization involves understanding how these signals
are generated and managed.
6. Interfaces with Peripherals: It encompasses the interfaces between the computer and peripheral
devices such as printers, keyboards, and external storage. How data is exchanged between the
computer and these peripherals is part of computer organization.
7. Overall, Hardware Structure: Computer organization is concerned with the overall structure of a
computer's hardware, including the arrangement of components on the motherboard and their
physical connections.
8. Transparent Hardware Details: Some hardware details are transparent to the programmer, and
computer organization involves understanding these details, such as how the CPU fetches and
executes instructions.
Computer organization is like understanding the anatomy of a computer. It involves looking at the
nuts and bolts of hardware components, their connections, and how they collaborate to execute
instructions. This understanding is crucial for computer architects, hardware engineers, and anyone
involved in designing or optimizing computer systems.

COMPUTER-SYSTEM OPERATION
Modern general-purpose computer system consists of one or more CPUs and several device
controllers connected through a common bus that provides access to shared memory.
Each device controller oversees a specific type of device.
The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel, competing for memory cycles. To ensure
orderly access to the shared memory, a memory controller synchronizes access to the memory.
Initial program is needed for a computer to start running.
Initial program is also known as bootstrap program typically stored within the computer hardware
in read-only memory (ROM) or electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM),
known by the general term firmware. It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to
device controllers to memory contents. The bootstrap program must know how to load the operating
system and how to start executing that system. To accomplish his goal, the bootstrap program must
locate the operating-system kernel and load it into memory.

The kernel is like the brain of an operating system. It's a core component that manages essential tasks.
The kernel is the first program loaded into memory when a computer is booted.
Once the kernel is loaded and executing, it can start providing services to the system and its users.
Some services are provided outside of the kernel, by system programs that are loaded into memory at
boot time to become system processes, or system daemons that run the entire time the kernel is running.

The occurrence of an event is usually signaled by an interrupt from either the hardware or the
software. Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the CPU, usually by
way of the system bus. Software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special operation called a
system call (also called a monitor call).
When the CPU is interrupted, it stops what it is doing and immediately transfers execution to a fixed
location. The fixed location usually contains the starting address where the service routine for the
interrupt is located. The interrupt service routine executes; on completion, the CPU resumes the
interrupted computation.
  Interrupts are an important part of a computer architecture. Each computer design has its own
interrupt mechanism. The interrupt must transfer control to the appropriate interrupt service
routine.
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction.
 A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request.
 An operating system is interrupt driven.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

FUNCTION is the operation of each individual component as part of the structure.

Both the structure and functioning of a computer are, in essence, simple. The figure below depicts the
basic functions that a computer can perform.
In general terms, there are only four:
• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control

THE BASIC FUNCTIONS THAT A COMPUTER CAN PERFORM.

STRUCTURE - the way in which the components are interrelated. The figure below is the simplest possible
depiction of a computer. The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment. In
general, all of its linkages to the external environment can be classified as peripheral devices or
communication lines.

COMPUTER STRUCTURE: STRUCTURAL UNITS/COMPONENTS

THE SIMPLEST POSSIBLE DEPICTION OF A COMPUTER

The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment.

In general, all its linkages to the external environment can be classified as peripheral devices or
communication lines.

FOUR MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS:

1. Central processing unit (CPU):Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.
2. Main memory: Stores data.
3. I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
4. System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O.

A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus, consisting of several

conducting wires to which all the other components attach.

TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE

THE COMPUTER TOP LEVEL STRUCTURE

THE MAJOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF CPU:

1. Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.
2. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU):Performs the computer’s data processing functions.
3. Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU
4. CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers.

STORAGE STRUCTURE IN OPERATING SYSTEMS

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is limited to fetching instructions exclusively from memory,
necessitating the storage of all executable programs there. In the realm of general-purpose computers, most
programs are executed from a type of rewritable memory known as main memory, or alternatively, random-access
memory (RAM). This main memory is typically realized using dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), a
semiconductor technology.

Basically, we want the programs and data to reside in main memory permanently. This
arrangement is usually not possible for the following two reasons:

1. Main memory is usually too small to store all needed programs and data permanently.
2. Main memory is a volatile storage device that loses its contents when power is turned off or otherwise
lost.

There are two types of storage devices:

1. Volatile Storage Device – It loses its contents when the power of the device is removed.
2. Non-Volatile Storage device – It does not lose its contents when the power is removed. It holds all the
data when the power is removed.

PRIMARY STORAGE - is also known as the main memory and is the memory directly accessible by the
CPU. Some primary storage devices are:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM) is immutable; its content remains unaltered and can only be accessed
when needed. Due to its unchangeable nature, ROM is employed for storing data and programs that
experience frequent use but infrequent modifications, such as the system boot program.

2. RAM is random access memory. It is volatile i.e., the data in RAM is lost when the power is switched
off. RAM is the major form of primary memory as it is quite fast. However, it is also quite expensive.

3. Cache is used to store data and instructions that are frequently required by the CPU so it doesn't have
to search them in the main memory. This is a small memory that is also very fast.

SECONDARY STORAGE - Secondary or external storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from
secondary storage needs to be brought into the primary storage before the CPU can use it. Secondary storage
contains a large amount of data permanently. It is used as an extension of main memory.

1. Hard disks are the most famously used secondary storage devices. They are round, flat pieces of
metal covered with magnetic oxide. They are available in many sizes ranging from 1 to 14-inch
diameter.
2. Floppy Disk - they are flexible plastic discs which can bend, coated with magnetic oxide and are
covered with a plastic cover to provide protection. Floppy disks are also known as floppies and
diskettes.
3. Memory Card - his has similar functionality to a flash drive but is in a card shape. It can easily plug
into a port and removed after its work is done. A memory card is available in various sizes.
4. Flash Drive - this is also known as a pen drive. It helps in easy transportation of data from one system
to another. A pen drive is quite compact and comes with various features and designs.
5. CD-ROM - this is short for compact disk - read only memory. A CD is a shiny metal disk of silver
color. It is already prerecorded and the data on it cannot be altered. It usually has a storage capacity of
700 MB.

Storage devices consists of Registers, Cache, Main-Memory, Electronic-Disk, Magnetic-Disk, Optical-

Disk, Magnetic-Tapes. Each storage system provides the basic system of storing a datum and of holding
the datum until it is retrieved later. All the storage devices differ in speed, cost, size, and volatility. The
most common Secondary-storage device is a Magnetic-disk, which provides storage for both programs
and data.
STORAGE DEVICE HIERARCHY

In this hierarchy all the storage devices are arranged according to speed and cost. The higher
levels are expensive, but they are fast. As we move down the hierarchy, the cost per bit generally
decreases, whereas the access time generally increases.

The storage systems above the solid-state disk are Volatile, whereas those below are Non-Volatile.
An Electronic disk or solid-state disk can be either designed to be either Volatile or Non-Volatile. During
normal operation, the electronic disk stores data in a large DRAM array, which is Volatile. But many
electronic disk devices contain a hidden magnetic hard disk and a battery for backup power. If external
power is interrupted, the electronic disk controller copies the data from RAM to the magnetic disk. When
external power is restored, the controller copies the data back into the RAM.

The design of a complete memory system must balance all the factors. It must use only as much
expensive memory as necessary while providing as much inexpensive, Non-Volatile memory as possible.
Caches can be installed to improve performance where a large access-time or transfer-rate disparity exists
between two components.

THE I/O STRUCTURE

Input/Output (I/O) structure refers to the way a computer system manages and interacts with its
input and output devices. These devices can include things like keyboards, mice, displays, printers, and
storage devices. The I/O structure is crucial for enabling communication between the computer's central
processing unit (CPU) and external devices.

1. I/O Channels or Controllers - these are responsible for managing communication between the CPU
and the external devices. They often include specialized circuitry or controllers for specific types of
devices, such as disk controllers, network controllers, etc.
2. Interrupts - are signals sent by devices to the CPU to request attention. When an external device
needs the CPU to perform some action (like receiving data from a keyboard), it sends an interrupt,
and the CPU temporarily stops its current task to address the interrupt.
3. I/O Ports - these are hardware addresses or communication pathways that the CPU uses to
communicate with peripheral devices. Each device connected to a computer is assigned a unique I/O
port.
4. I/O Buffers - Buffers are temporary storage areas used to hold data being transferred between the
CPU and external devices. Buffers help to smooth out any speed differences between the CPU and the
I/O devices.
5. Device Drivers - device drivers are software components that allow the operating system and
applications to communicate with hardware devices. They act as intermediaries, translating high-level
commands into low-level instructions that the device understands.
6. DMA (Direct Memory Access) - DMA is a feature that allows devices to transfer data directly to or
from memory without involving the CPU. This can significantly improve the efficiency of data
transfers.
A well-designed I/O structure is essential for the overall performance and usability of a computer
system. It ensures that data can be efficiently and reliably exchanged between the CPU and external
devices, facilitating user interaction and enabling the computer to perform a wide range of tasks.

THE OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE

 The operating system (OS) structure refers to the way in which the components and modules of
an operating system are organized. The OS acts as an intermediary between the computer hardware and
the user applications, providing a set of services and managing system resources.
Operating systems must multiprogram to keep the CPU and I/O devices consistently active.
Multiprogramming ensures optimal CPU utilization by organizing and managing multiple programs,
ensuring there's always one ready for execution.
To overcome main memory limitations, jobs are initially stored on disk in the job pool. The operating
system selects and starts executing a job from the subset in memory. If a job pauses, such as for I/O, a
non-multi-programmed system idles the CPU, but a multi-programmed one swiftly switches to and
executes another job. This cycle continues, ensuring the CPU is never idle if there's a job to execute.
Time sharing – is an extension of multiprogramming, involves the CPU rapidly switching between
multiple jobs. This allows users to interact with each program while it is actively running.
Interactive computer system is a requirement in time sharing. It provides direct communication between
the user and the system. Users input instructions through devices like keyboards, mice, touchpads, or
touch screens, expecting rapid responses—usually within one second—from the operating system or
programs.
Process is the program being load in memory.
Job Scheduling is occurred if several jobs are ready to be brought into memory, and if there is not
enough room for all of them, then the system must choose among them.
CPU Scheduling happens if several jobs are ready to run at the same time and the system must choose
which job will run first.
Swapping is where process is swapped in and out of main memory to the disk.
Virtual Memory is a technique that allows the execution of a process that is not completely in memory.
Virtual memory enables users to run programs that are larger than actual physical memory.

The specific structure and design of an operating system can vary based on its type (e.g., Windows,
Linux, macOS) and intended use (e.g., desktop, server, embedded systems). The OS structure is critical
for the efficient and reliable operation of a computer system.

OPERATING SYSTEM OPERATIONS

Operating Systems are interrupt driven, meaning if there are no processes to execute, no I/O
devices to service, and no users to whom to respond, an operating system will sit quietly, waiting for
something to happen. Events are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an interrupt or a trap.
Trap (or an exception) is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error (for example, division
by zero or invalid memory access) or by a specific request from a user program that an operating-system
service be performed.
DUAL-MODE AND MULTIMODE OPERATION
To ensure the proper execution of the operating system, we must be able to distinguish between the
execution of operating-system code and user defined code. The approach taken by most computer systems
is to provide hardware support that allows us to differentiate among various modes of execution.
Two Separate Modes of Operation:
user mode
kernel mode (also called supervisor mode, system mode, or privileged
mode).
A bit, called the mode bit, is added to the hardware of the computer to indicate the current mode:
kernel (0) or user (1). With the mode bit, we can distinguish between a task that is executed on behalf of
the operating system and one that is executed on behalf of the user. When the computer system is
executing on behalf of a user application, the system is in user mode. However, when a user application
requests a service from the operating system (via a system call), the system must transition from user to
kernel mode to fulfill the request.
During system boot, hardware initiates in kernel mode. The operating system loads and launches
user applications in user mode. When traps or interrupts happen, the hardware shifts from user mode to
kernel mode. Therefore, when the operating system takes control, it is in kernel mode. The system always
transitions to user mode (setting the mode bit to 1) before handing control to a user program.
Dual mode of operation safeguards the operating system from and users from each other. This
protection involves labeling certain machine instructions as privileged, allowing their execution only in
kernel mode. If a user attempts to execute a privileged instruction in user mode, the hardware treats it as
illegal and traps it, preventing execution and notifying the operating system.
TIMER
To maintain control over the CPU, it's essential to prevent user programs from entering infinite
loops or neglecting to call system services, which would otherwise prevent the return of control to the
operating system. Achieving this objective involves using a timer.
A timer can be set to interrupt the computer after a specified period. The period may be fixed (for
example, 1/60 second) or variable (for example, from 1 millisecond to 1 second). A variable timer is
generally implemented by a fixed-rate clock and a counter.
A variable timer is typically realized with a fixed-rate clock and a counter. The operating system
initializes the counter, and with each clock tick, the counter decreases. Upon reaching 0, an interrupt
trigger. For example, a 10-bit counter with a 1-millisecond clock permits interrupts at intervals ranging
from 1 to 1,024 milliseconds, in 1-millisecond increments.
Before relinquishing control to the user, the operating system sets the timer to interrupt. If the
timer triggers an interrupt, control automatically returns to the operating system, which can handle it as a
fatal error or grant the program additional time. Notably, instructions altering the timer content are
privileged.

The timer prevent a user program from running too long.

THE FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE

The fetch execute cycle is the basic operation (instruction) cycle of a computer (also known as the
fetch decode execute cycle).
During the fetch execute cycle, the computer retrieves a program instruction from its memory. It
then establishes and carries out the actions that are required for that instruction.
The cycle of fetching, decoding, and executing an instruction is continually repeated by the CPU whilst
the computer is turned on.
1. FETCH
The CPU fetches the next instruction from memory. This instruction is located at the memory
address pointed to by the program counter.
The program counter is then incremented to point to the next instruction in memory, preparing for
the next fetch cycle.
The fetched instruction is stored in a special register called the instruction register.
2. DECODE
The fetched instruction is decoded to understand what operation needs to be performed. This
involves breaking down the instruction into its components, such as the opcode (operation code)
and operands (data on which the operation is to be performed).
The control unit of the CPU interprets the opcode and determines which circuitry in the CPU
should be activated to perform the specified operation.
3. EXECUTE
The CPU executes the operation as determined by the opcode. This could involve arithmetic or
logic operations, data transfers between registers and memory, or control flow operations (like
branching to a different part of the program).
During the execution phase, the necessary data is fetched from registers or memory, the operation
is performed, and the result may be stored back in registers or memory.
4. WRITE BACK
If the operation produces a result that needs to be stored, it is written back to the appropriate
location in memory or registers.
The program counter is updated to point to the next instruction in memory, and the cycle repeats.

This cycle happens repeatedly for each instruction in a program, creating a continuous loop of
fetching, decoding, executing, and writing back. It's this iterative process that allows a computer to carry
out the sequence of instructions in a program and perform complex tasks.