V1.

VIBRATING WIRE
STRAIN GAUGES

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V1.8

CONTENTS PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 General Description 3
1.2 Theory of operation 4

2.0 CONFORMITY 5

3.0 DELIVERY 6
3.1 Packaging 6
3.2 Handling 6
3.3 Inspection 6
3.4 Storage 7

4.0 INSTALLATION 8
4.1 Preparation for Installation 8
4.2 Embedment Strain Gauges 9
4.2.1 Embedment strain gauges in bored cast in-situ piles 9
4.2.2 Embedment strain gauges in walls & slabs 15
4.2.3 Embedment strain gauges in beams & columns 18
4.3 Surface mount strain gauges 19
4.3.1 Surface mount 150mm strain gauges 19
4.3.1.1 Surface mount 150mm strain gauges on steel 20
4.3.2 Surface mount spot weld strain gauges 28
4.4 Sister bar strain gauges 31

5.0 DATA HANDLING

5.1 Monitoring the Strain Gauge Readings 34
5.1.1 Portable readouts 34
5.1.2 Data loggers 34
5.2 Data reduction 35
5.3 Temperature considerations 38

6.0 MAINTENANCE 38

7.0 TROUBLESHOOTING 39

8.0 SPECIFICATION 40

9.0 SPARE PARTS 41

10.0 RETURN OF GOODS 42

11.0 LIMITED WARRANTY 43

Appendix I - Sister Bar / Rebar Strain Calculation 44

Appendix II - Thermistor linearization 45

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V1.8

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This manual is intended for all users of Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges manufactured by
Geosense and provides information on their installation, operation and maintenance.

It is VITAL that personnel responsible for the

installation and use of these Strain Gauges, READS
and UNDERSTANDS this manual, prior to working
with the equipment.

1.1 General Description

Geosense VW Strain Gauges are environmentally sealed sensors that are used to
register micro changes in length. Since strain is described as a change in length per
unit length, these sensors detect small changes in their length and, by simple
calculation, their output can then be converted to strain.

Strain Gauges can be installed or included in many types of monitoring regime and
can be linked to various types of readout equipment.

The primary uses for Strain Gauges are the measurement of Load and Bending in
steel, concrete and composite structural members, with applications such as, but not
limited to :-

• Piled foundations ( concrete and / or steel )

• Retaining Walls
• Floor Slabs
• Columns and Beams
• Mass concrete dams
• Falsework / Formwork
• Strutting and Temporary Works
• Bridgeworks

Particular features of the Geosense Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges are:-

• Reliable long term performance.

• Rugged, suitable for demanding environments.
• High accuracy.
• Insensitive to long cable lengths.

The Strain gauges are based upon the ‘industry standard’ Vibrating Wire technology.
When electronically excited, the sensors produces an output signal in the form of an
alternating current. The frequency of the alternating current can then be readily
converted to a change in strain.

Frequency signals are particularly suitable for the demanding environment of civil
engineering applications, since the signals are capable of long transmission distances
without degradation. They are also somewhat tolerant of damp wiring conditions and
resistant to interference from external electrical noise.
(Continued on page 4)

3
V1.8

Geosense VW Strain Gauges are supplied in various configurations to suit varying

installation environments and techniques.

Gauge Coil Housing Gauge Signal Cable

Protective
Gauge Flange Sleeve Gauge Tube

Figure 1. Geosense Embedment Strain Gauge

1.2 Theory of Operation

Strain Gauges consist of a tensioned steel wire anchored at both ends into flanges.
The wire is enclosed in a stainless steel tube. The internal parts of all Geosense
strain gauges are essentially identical, only the body geometry and the inclusion of
additional springs change within the units with longer gauge lengths. The
configuration of the sensing elements may also vary slightly from model to model. An
example of the embedment strain gauge configuration is provided in Figure 1.

Electromagnetic coils are located within the body close to the axis of the wire. When
a brief voltage excitation, or swept frequency excitation is applied to the coils, a
magnetic field is induced causing the wire to oscillate at its’ resonant frequency. The
wire continues to oscillate for a short period through the ‘field’ of the permanent
magnet, thus generating an alternating current (sinusoidal) output. The frequency of
this current output is detected and processed by a vibrating wire readout unit, or by a
data logger equipped with a vibrating wire interface, where it can be converted into
‘Engineering’ units of Strain.

Forces within the structural element onto, or in, which the gauge is fixed, cause the
length of the gauge to change. This causes a change in the tension of the wire within
the gauge. It is the tension in the wire that produces the value that can be converted
to strain.

A change in length of the wire changes the tension of the wire which results in a
change in resonant frequency of oscillation of the wire. The change in the square of
frequency of oscillation is directly proportional to the change in strain in the structural
element. For further information see Section 5 - Data Handling.

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V1.8

2.0 CONFORMITY
Geosense Ltd
Nova House
Rougham Industrial Estate
Rougham, Bury St Edmunds
Suffolk , IP30 9ND
United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)1359 270457 Fax: +44 (0)1359 272860

Email: [email protected], Web: www.geosense.co.uk

Declaration of Conformity
We Geosense Ltd at above address declare under our sole responsibility that the product detailed below to
which this declaration relates complies with protection requirements of the following harmonized
EU Directives,

The Electromagnetic Compatibility Directive 2014/30/EU

Restriction on the use of certain Hazardous Substances RoHS2 2011/65/EU

Equipment description Vibrating Wire Strain gauges

Make/Brand Geosense
Model Numbers VWS-2000, VWS-2010, VWS-2020, VWS-2025, VWS-2026
VWS-2100, VWS-2120, VWS-2125

EN 61326-1:2013 Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use.

EMC requirements. General requirements.

A technical file for this equipment is retained at the above address.

Martin Clegg
Director

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V1.8

3.0 DELIVERY

This section should be read by all users of Vibrating Wire Strain

Gauges manufactured by Geosense.

3.1 Packaging

VW Strain Gauges are packed for transportation to site. Packaging is suitably robust
to allow normal handling by transportation companies. However, inappropriate
handling techniques may cause damage to the packaging and the enclosed
equipment. The packaging should be carefully inspected upon delivery and any
damage MUST be reported to both the transportation company and Geosense.

3.2 Handling

Whilst they are a robust devices, VW Strain Gauges are precision measuring
devices. They and their associated equipment should always be handled with care
during transportation, storage and installation.

Once the shipment has been checked ( see below ), it is recommended that Strain
Gauges remain in their original packaging for storage or transportation.

Cable should be handled with care. Do not allow it to be damaged by sharp edges,
rocks for example, and do not exert force on the cable as this may damage the
internal conductors and render the instrument useless.

3.3 Inspection

It is vital to check all the equipment in the shipment as soon as possible after taking
delivery and well before installation is to be carried out. Check that all the
components that are detailed on the documents are included in the shipment.
Check that the equipment has not been physically damaged.

Geosense Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges are supplied with generic calibration factors
(sometimes called ‘Gauge Factor’ ), and Batch factors that are calculated for each
batch of strain gauges. Each delivery will include details of the calibration factors that
apply to the gauges supplied.

The integrity of Embedment type Strain Gauges can be

checked easily by connecting the exposed ends of their
connecting wires to a suitable Vibrating Wire Readout.

Prior to carrying out this ‘Function’ CHECK, ensure that the

strain gauges have been stored in a reasonably stable
temperature for at least 2 hours.

The displayed values of the gauge reading and

temperature, should be reasonably stable ( +/- 3 full digits )
for this check.

(Continued on page 7)

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V1.8

(Continued from page 6)

Where possible, select the audio function on

the readout and listen to the ‘ring’ of the gauge.
The ‘ring’ should be clear and un-distorted.

For Surface Mounted Strain Gauges it is

necessary to slightly tension the inner wire
manually so that a reading can be generated.
Take care and DO NOT TWIST the ends of the
surface mounted gauges as this will twist the
inner wire, thereby reducing the linearity of the
output and rendering the calibration useless.
If components are missing or damaged, contact
the delivery company, the supplier and / or
Geosense.

See section 5.1 for connections Typical readout values for surface mount

3.4 Storage

All equipment should be stored in an environment that is protected from direct

sunlight.

Though robust, the gauge tubes are very sensitive to even slight bending so great
care must be taken to store them carefully.

It recommended that cables be stored in a dry environment to prevent moisture

migrating along the cable in the unlikely event of prolonged submersion of exposed
conductors.

Storage areas should be free from rodents as they have been known to damage
connecting cables.

No other special requirements are needed for medium or long-term storage although
temperature limits should be considered when storing or transporting associated
components, such as readout equipment.

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V1.8

4.0 INSTALLATION

The following sections describe some typical installation procedures for Geosense strain
gauges.

This section of the manual is intended for all users of Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges
manufactured by Geosense and is intended to provide guidance with respect to their
installation.

It must be remembered that no two installations will be the same and it is inevitable that
some ‘fine tuning’ of the following procedures will be required to suit specific site
conditions.

It is VITAL that personnel responsible for the installation and

use of the Strain Gauges READS and UNDERSTANDS the
manual, prior to working with the equipment.

**********
As stated before, it is vital to check all the equipment in the shipment soon after
taking delivery and well before installation is to be carried out. Check that all
components that are detailed on the shipping documents are included.

4.1 Preparation for Installation

Each gauge should be assigned a unique identifying code or mark ( in addition to

the fitted serial number marks ) for any position in a particular pile ( remembering to
ensure that the gauges fitted with the longest cables are identified for most distant
installation ). Ensure there will be enough cable to route it to the intended readout /
monitoring location.

The elevation / location of the Strain Gauge installations should be identified by the
Engineer responsible for the interpretation of the data, or as detailed on contract
drawing or in the specification. The instrument locations must be marked using
paint or other suitable material. It is important to consider the protection of each
gauge when selecting a suitable location. It must be remembered that gauges must
be protected from damage as they are sensitive measuring instruments. In some
locations it will be necessary to install protective covers.

The function of embedment gauges should be checked prior to installation as

described in section 3.3. Check each gauge using a readout with the audio function
switched on. A clear ‘ring’ should be produced from the gauge. ( for a surface
mounted gauge this would only be true when the wire is manually tensioned ).

Illustrations provided within this manual use two different models of portable readout
( one no longer available ). In general, any Vibrating Wire readout device could be
used to excite and interrogate the Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges manufactured by
Geosense.

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V1.8

4.2 Embedment Strain Gauges - VWS 2100 Series

The following sections describe typical installation procedures for applications of

Geosense Vibrating Wire Embedment Strain gauges. They are provided as examples of
typical installations and are intended as guides to enable users to prepare installation
procedures suited to their particular application.

Generally, embedment strain gauges are supported in their intended locations within a
concrete element by attaching them to mounting bars fixed onto either the reinforcement
cage or the formwork. Their function is to provide a stable support for the gauges whilst
the concrete is placed and to isolate the gauges from any main reinforcing bars. Strain
gauge mounting bars need to be 10 or 12 mm in diameter and long enough to allow for
fixing to the main bars ( see photographs later in this section ). Care should be taken to
reduce steel ‘congestion’ that may cause voids in the concrete close to the gauges.

The Strain Gauge tubes are supplied fitted with polyolefin sleeves. This is to
provide a degree of protection to the gauge tube at the fixing point.

Wrap the supporting bar with PVC or paper tape at the point where the gauge will
come into contact with it. 6 or 8 turns will normally be sufficient. This will provide
slight isolation from the bars but will also provide a degree of grip between the
gauge tube and the mounting bar.

Fig 2. 150mm Embedment Strain Gauge

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored Cast In-Situ Piles

Embedment gauges in piles are usually installed at a number of levels over the pile
length, depending upon the Engineers’ requirements, and in arrays of 3 or, preferably, 4
gauges per level. Although not essential, it is good practice to install the gauges in the
same orientation at each level. This will help with interpretation of any bending that may
occur.

Select the gauges with appropriate lengths of

cable so that there is no need to join the cables in
the pile. Where joints can’t be avoided, they
must be formed using an epoxy or similar
waterproof sealing material, particularly where
long term monitoring is required. Connection of
the conductors should be made using either a
mechanical coupler ( crimp or screw ) or a
soldered joint.

Mark both ends of the cable with a suitable

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V1.8

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored

Cast In-Situ Piles contd...

unique colour code or numbering system. The

marks must be robust as the cables may be
exposed to abrasion and concrete during their
installation. Each gauge in a single pile must
have a unique identification mark. The location
of the marks will be recorded for future
reference.

Identify a Primary Main Bar and mark it with tape

or paint at intervals along its entire length . This
will help align and position the gauges over the
length of the pile and between successive cage
sections. ( in the photograph, the bar ringed in
red is marked as the primary bar and the green
rings highlight the colour code marks for each
gauge position )

Determine the correct elevation for the strain

gauge arrays and mark the position on the main
bars. Take care when marking the positions
where cages are to be installed in multiple
sections, allow for lapping of the main bars.

Place the gage mounting bars onto the main

bars to assess the best position for their
installation. Note the tape on the mounting bars
where the gauge will be fixed.

The gauge will be mounted BETWEEN the main

bars so that it is best protected from damage
from inside and outside the cage.

Offer up the gauge under the mounting bars to

check that the gauge flanges will not conflict with
any of the steel bars.

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V1.8

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored

Cast In-Situ Piles contd...

When the position of the mounting bars has

been finalised, fix them firmly into position
on the main bars using steel tying wire.

Support the gauge in the position tested

previously and fix it to the support bars
using good quality NYLON cable ties. Fix
only one at each end ( as shown ) and
finalise the position of the gauge so that it
is parallel to the main bars.

Fit two more cable ties to fix the gauge in

position.

Form a cross over the gauge.

Cut the tails off the cable ties.

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V1.8

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored

Cast In-Situ Piles contd...

Route the cable along the side of the main

bar, inside the external helical ‘shear’ bars
but outside the inner fabrication support
bars. The aim is provide a cable route with
the ‘lowest possible risk’ of damage.

Fix the cable to the main bars. First form a

small loop in the cable, near to the gauge
( see photograph ) and fix it the bar, taking
care that the loop does not turn into or out
of the cage.

Then tension and tie the cable from the

gauge position to the end of the cage, fixing
at approximately 1m intervals.

Connect the readout to the free end of the

gauge wire and check that the gauge is
producing a clear ring and a stable reading
( see section 3.3 for information and the
readout instructions ).

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V1.8

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored

Cast In-Situ Piles contd...

When all the gauges and cables have been

installed and the function of the gauges has
been checked, the cables should be bundled
together and protected from both concrete
and damage.

Care must be taken when lifting the cage, so

as to avoid damaging the cables.

As the cage is lowered into the pile shaft,

spacers are fitted to the bars to maintain the
cage in the centre. These spacers are
positioned above and below the
instrumented levels to prevent the gauges or
their mounting bars fouling on the pile casing
or shaft wall. The spacers should be offset
around the cage so that in the event that one
breaks off it will not damage the gauges.

When the cage is fully installed and prior to

concreting, another full set of gauge readings
can be recorded to verify the installed gauge
integrity. This may not be possible if the
cables are bundled and protected ( as in this
picture )

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V1.8

4.2.1 Embedment Strain Gauges in Bored

Cast In-Situ Piles contd...

Steps must be taken to ensure that the

workers who are carrying out the concreting
operations know that the cage has
instruments inside it. They should be
supervised so as to reduce the risk of tremie
pipes, etc, damaging the gauges or their
cables.

A centralising system / device should be

used to minimise the risk of damage to the
gauges if the Tremie pipe moves during
placing the concrete. Efforts must be taken
to minimise the movement of the Tremie
during this operation.

Where a pile loading test is to be carried out,

it is recommended that the pile cap be cast
as in integral part of the pile. Gauge cables
must be passed through the walls of the pile
cap formwork prior to finalising the upper
surface of the cap ( as shown here ) . This
will help to minimise the risk of damage to
the cables. The cables should be protected
after the pile cap has been completed.

When placing of the concrete has been

completed, another full set of gauge readings
should be recorded to confirm the gauge
integrities.

A further set of readings should be recorded

after the concrete has cured. If the cables
are subsequently damaged, these readings
may help to identity and match broken
cables.

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V1.8

4.2.2 Embedment Strain Gauges in Wall and Slabs

Embedment gauges in wall panels and floor slabs are usually installed in pairs. One
gauge would be installed close to one face and the other gauge close to the other face.
This enables the detection of bending of the elements together with any axial strain
changes.

As with the gauges in the pile cage ( described in Section 4.2.1 ) the embedment strain
gauges should be fixed to support bars mounted between the main bars.

Below are some photographs and details of a typical diaphragm wall installation.

Once the installation positions have been

identified within the completed cage, prepare the
support bars to bridge the gaps between the main
bars.

Using steel wire, fix one support bar into the cage
at the required location. Prior to fixing the other
support bar, offer it and the gauge into position to
check that the configuration is as shown in this
photograph. The flange must not come into
contact with any steel bars and should be free to
allow the flow of concrete around it. Since the
gauge will always be installed between the main
bars it is suggested that the support bars be fixed
on to the inside of the main bars ( as shown
here ).

Wrap tape around the gauge tube to provide a

cushion between the bar and the gauge tube.
Some tape can also be added to the support bars.

Using Nylon cable ties, fix the strain gauges onto

the support bars, crossing the ties to provide a
firm support. Do not over tighten the ties.

Repeat the installation of the gauge in the other

side of the cage.

15
V1.8

4.2.2 Embedment Strain Gauges in Wall and

Slabs contd...

Some instrumentation layouts ( particularly within

walls ) call for a third gauge to be installed mid
way through its section. This could only be
applied when there is no risk that the middle
gauge would be damaged by tremie pipes or
vibrating compaction equipment.

If this was required, a pair of support bars would

be fixed inside the cage, running form one side to
the other. The gauges would then be mounted
onto these bars at the required points across the
wall or floor section.

Cables are routed up inside the cages, in positions

that reduce the risk of accidental damage to them.

If diaphragm wall cages are to be installed in two

sections, gauge cables in the lower cage would be
looped at the top of the cage ( as shown here )
and then during the installation they would be
routed up inside and fixed to the upper cage.

Particular care must be taken with the cables.

They are the most vulnerable element of the
installation.

Once the gauges are in place and the cables

secured, check the function of the gauges using a
portable readout device. Note the gauge serial
number, ( cable colour code if applied ) and
reading, for future reference.

If gauges have to fixed close to construction joints,

they are best installed once the joint has been
completed.

Loose cables must be gathered to a safe and

convenient location as the cage is lowered.

16
V1.8

4.2.2 Embedment Strain Gauges in Wall and

Slabs contd...

Spacer blocks are added to the outside of cages

to support and / or centralise them. Where blocks
are added the must be on either side of the
gauges so that, in the event that a spacer is
dislodged, it does not damage the gauge as it
falls.

Once again, when the installation is complete,

check the function of the gauges. A further set of
reading should be recorded when the concrete
has cured. If the cables are subsequently
damaged, these readings may help to identity and
match broken cables.

4.2.3 Embedment Strain Gauges in Beams & Columns

Embedment gauges are commonly installed within beams and columns to monitor their
performance during testing, work loading and over the long term. As with the
configuration all gauge arrays it is important to engage with the design Engineer to ensure
that the instruments will be best placed to detect the changes that the Engineer requires
to be quantified.

In general, strain gauges are installed in pairs. By doing so, both compression or tension
and bending can be quantified. For beams or columns, however, it is preferable to install
gauges in groups of four.

If loading is the primary concern, strain gauged sections should be selected at points
where bending is at its minimum. Gauges should be installed in matching pairs from the
centre of the section (in other words equally distant and opposite over centre of the cross-
section). Examples of such installations are provided in the sketches below.

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V1.8

4.2.3 Embedment Strain Gauges in

Beams & Columns

Fig. a

Figure a shows a typical arrangement of

embedment strain gauges for measuring
the load and bending in a concrete beam.
Two gauges installed in the compression
zone and two in the tension zone. ( The red
dots indicating the gauges positions ).

Fig. b
Figure b shows a typical arrangement for
embedment strain gauges within a column

Figure c shows a horizontal section through

a concrete wall in which strain gauges are
positioned to measure bending of the wall.

Concrete elements that include strain

gauges can be either pre-cast or cast in-
situ. Fig. c

4.2.4 Other Embedment Strain Gauges

Embedment gauges can also be supplied in 300mm long and 75mm long formats.
Essentially, the installation procedures will be similar but adjustment will have to be made
for scale and the methods of fixing.

Typically the 75mm long gauge is used in confined installations or

where grout will be the surrounding medium.

The longer 300mm gauge is even more robust than the 150mm
version and is often used in mass concrete installations. These Fig 4. 75mm
units can also be used in pre-fabricated arrays for roller Embedment Strain
compacted concrete ( RCC ) and mass concrete structures. Gauge

Fig 5. 250 mm Embedment Strain Gauge

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V1.8

4.3 Surface Mounted Strain Gauges - VWS-2000 Series

The following sections describe typical installation procedures for applications of

Geosense Vibrating Wire Surface Mounted Strain Gauges.

The installation of Surface Mounted gauges is often a little more complex than for the
Embedment gauges but their future monitoring life can be more easily controlled.
Protection of the gauges is obviously much more critical with surface mounted gauges,
than embedded gauges.

Geosense Surface Mounted Strain Gauges are available with either a 75mm or 150mm
gauge length.

As no two installations are the same, the installation details provided below are indicative
and intended as a basis for a preparing a method statement for a particular installation.

Fig 3. 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauge

4.3.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

VWS 2000 Series

The 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauge is

supplied with mounting blocks that are suited to
the intended installation type. Weldable end blocks
Weldable end blocks are used where the surface
onto which the gauge is to be fixed is steel and
suitable for welding.

Screw and/or Bonding end blocks are used

where the gauge is to be fixed to concrete, brick or
masonry surface with minimum penetration or
where the blocks are to be bonded to a surface. Screw and / or
( often it is not possible to drill into sensitive Bonding end blocks
surfaces )

Resin Anchor end blocks are used for concrete,

brick, masonry or rock where larger holes are
permitted or where deep anchorage is necessary.

Resin Anchor end blocks

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V1.8

4.3.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges VWS 2000 Series contd...

Components required for fitting a

Vibrating Wire Surface Mounted
Strain Gauge. A pair of End Blocks
(weldable in this case) , Setting Bar,
Setting Plate and Strain Gauge.

All installations will require a 4mm

Allen Key ( hexagonal wrench ) and
a Vibrating Wire readout.

Other tools required will vary with

type of end blocks selected.

Protective equipment may also be

required and must be provided for
site operatives

For the Bonded end blocks and the

Anchor end blocks the choice of
Bonding agent is critical. The
material MUST NOT CREEP once it
has cured. Any slight creep will
result in changes in the gauge
readings that will negate the value
of the data.

Chemical Metal by ‘Plastic Padding’

is know for its resistance to creep
and has been used for many years.

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges on Steel

Where a project requires the installation of strain gauges onto structural or temporary
steelwork, selection of the location is critical and is dependent upon the purpose of the
instruments.

Where gauges are intended to detect changes of load in a member they must be
positioned to best detect the changes in strain and must accommodate any bending that
may be occurring. Load is calculated using the cross-sectional area, the ‘Youngs
Modulus’ of the steel strain changes. Pairs of gauges are usually installed as far as
possible from the axis of the steel member and opposite across the axis so as to
accurately detect the load, together with any differential loading ( bending ).

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4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

on Steel contd...

If, for example, the load in the steel column in

Figure B was perfectly axial, only one gauge
would be required to measure changes in the
Fig. A
load. However, as there is always a risk even
slight eccentric loading it is necessary to use a
minimum of 2 gauges on the flanges ( Fig B / 1 &
2 ). This arrangement will measure strain
changes in the flanges and could detect any
differential loading ( bending ) on the A axis. The
average of the readings would provide a
reasonable basis for a load calculation. An
additional pair of gauges ( Fig B / 3 & 4 ) could be
added to the web to provide a further average and
check the web loading. In this configuration there
is no accommodation of bending on the B axis
which may lead to inaccurate load calculations.

In Figure C, the four gauges positions would allow

the accurate measurement of axial loading and
differential loading ( bending ). Gauges 5 & 6 are
best placed for convenient installation and load
detection but may be vulnerable to damage.
Gauges 7 & 8 are in the best position for a
compromise between data quality and gauge Fig. B
security.

The best overall arrangement in areas where the

gauges will not be at risk of damage is for an
installation to consist of 4 gauges installed as
gauges 5 & 6 are installed, for each measuring
point. This would combine convenient installation
with accurate measurement of load and bending.
It may not be possible in all applications.

The best overall arrangement in areas where the

gauges may be at risk of damage is for an
installation to consist of 4 gauges installed as
gauges 7 & 8 are installed, for each measuring
point. This would enable accurate measurement
of load and bending. This too may not be possible
in all applications.

In many cases the final gauge layout will be

compromise but it must be remembered that Fig. C
gauges must be installed in pairs in a line over the
‘centre of section’ and equally distant from the
‘centre of section’

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4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges on Steel contd...

Protection of gauges is also very important. In most applications, surface gauges need
protection from physical damage and in some application they need to be protected from
the effects of temperature changes.

Physical protection is best achieved using a steel cover or box over the gauge. These
would normally be bolted, screwed or otherwise secured onto the element to protect the
gauge but without influencing the performance of the gauge.

Changes in air temperature around the gauge will significantly affect the output from the
gauge. The steel member and the gauges will have similar responses to temperature
changes as they will have similar coefficients of thermal expansion. However, since the
gauge is of a much smaller mass, it will respond much more quickly, thereby setting up
deferential strains between the steel member and the gauge. Efforts must be made to
minimise the differential effects.

One way to minimise the effects is to provide each gauge with a thermal cover. Usually a
thermal cover would comprise a stiff foam box that would be bonded to the over the
gauge ( not to the gauge ). A steel box could also be fitted with internal foam insulation to
help reduce the effects. It must be emphasised that the steel element to which the gauge
is fixed will also be affected by thermal changes.

The three figures on the right show common

arrangements of strain gauges in or on circular
structural elements.

Figure 1 shows an arrangement where two

gauges are used to measure bending of a circular
pipe or pile in one axis. The two gauges are fixed
Fig. 1
on the axis of the element passing through its
centre. The axis must correspond to the direction
of maximum bending.

Figure 2 shows a section with three gauges

spaced equally around the circumference of a
circular structural element. This arrangement
would enable the calculation of both load and
bending on both axes. It will also enable the
calculation of the direction of maximum bending or
eccentric loading. If one of the gauges were to fail
for any reason, the calculation of load would be Fig. 2
impossible.

Figure 3 shows an arrangement with two gauges

installed on each major axis. This is the preferred
arrangement since it would enable the calculation
of bending and total load even if one of the strain
gauges had failed. It will also provide a better level
of data security with respect to the performance of
the concrete or steel element around its
circumference. Fig. 3

22
V1.8

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

on Steel contd...

Fixing of 150mm Surface Mounted Strain

Gauges on a Steel Tube.

Fix one mounting block to the end of the stainless

steel setting bar so that the bar is flush with the
edge of the block, gently tighten the locating grub
screw to just hold the block in place.

Use the spacer plate to set the other end block at

the other end of the bar. Prior to tightening the
second block onto the bar, place the assembly
onto a flat surface to ensure that the end blocks
sit flat against the surface. Gently tighten both the
grub screws to hold the block in place on the bar.

Select and mark a suitably flat position for the

gauge on the steel element.

23
V1.8

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

on Steel contd...

Weld one of the blocks into place, holding the bar

to maintain the blocks in position.

It is not necessary to apply too much weld as the

load transmitted by the gauge is minimal. These
blocks are only intended to support and connect
the gauge to the steel member.

Initially weld a corner of the end block onto the

steel element.

Weld all four corners of the blocks to finalise the

fixing.

Loosen the grub screws once the welding has

been completed. Take care when removing the
bar as it will be HOT.

24
V1.8

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

on Steel contd...

To fit the gauge to the blocks, first slot the shaft of

the gauge into the slotted block.

Then insert the end of the gauge without the

groove into the full block.

At the same time, align the other end of the gauge

so that it passes into the other end block.

Using an Allen key, first tighten both grub screws

in the split end block so that they seat down into
the groove in the collar on the gauge tube.

Connect the red and black wires in the gauge

cable to the readout and set it to read the gauge
See Section 3.3.

( Select range C or D and set to ‘B’ units on the

VW 2106 readout unit )

For information about the use of the Vibrating

Wire readout, please refer to the readout users
manual

Using the thumb and two fingers, apply pressure

between the full end block and the coil housing on
the gauge tube so as to tension the wire. While
doing so, have the Allen key ready and observe
the readings on the display.
To set the gauge to it mid point ( the most
common requirement ), the display should show a
reading of close to 1300 units ( 150mm gauge
only - see section 8 for additional values ).

25
V1.8

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges on Steel contd...

When the display shows an acceptable value

close to the required point in the gauge range,
tighten the remaining grub screw. Ensure that all
the grub screws are tight and if the readout has
an ‘Audio’ facility, check that the gauge has a
good clear ‘ring’.

It is not vital that the reading is set to exactly

1300. A value between 1200 and 1400 will
usually suffice since the gauge has a
considerable operating range ( 850 - 1750 units or
3200 micro strain ) and some ‘over-range’
capacity.

The inclusion of cable fixings ( large nuts can be

used ) will help maintain the position of the cables
and reduce the risk of cable damage.

Looping the cable near the gauge may reduce the

risk of damage if, for any reason, the cable is
snagged during the installation or monitoring its
life.

Cables should be routed so that they are either

fully protected or so that they are un-likely to be
damaged by future activities.

26
V1.8

4.3.1.1 150mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauges

on Steel contd...

Where a protective cover is to be installed, fixing

lugs should be welded onto the element to secure
the cover.

These should be fixed only at one end so as not to

interfere with the performance of the gauge.

The steel cover would then be bolted onto the lugs

to protect the strain gauge.

Where thermal influence is expected, the cover

can be filled with an expanding foam to slow or
minimise the effects.

27
V1.8

4.3.2 50mm Surface Mounted, Spot Welded, Strain Gauges - VWS 2020 Series

The following sections describe typical installation procedures for applications of the
50mm long Geosense Vibrating Wire Surface Mounted Strain gauges.

The installation of the 50mm Surface Mounted gauges require a little more preparation of
the surfaces than for the 150mm gauges. Protection of the gauges is obviously much
more critical with these finer gauges, than for the larger surface gauges.

As no two installations are the same, the installation details provided below are indicative
and intended as a basis for a preparing a method statement for a particular installation.

Fig 6. 50mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauge

- co-axial coil type

Fig 7. 50mm Surface Mounted Strain Gauge

- with separate coil housing / cover

Figures 6 and 7 show the 50mm long Vibrating Wire surface mounted strain gauges
produced by Geosense. The co-axial type ( Fig 6 ) has its excitation coil and cable filled
to the gauge tube, as with the larger gauges. This gauge would normally be covered with
a simple steel cover as protection ( see below ). The other type ( Fig. 7 ) is supplied with
a removable cover / coil housing which can be either permanently installed over the
gauge to protect it or can be de-mounted for use only when reading the gauge.

Detailed below is a the step by step sequence for a typical installation of a 50mm co-axial
strain gauge on a steel member.

The installed parts for a co-axial installation

comprise :

Co-axial strain gauge

Stainless steel protective cover
Thin stainless banding

Installation tools include:

Angle grinder for cleaning the surface of the steel
Low power spot welding machine
Gauge tensioning device ( see right )

Using an angle grinder with a fine grain disc, clean

28
V1.8

4.3.2 50mm Surface Mounted, Spot Welded, Strain Gauges - VWS 2020 Series
contd...

off the surface of the steel element that is to be

instrumented. This need only be in the intended
location of the strain gauges.

Carefully remove the gauge from its packaging

and place it in its intended location. Check that its
end flanges sit flat on the steel surface.

Do not twist the ends of the gauge

as this will damage it by twisting the
inner tensioned wire

When the surface is smooth carefully align the

gauge and hold it in place with a finger. Using a
suitable spot welding machine ( please refer to
Geosense when selecting a suitable welder ),
carefully weld one end flange onto the steel. Start
at the end of the flange ( as seen here ) and then
spot weld around the flange, welding one side
then the other, back and forth until it is securely
fixed to the steel.

When welding is complete the flange should look

like this.

Carefully place the tensioning tool over the gauge,

making sure that the tool engages with the end
blocks, as shown here.

29
V1.8

4.3.2 50mm Surface Mounted, Spot Welded, Strain

Gauges - VWS 2020 Series contd...

Connect a suitable vibrating wire readout to the strain

gauge cables.

( See the readout manuals for adjustments and how to

read a suitable range. )

Using a thumb to hold the tensioning tool and gauge in

place and in line, turn the knurled adjuster to register a
reading on the display that equates to the required
position in the gauges operating range.

The normal fixing point is the mid-point in a gauges

range. For a 50mm surface gauge, the mid-point is
6500 ‘Linear Digits’, ( or ‘B’ units ) ( depending upon the
readout used )

For further advice with gauge setting and units

conversion, please see sections 5 and 8 or contact
Geosense.

When the gauge is set to the required tension,

disconnect the readout. Hold the gauge in position with
a thumb and weld the remaining flange to the steel is a
similar manner to the first flange.

Check the readings again to confirm the gauge is

functioning.

It the reading is not close to the required value in the

gauge range, it should not be a problem since the
gauges have a large operating range and some capacity
for over range.

Where required, connect extension cable to the gauge

wires and seal the joints with a suitable sealant.

If necessary, place the cover over the gauge ensuring

that it does not interfere with the operation of the gauge.

Using the stainless steel strapping, form brackets to hold

the cover in place. If necessary. The strapping can be
welded to the cover to hold it in place. The ends of the
cover can be filled with a silicon mastic if necessary.

30
V1.8

4.4 Sister Bar Gauges into a Reinforcement cage - VWS-4000 Series

As its name implies, the ‘Sister’ Bar Strain Gauge is intended for inclusion in concrete
‘alongside’ other reinforcement bars.

Sister Bar Strain Gauges are available in various diameters and lengths but the
installation principles are generally the same.

Sister Bars are normally fixed into a reinforcement cage so that they are parallel to the
main reinforcement bars. However, they can be aligned in any direction, provided that
precautions are taken not to damage the Sister Bars during any moving of the cage or
when placing the concrete. Sister Bars will measure the strain in the concrete ONLY in
the direction along the axis of the Sister Bar

Do not fix Sister Bars directly onto parallel reinforcement bars as

this will bend the bar, thereby inducing bending stresses into it.

Where there is no existing support for a Sister Bar within a reinforcement cage, it will be
necessary to introduce additional bars onto which the instrument can be mounted.
Generally, these support bars need to be 12 to 16mm in diameter, fixed into the
reinforcement at 90 degrees to the intended orientation of the Sister Bar. It is necessary
to firmly fix the additional support bars so that the orientation of the Sister Bar is
maintained. The Sister Bar must be fixed at 4 or more points along it length, as shown
below.
A pile cage with an array of 4 Sister Bars installed between the Main Bars

In this installation, Nylon cable ties have been used to fix the Sister Bars to the
reinforcement cage. Annealed iron wire can also be used for fixing the Sister Bars.

31
V1.8

4.4 Sister Bar Gauges into a Reinforcement

cage - VWS-4000 Series contd...

Sister Bars, ready for installation…..

For this installation, the installing Engineer has

chosen to ‘pre-attach’ the cables to the bars. This
is not essential.

It is advisable to form a small loop of cable close

to the gauge, to help reduce the risk of damage to
the gauges if the cable should be come snagged
or pulled.

In some installations the installing engineer

chooses to isolate the ‘Strain Gauge Element’
from the concrete using a foam tube, as can be
seen in this photograph. This is not essential
and will not affect the overall performance of the

Sister Bar Strain Gauges mounted between the

main bars in a pile cage and the cables routed on
the side of the main bars, to provide protection.

32
V1.8

4.4 Sister Bar Gauges into a Reinforcement cage - VWS-4000 Series contd...

Routing of the instrument cables must be carried

out so that they are not at risk of damage during
the preparatory works or during concreting. For
pile cage installations, the routing considerations
are the same as those for the embedded strain
gauges ( Section 4.2.1 ).

In other installations, the cable protection

principles are similar.

Sister Bars are NOT intended to be used as Re-Bar Stain

Meters. They are NOT intended to be load carrying and are
NOT intended to REPLACE the designed reinforcement

33
V1.8

5.0 DATA HANDLING

The function of the instrument is to provide useful and reliable data.

Accurate recording and handling of the data is essential if it is to be
of any value.

5.1 Monitoring the Strain Gauge Readings

Geosense VW Strain Gauges can contain Temperature sensors. Where a Strain

Gauge is installed in a zone where its temperature is likely to fluctuate significantly,
records of both strain and temperature data should be used to assess any effects
temperature on the data.

5.1.1 Portable Readouts

Geosense offer a range of readout and data logging options. Specific operation
manuals are supplied with each readout device.

Below is a brief, step-by-step procedure for use with the Geosense VWR-1 portable
readout.

1. Connect signal cable from the sensor to the

readout following the wiring colour code.
Conductor colours may vary depending upon the
extension cable used. Commonly these are:

RED = VW +
BLACK = VW -
GREEN = Temp
WHITE = Temp

2. Press the ‘On/Off’ button to switch the unit on.

Press it again to acquire a reading from the
connected instrument.

3. The readout displays the Vibrating Wire readings in both ‘Frequency’ (in Hz)
and Linear ‘B’ Digits (in Hz2/1000). Temperature reading in both resistance
(Ohms) and degrees C.

For more details see the readout manual.

4. Press and hold down the On/Off’ button to switch the unit off.

Whilst it is not critical that the polarity be observed for most VW instruments, a
stronger signal may be obtained if the correct polarity is adopted. Since the
temperature sensor is a Thermistor, its connection polarity is not important.

5.1.2 Data Loggers

A number of data loggers are available to automatically excite, interrogate and record
the reading from Vibrating Wire instruments. These include the GeoLogger G8 Plus,
GeoLogger Linx and equipment manufactured by Campbell Scientific Ltd.

(Continued on page 35)

34
V1.8

(Continued from page 34)

5.2 Data Reduction

Overview

The tension of a sensor wire can be measured by detecting the frequency (note) at
which it naturally vibrates. The following is a description of the units commonly used
by the instrumentation industry.

Frequency Units ( Hz ). If the wire is ‘excited’ electronically the frequency at which it

vibrates can be measured. The units used to express frequency are Hertz (Hz) or
Kilo‑Hertz (kHz).

The disadvantage of these units is that there is no ‘linear’ conversion from ‘change in
Hertz’ to ‘change in wire tension’.

Linear Digits ( B ). In order to overcome the problem of a linear conversion

described above, the frequency value can be squared, thereby rendering it linear, but
quite large. To reduce its size, it is often divided by 1000 (or multiplied by 10 ‑3). The
expression Hz2/1000 (or Hz2 x 10‑3) is the most commonly adopted as a ‘linear’
digital output.

Period Units ( P ). Some readout devices utilise the ‘counter’ function available in
many common integrated circuits.

Period Units represent the time taken for the wire to vibrate over one full oscillation,
expressed in seconds. Due to the very small size of the number generated most
equipment manufacturers display the unit multiplied by either 1000 ( 10 3 ) or
10000000 ( 107).

The relationship between Period units and Frequency units is expressed as

P= 1
Frequency

Period units are convenient to measure but do not have a linear relationship to the
‘change in wire tension’.

Calibration Factor. Each instrument is supplied with a Calibration Factor ( or

sometimes called ‘Gauge Factor’ ), to enable conversion from the raw data ( in the
units described above ) into engineering units such as Micro-strain.

The value of the calibration factor will vary depending upon the engineering units into
which the raw data is to be converted.

Some instruments have "Generic" calibration factors and others are calibrated to
generate an individual calibration factor.

Readings from VW Strain Gauges are typically in a form that is a function of

frequency ( as above ) rather than in units of strain.

(Continued on page 36)

35
V1.8

(Continued from page 35)

5.2 Data Reduction contd...

To convert the readings to units of strain, calibration factor(s) must be applied to the
recorded values. For Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges the calibration factors are unique
to each model. A certificate of conformance, detailing the applicable calibration
factor will be supplied with all Geosense Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges. In addition, a
Batch factor may be included on the certificate. This factor accommodates any slight
variations in the model specific calibration factor and must also be applied in the
calculation.

If a readout display is in ‘Period’ units ( e.g. 0.03612 or 3612 depending upon the
readout used ) a calculation must first be performed to convert the reading from
‘Period’ units to ‘Linear Digits’ ( Hz2/1000 ) units.

Two examples of this can be seen below. The first (1) where readout includes a
decimal point and displays the Period in Seconds–2 and the second (2) where the
readout displays the Period in Seconds-7

(1) Linear Hz2/1000 = ( 1 / 0.03612 x 10–2 ) 2 / 1000

= 7664.8

(2) Linear Hz2/1000 = ( 1 / 3612 x 10 –7 ) 2 / 1000

= 7664.8

If the readout displays ‘Frequency’ values, ( e.g. 2768.5 Hz ) only a simple calculation
is required to convert the reading to Linear Digits.

Linear Digits ( Hz2/1000 ) = ( 2768.5 ) 2 / 1000

= 7664.6

Certain data loggers store their Vibrating Wire data in Linear Digits but divided by a
further 1000. Obviously these data would have to be multiplied by another 1000 to
maintain the standard data format for the conversion to engineering units.

There are many ways to achieve the conversion from recorded data to useful
engineering values. The following is included as a guide only and as a basis for
alternative approaches.

(Continued on page 37)

36
V1.8

5.2 Data Reduction contd...

Converting from a frequency reading in Hz to microstrain

Use the following equation to convert a reading in Hz to microstrain (µε):

µε = ( F2 / 1000 ) x Gauge-Factor x Batch- Factor

Where:
µε = microstrain
F is a reading in Hz.
Gauge-Factor
Batch-Factor ( if applicable )

Calculating a change (Δ) in microstrain

Change in strain is calculated by subtracting the initial strain from the current strain:

Change (Δ)µε = µε current - µε initial

or

Δµε = ( F2 /1000 current - F2 /1000 initial) x Gauge-Factor x Batch- Factor

Where:
µε = microstrain
Δµε = change in microstrain
F is a reading in Hz.
Gauge-Factor
Batch-Factor ( if applicable )

To check whether the gauge is in Tension or Compression:

Positive Δµε indicates tensile strain

Negative Δµε indicates compressive strain

37
V1.8

5.2 contd... SISTER BAR & REBAR DATA REDUCTION

The un-bonded section of the Sister bar / Rebar is not uniform throughout its length and
therefore the micro strain factor is calculated using the calibration data from the sensing
element (L1) and the material properties of the un-bonded section.

The diagram above illustrates the dimensions of the un-bonded section of the Sister bar /
Rebar.
Section Description Length Area
L1 Mounted VW Strain Gauge 50mm -
L2 Rebar Centre 125mm 1.678 x 10-4 m
L3 Un-bonded Rebar 35mm 2.01 x 10-4 m
L Tot Total Un-bonded Section 210mm -

Where ε = Strain, L = Length, F = Force, E = Youngs Modulus, A = Area

Using the equations above along with the calibration factors from the calibration sheet,
the following equation is derived.

Calibration Factors (SD = micro strain factor, k = Load Factor)

Where E2 and E3 is the Youngs Modulus ~ 200GPa

NOTE: CALIBRATION IS CARRIED OUT UNDER TENSION.
THEREFORE NEGATIVE VALUES WILL INDICATE COMPRESSION

38
V1.8

5.3 Temperature Considerations

Where the Strain Gauge is cast into a concrete pile, there is usually little variation in
temperature once the curing has occurred. Consequently, in the short term,
temperature effects on the gauge and it readings will be negligible and corrections
will not be necessary.

However, if an embedment Strain Gauge is to be monitored over the long term or is

installed in a structural element where the concrete temperature is likely to change
significantly, the temperature changes will have a greater impact on the data.

Similarly, surface mounted strain gauges will be affected by temperature changes.

Less so if they are protected with a thermal cover.

Thermal influences are complex because it is not only the gauge that is affected but
the element to which it is attached and whole structure that is affected. The rate of
temperature change and the distribution of the thermal gradients also play a major
part in influencing the actual strain ( load ) at any point and its effect on the gauge
itself and its readings. Consequently, in order to apply any correction for temperature
it is necessary to first establish the effects of the temperature changes on the Strain
Gauge and the medium in/on which it is installed.

A useful exercise to carry out on site to establish the in-situ effects of temperature
changes is to observe the installed gauge readings, together with both ambient and
gauge temperatures, when no other factors are changing. This should be carried out
prior to any loading or other structural changes / works are carried out.

An alternative, is to use a ‘No Stress Strain Gauge’ installed close to the monitoring
Strain Gauges. This will enable an assessment of temperature affects on the gauge
itself in the working environment for a particular location. For details of ‘No Stress
Strain Gauges, please contact Geosense.

6.0 MAINTENANCE

The Vibrating Wire Embedment Strain Gauge is a maintenance free device for most
applications. This is because it is intended for sub-surface installation and would
normally be irretrievably sealed into structural materials.

Maintenance of wiring connections between the Strain Gauge and any terminal
panels / or loggers should involve occasional tightening of any screw terminals to
prevent loose connections or cleaning contacts to prevent the build up of corrosion.

39
V1.8

7.0 TROUBLESHOOTING

It is generally accepted that when a Vibrating Wire instrument is producing a stable

reading on a suitable readout, the value will be correct. Only on very rare occasions will
this be untrue.

In almost all cases, a fluctuating reading is a sign of a faulty signal from the sensor. The
fault could be in either the sensor, the connecting cable, any switch boxes or the readout.
The best way to fault find an instrument is to isolate it from all other instruments and
connections. Where possible begin fault finding from the sensor itself.

40
V1.8

8.0 SPECIFICATION

Model Number VWS - 2000 VWS - 2010 VWS - 2020 VWS - 2025 VWS - 2026

Type Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface

Gauge Length 150 89 49 49 49

(mm)
Overall Length 156 95 65 65 65
(mm)

Operating Range 0.45 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

(mm)
Strain Range (µЄ) 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
Frequency Range 850 - 1550 900 - 2000 1500 - 3000 1500 - 3000 1500 - 3000
(Hz)
Initial Zero User set User set User set User set User set
(Mid-point - Linear ( 1380 ) ( 2400 ) ( 7250 ) ( 7250 ) ( 7250 )
Digit units)

Model Number VWS - 2100 VWS - 2120 VWS - 2125

Type Embedment Embedment Embedment

Gauge Length 150 50 250

(mm)
Overall Length 156 54 260
(mm)

Operating Range 0.45 0.10 0.75

(mm)
Strain Range (µЄ) 3000 3000 3000
Frequency Range 850 - 1550 1500 - 3000 1500 - 3000
(Hz)

41
V1.8

8.0 SPECIFICATION contd...

Resolution 1 µЄ ( Readout Dependent )

Accuracy Better than 0.2% Full Scale

Thermal Effect Less than 0.02% Full Scale per oC **

Operating Range -20 to + 95 oC

Temperature Sensor ( optional ) Thermistor ( 3kΩ @ 25oC )

Over Range Capacity Range + 20%

Excitation Pluck or Swept Frequency

9.0 SPARE PARTS

As a Vibrating Wire Embedment Strain Gauge is a sealed unit, it is neither serviceable

nor does it contain any replaceable parts.

Civil engineering sites are hazardous environments and instrument cables can be easily
damaged, if they are not adequately protected. Geosense can therefore provide the fol-
lowing parts that my be required to effect repairs to instrument cables:

• PU coated 4 Core cable with foil shield and copper drain.

• PVC coated, armoured, 4 Core cable suitable for direct burial.

• Epoxy jointing kit for forming a waterproof cable joint.

Please contact Geosense for price and availability of the above components.

42
V1.8

10.0 RETURN OF GOODS

11.1 Returns procedure

If goods are to be returned for either service/repair or warranty, the customer should
contact Geosense for a Returns Authorisation Number, request a Returned Equip-
ment Report Form QF034 and, where applicable, a Returned Goods Health and
Safety Clearance Form QF038 prior to shipment. Numbers must be clearly marked on
the outside of the shipment.

Complete the Returned Equipment Report Form QF034, including as much detail as
possible, and enclose it with the returned goods.

All returned goods are also to be accompanied by a completed Returned Goods Health
and Safety Clearance Form QF038 attached to the outside of the package (to be
accessible without opening the package).

Forms can be downloaded from our web site under the support section/returns

A copy of both forms should be faxed / e-mailed to the Geosense offices, in advance of
shipping the goods.
10.1.1 Chargeable Service or Repairs

Inspection & estimate

It is the policy of Geosense that an estimate is provided to the customer prior to any re-
pair being carried out. A set charge for inspecting the equipment and providing an esti-
mate is also chargeable.

10.1.2 Warranty Claim

(See Limited Warranty Conditions)

This covers defects which arise as a result of a failure in design or manufacturing. It is a
condition of the warranty that the Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge must be installed and used
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and has not been subject to misuse.

In order to make a warranty claim, contact Geosense and request a Returned Equip-
ment Report Form QF034. Tick the warranty claim box and return the form with the
goods as above. You will then be contacted and informed whether your warranty claim is
valid.

10.2 Packaging and Carriage

All used goods shipped to the factory must be sealed inside a clean plastic bag and
packed in a suitable carton. If the original packaging is not available, Geosense should be
contacted for advice. Geosense will not be responsible for damage resulting from
inadequate returns packaging or contamination under any circumstances.
10.3 Transport & Storage

All goods should be adequately packaged to prevent damage in transit or intermediate

storage.

43
V1.8

11.0 LIMITED WARRANTY

The manufacturer, Geosense Limited, warrants the Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge
manufactured by it, under normal use and service, to be free from defects in material and
workmanship under the following terms and conditions:-

Sufficient site data has been provided to Geosense by the purchaser as regards the
nature of the installation environment to allow Geosense to check material compatibility
of the VIBRATING WIRE STRAIN GAUGE and other component parts.

In the absence of any site data being provided by the purchaser standard construction
materials will be supplied. All costs for subsequent modifications will be borne by the
purchaser.

The Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge equipment shall be installed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.

The equipment is warranted for 1 year from the date of shipment from the manufacturer
to the purchaser.

The warranty is limited to replacement of part or parts which, are determined to be

defective upon inspection at the factory. Shipment of defective part or parts to the factory
shall be at the expense of the Purchaser. Return shipment of repaired/replaced part or
parts covered by this warranty shall be at the expense of the Manufacturer.

Unauthorised alteration and/or repair by anyone which, causes failure of the unit or
associated components will void this LIMITED WARRANTY in its entirety.

The Purchaser warrants through the purchase of the Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge
equipment that he is familiar with the equipment and its proper use. In no event
shall the manufacturer be liable for any injury, loss or damage, direct or
consequential, special, incidental, indirect or punitive, arising out of the use of or
inability to use the equipment sold to the Purchaser by the Manufacturer.

The Purchaser assumes all risks and liability whatsoever in connection with the Strain
Gauge equipment from the time of delivery to Purchaser.

44
V1.8

APPENDIX II - Thermistor Linearization

USING STEINHART & HART LOG

Thermistor Type: 3K @25°C

Resistance/ temperature equation:-

T= (1 / (A + B (LnR) + C(LnR) 3)) –273.2

Where:-
T = Temperature in degrees Centigrade
LnR= Natural log of Thermistor resistance.
A= 1.4051* 10-3
B= 2.369*10-4
C=1.019*10-7

Resistance versus temperature table

Ohms Temp Ohms Temp Ohms Temp Ohms Temp Ohms Temp
201.1K -50 16.60K -10 2417 30 525.4 70 153.2 110
187.3K -49 15.72K -9 2317 31 507.8 71 149.0 111
174.5K -48 14.90K -8 2221 32 490.9 72 145.0 112
162.7K -47 14.12K -7 2130 33 474.7 73 141.1 113
151.7K -46 13.39K -6 2042 34 459.0 74 137.2 114
141.6K -45 12.70K -5 1959 35 444.0 75 133.6 115
132.2K -44 12.05K -4 1880 36 429.5 76 130.0 116
123.5K -43 11.44K -3 1805 37 415.6 77 126.5 117
115.4K -42 10.86K -2 1733 38 402.2 78 123.2 118
107.9K -41 10.31K -1 1664 39 389.3 79 119.9 119
101.0K -40 9796 0 1598 40 376.9 80 116.8 120
94.48K -39 9310 1 1535 41 364.9 81 113.8 121
88.46K -38 8851 2 1475 42 353.4 82 110.8 122
82.87K -37 8417 3 1418 43 342.2 83 107.9 123
77.66K -36 8006 4 1363 44 331.5 84 105.2 124
72.81K -35 7618 5 1310 45 321.2 85 102.5 125
68.30K -34 7252 6 1260 46 311.3 86 99.9 126
64.09K -33 6905 7 1212 47 301.7 87 97.3 127
60.17K -32 6576 8 1167 48 292.4 88 94.9 128
56.51K -31 6265 9 1123 49 283.5 89 92.5 129
53.10K -30 5971 10 1081 50 274.9 90 90.2 130
49.91K -29 5692 11 1040 51 266.6 91 87.9 131
46.94K -28 5427 12 1002 52 258.6 92 85.7 132
44.16K -27 5177 13 965.0 53 250.9 93 83.6 133
41.56K -26 4939 14 929.6 54 243.4 94 81.6 134
39.13K -25 4714 15 895.8 55 236.2 95 79.6 135
36.86K -24 4500 16 863.3 56 229.3 96 77.6 136
34.73K -23 4297 17 832.2 57 222.6 97 75.8 137
32.74K -22 4105 18 802.3 58 216.1 98 73.9 138
30.87K -21 3922 19 773.7 59 209.8 99 72.2 139
29.13K -20 3748 20 746.3 60 203.8 100 70.4 140
27.49K -19 3583 21 719.9 61 197.9 101 68.8 141
25.95K -18 3426 22 694.7 62 192.2 102 67.1 142
24.51K -17 3277 23 670.4 63 186.8 103 65.5 143
23.16K -16 3135 24 647.1 64 181.5 104 64.0 144
21.89K -15 3000 25 624.7 65 176.4 105 62.5 145
20.70K -14 2872 26 603.3 66 171.4 106 61.1 146
19.58K -13 2750 27 582.6 67 166.7 107 59.6 147
18.52K -12 2633 28 562.8 68 162.0 108 58.3 148
17.53K -11 2523 29 543.7 69 157.6 109 56.8 149

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V1.8

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