A BRIEF HISTORY OF ITALY

TRACING THE RENAISSANCE, UNIFICATION, AND THE LIVELY EVOLUTION OF

ART AND CULTURE

DOMINIC HAYNES
© Copyright—Dominic Haynes 2023—All rights reserved.
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 CONTENTS

Introduction

1. Prelude to Empire: Ancient Italy’s Diverse Civilizations (3200–90 BCE)

2. Dominion of the Eagles: The Roman Era in Italy (753 BCE–476 CE)
3. A Splintered Legacy: Italy After the Fall (476–1100 CE)
4. Italy’s Radiant Rebirth: The Transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance (1100–1600 CE)
5. Reaction, Reformation, Resurgence: The Enlightenment (1500s–1800 CE)
6. Conquest to Unity: Napoleon and the Italian Unification (1789–1902 CE)
7. The Cruelest Century: Italy Enters the Age of Modernity (1914–1980 CE)
8. Italy Today and Tomorrow (1980–2020s CE)

Other Books by Dominic Haynes

References
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 INTRODUCTION

Italy. A captivating land bathed in the warm Mediterranean sun that boasts an extraordinary
tapestry of history, culture, and innovation. From its ancient roots as the cradle of the Roman
Empire to its remarkable Renaissance and beyond, Italy has left an indelible mark on the world,
far more significant than the geographical area it occupies. Its cities have witnessed the rise and
fall of civilizations, tremendous achievements in art and science, and the triumphs and
tribulations of countless generations.
The pages of this book will reveal an enlightening voyage that unveils the captivating story of
Italy's past. From the magnificent ruins of Pompeii to the grandeur of Florence’s Renaissance
masterpieces, the intricate layers of this remarkable nation’s history and the forces that have
shaped it will be explored.
Meet the early Etruscans, who established the foundations of Italian civilization, the mighty
Roman Empire, which ruled over vast territories, and learn about the seismic impact of the Dark
Ages that followed. Bear witness to the rise of formidable city-states, such as Venice and Genoa,
which became influential hubs of trade and innovation. Fall in love with the groundbreaking
artistry of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and the other luminaries of the
Renaissance, whose genius not only transformed Italy but also reverberated throughout the
world.
Moreover, gaze beyond the famous names and iconic landmarks. Peek into the lives of ordinary
Italians and hear of their struggles, triumphs, and contributions to the nation's history. Look to
the profound influence of the Catholic Church and the papacy, the fervor of the Italian
Risorgimento that led to unification, and the challenges faced by Italy in the modern era.
Discover how this great nation has been a crucible of art, philosophy, science, and political
intrigue for millennia and continues to be a source of influence and attraction in the modern age.
 1

PRELUDE TO EMPIRE: ANCIENT ITALY’S DIVERSE

CIVILIZATIONS (3200–90 BCE)

T ucked between the Alps to the north and the beginning of the Apennine mountain range to the
south lies the fertile Po River Valley. Also known as the Padan Plain, this rolling green land
is perfect for agriculture. Much like the Yellow River, Indus River, or the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers that birthed mighty ancient civilizations, the Po River Valley provides an ideal
environment for human settlement. Around 850,000 years ago, as the Po River Valley emerged
—it was previously underwater—early humans began to arrive in Italy. Archaeologists posit that
the region became an escape for hominids looking for a more moderate climate since the earth
was colder and drier at that time.
With the longest river in Italy, the Po River Valley became home to the earliest Italians. Their
traces have been discovered at the Ca’ Belvedere site in Monte Poggiolo, roughly 10 miles (16
kilometers) outside the town of Forli. Agricultural communities emerged in the Po River Valley
during the Neolithic period (10000 BCE–2200 BCE). These early settlers cultivated crops and
raised livestock. Their villages were often situated near rivers and lakes, exploiting the fertile soil
and abundant water sources.
As the world entered the Copper Age or Chalcolithic Period (c. 3200–2300 BCE), the existence
of several civilizations in the Italian peninsula can be established. Not much is known of these
early peoples, and their names are derived mainly from the locations where archaeologists
discovered the remains of their culture. Mostly, they are remembered for their consistent use of
copper, hence the name of the period. Utilizing metal in humanity’s tools made farming more
efficient, enabling the support of larger family groups. One of the most famous Copper Age
discoveries is Ötzi the Iceman, Europe’s oldest mummy. Accidentally preserved in the ice of the
Alps, he was discovered by a group of hikers in 1991 on the Val Senales Glacier. Older than the
pyramids of Egypt and Stonehenge, his corpse and the items found with him have offered
valuable clues into the daily life of Copper Age peoples.
One of these enigmatic Chalcolithic groups is the Remedello culture. Discovered in northern
Italy in the 1800s CE near the small town of Remedello in Lombardy, they are mainly noted for
their funerary practices. Found buried in either crouched positions on their side or flat on their
backs, the discovery of the Remedello necropolis hints at the development of a societal warrior
class. Not every being found on the site was buried with artifacts, but those that were were
mostly male, and the items found in their burial sites were copper and stone weapons.
The Copper Age’s end and the Bronze Age’s (c. 3000–1000 BCE) dawn are often muddled, with
different civilizations gaining bronze metalworking technology at different times. Although
thinking of history in neatly divided chunks is tempting, the reality is often far less clear-cut. The
beginnings and ends of various eras are blurry and unclear because change is gradual. It is hard
to nail down a precise date that the Copper Age became the Bronze Age. Nevertheless, some of
Italy’s notable Bronze Age societies are the Nuragic civilization on the island of Sardinia and the
Terramare culture.
The Nuragic civilization thrived on the island of Sardinia, located in the Mediterranean Sea west
of the Italian mainland. This civilization developed during the Bronze Age and existed from
around 1800 BCE to 238 BCE, with its peak period occurring between 1500 BCE and 1200
BCE.
The name "Nuragic" comes from the characteristic archaeological structures called nuraghes.
Nuraghes are stone towers built by the Nuragic people and are one of the most distinctive
features of their civilization. These towers were likely used for various purposes, including
defensive fortifications, religious rituals, and symbols of power.
The Nuragic civilization was organized into a complex network of settlements consisting of
villages, towns, and city-states. They were skilled in metalworking, mainly in bronze, and
produced intricate bronze objects such as weapons, tools, and statues. The Nuragic people also
engaged in agriculture, herding, and maritime activities, including trading with other
Mediterranean cultures.
The Nuragic civilization declined around the 2nd century BCE due to various factors, including
outside influences and the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Roman conquest of Sardinia led
to the assimilation of the Nuragic people into the broader Roman culture.
Back in the Po River Valley, the Terramare culture was flourishing, particularly in the regions of
Emilia-Romagna and Lombardy. The term "Terramare" derives from the Italian words "terra"
(earth) and "mare" (sea) and refers to the characteristic land and water features of their
settlements. The Terramare people live in the archeological record from 1700 BCE to 1150 BCE.
Primarily small villages consisting of wooden huts built on wooden stilts, these settlements were
located on artificially raised mounds called terramare, which were constructed using layers of
clay, soil, and wooden platforms. Like their other contemporaneous Bronze Age societies, the
Terramare fed themselves via agriculture, cultivating crops such as wheat, barley, millet, and
legumes. They also raised livestock, including cattle, pigs, and sheep. Fishing and hunting likely
supplemented their food resources.
The decline of the Terramare civilization is thought to have been caused by a combination of
factors, including environmental changes, internal conflicts, and invasions from other cultures. It
has also been posited that the Terramare were the elusive “Sea Peoples” who wreaked havoc on
the Mediterranean region towards the end of the Bronze Age and precipitated a tremendous
societal upheaval and collapse. As a side note, the rise of the Villanovan culture marked the
transition from the Terramare civilization to the Iron Age in the region. Archaeological
excavations at various Terramare sites, such as Castellazzo di Fontanellato and Montale, have
provided valuable insights into this ancient civilization’s way of life, technology, and social
structure.
As the Bronze Age gradually declined, the earliest migrations of the Italic tribes began to arrive.
Part of a larger Indo-European migratory movement around the 2nd millennium BCE, they
migrated from the north and settled in various parts of the Italian Peninsula. Among the
prominent Italic tribes were the Latins, Sabines, Samnites, Umbrians, and Oscans, each with
their own distinct cultural and linguistic characteristics, though they did have certain cultural-
linguistic commonalities. These tribes left a deep mark on Italy’s cultural and linguistic
landscape and continue to be relevant to the region’s history.
The Latins, who settled in the area around Rome, played a crucial role in the development of
Roman civilization. The city of Rome itself was originally a small village established by Latin
settlers on the banks of the Tiber River. Over time, Rome grew into a powerful city-state and
eventually the center of the Roman Empire, leaving an enduring mark on the world—but more
on that later.
The Sabines, another influential Italic tribe, settled in central Italy. They established various city-
states, such as Amiternum and Nursia, and contributed to the cultural and political environment
of the region. The Sabines were known for their military prowess and were often in conflict with
the neighboring Latins. This was enshrined in Roman lore by the ancient historian Livy who
relayed a tale of Romulus (the mythical founder of Rome) and his troops kidnapping a large
number of Sabine women during a conflict between the tribes. This incident, alternatively
referred to as the rape of the Sabine women, has been immortalized by prolific painters such as
Jacques-Louis David, Nicholas Poussin, Peter Paul Rubens, Edgar Degas, and most recently,
Pablo Picasso.
The Samnites inhabited the mountainous regions of southern Italy, primarily in the Apennine
Mountains, and were likely an offshoot of the Sabine tribe. They were fierce warriors and fought
several conflicts with the Romans during the Samnite Wars (341–290 BCE). Despite their
eventual defeat, the Samnites left a lasting impact on the development of Roman military tactics
and society.
The Umbrians settled in central Italy, primarily in the region known as Umbria. They were not
considered particularly warlike and, unlike the Sabines and Samnites, fought no major wars
against the Romans. The Oscans, another Italic tribe, occupied parts of southern Italy, including
Campania and Lucania.
It is important to note that the concept of Italian identity as we understand it today did not exist
during the time of the Italic tribes. The Italic tribes were diverse, each with their cultural
practices and languages. A more cohesive Italian identity began to form over time through the
subsequent interactions, conflicts, and assimilation with other peoples, such as the Greeks and
Etruscans.
Though the incursions of the Italic tribes and their Indo-European heritage changed the
landscape of Italy, there were still native groups and languages that survived in the Iron Age (c.
1200–600 BCE). One such group is the Villanovan culture, an ancient civilization that thrived in
central and northern Italy from approximately the 9th century BCE to the 7th century BCE. It
was named after the village of Villanova, near Bologna, where the culture was first identified
through archaeological excavations.
Perhaps it was the influence of new people in the area or just the result of humankind’s natural
progress, but the Villanovan culture marked a significant alteration in the region’s social and
cultural composition. From the organization of their communities to their technological and
artistic developments, the evidence unearthed in archaeological excavations has offered a
fascinating insight into the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age.
Villanovan communities consisted of small agricultural villages, often fortified with defensive
walls. The society was organized into clan-based groups, with kinship playing a crucial role in
social structure. The villages typically had central communal areas, burials, and workshops.
Known for their advanced ironworking techniques, which significantly impacted their material
culture, Villanovans swapped bronze for iron as the primary metal for tools, weapons, and
ornaments. The mastery of ironworking contributed to the military power and economic
prosperity of the Villanovan culture.
Furthermore, Villanovan burials are among the most striking aspects of the culture. They
constructed elaborate burial mounds, known as tumuli, which contained grave goods such as
pottery vessels, weapons, jewelry, and personal items. These grave goods reflect the social status
and wealth of the individuals buried within. The pottery discovered in these tumuli is distinct,
featuring geometric designs, incised decorations, and biconical shapes. The pottery often had
dark burnished surfaces, with some examples featuring intricate patterns and stylized animal
motifs.
The Villanovan culture eventually gave way to the Etruscan civilization, which profoundly
influenced the development of ancient Italy. Some also argue that the Villanovans were simply
an early version of the Etruscan people. The Etruscans inherited and expanded upon many
aspects of Villanovan culture, including their ironworking techniques, art styles, and burial
practices.
Even to those with minimal knowledge of Italian history, the importance of the Roman
civilization looms large. However, before the Romans came the Etruscans, and without their
influence and culture, it is possible that Rome would never have risen to the heights it achieved.
The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that flourished in central Italy, primarily in the region
known as Etruria (present-day Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio), from
approximately the 8th century BCE to the 3rd century BCE. As mentioned above, they were
critical in shaping the development of Italy and influenced the early Romans. Roman culture,
society, and governance can find roots in the Etruscan way of life. Etruscan kings even ruled
over Rome for some time before the Roman Republic was established.
The origins of the Etruscans are still debated among scholars. While, as mentioned earlier, many
believe they emerged from the indigenous Villanovan peoples, they likely also had influences
from other Mediterranean cultures. What is known is that the Etruscans were skilled traders and
seafarers. They established a network of trade routes that connected them with various
Mediterranean civilizations, including the Greeks and Phoenicians. The Etruscans acquired
luxury goods, such as ceramics, metals, and precious stones, through extensive trade contacts,
influencing their art and culture.
The Etruscan language, which is not closely related to any other known language, was
deciphered to some extent but remains only partially understood. As for its relationship with
Latin, the two are from different language families, with Latin descending from an Indo-
European root, like Greek, Sanskrit, and the various Celtic dialects. On the other hand, Etruscan
has no known linguistic relatives.
However, it likely influenced Vulgar Latin (the spoken form of Latin) due to the two cultures’
proximity and interrelations. There was one massive influence, though—the Etruscan alphabet.
The Romans acquired their early alphabet from the Etruscans, who, in turn, had adopted it from
the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet, as used by the Romans, was derived from the Etruscan
variant with some modifications. The Etruscan influence on the development of the Latin script
laid the foundation for the written language that became widely used in ancient Rome and
eventually evolved into modern Western alphabets. The Romans also adopted Etruscan legal
concepts, such as the idea of written laws and the appointment of judges.
The Etruscan society was organized into several independent city-states, the most notable being
Veii, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Cerveteri. These city-states had their own rulers—lucumones—and
often engaged in rivalries and alliances. Etruscan society had a hierarchical structure, with
aristocratic elites holding significant power. Etruscan society exhibited some unique social
customs and practices. Women held relatively high status and enjoyed greater freedoms than
their contemporaries in other ancient civilizations. Etruscan women participated in public life,
attended banquets, and were depicted in artwork alongside men. Etruscan women also played a
role in religious ceremonies and were sometimes buried with their own grave goods.
Known for their engineering prowess, they constructed impressive systems of roads, bridges, and
drainage networks that facilitated trade and communication. They also built advanced hydraulic
engineering works, including canals and tunnels, allowing efficient irrigation and water
management in their agricultural lands.
Etruscan urban planning and architectural styles had a noticeable impact on the Romans.
Etruscan cities were organized on grid patterns, and their architectural elements, such as arches,
vaults, and drainage systems, influenced Roman city planning and engineering practices.
Etruscan temple designs and architectural motifs also found their way into Roman architecture.
Beyond their architectural abilities, the Etruscans were also renowned for their artistic
achievements. They excelled in metalworking, producing intricate gold jewelry, bronze statues,
and decorative items. Their beautiful artistry extended into their fashion sense, and the Romans
adopted certain clothing styles and fashion trends from the Etruscans. Etruscan influence can be
seen in the Roman use of draped garments, as well as the use of specific types of jewelry,
hairstyles, and accessories. Etruscan artistic representations of fashion and personal adornment
influenced Roman artistic and sartorial traditions.
Etruscan tomb paintings depicted scenes from daily life, mythology, and funerary rituals. The
origins of the gladiatorial games, a distinctive aspect of Roman entertainment, can be traced back
to Etruscan funeral rituals. The Etruscans conducted funeral games and combats as part of their
funeral customs, and the Romans later adopted and transformed these practices into the
gladiatorial spectacles that became popular in Roman society. They also constructed impressive
monumental architecture, such as temples, tombs, and city walls. The survival of these tombs
and temples has shown what a vital role religion played in Etruscan society. Their elaborate
underground tombs, often referred to as necropolises, contained multiple chambers for the
deceased and their grave goods. These tombs were adorned with frescoes and housed various
items reflecting the individual’s status and beliefs.
A complex system of religious beliefs and various deities was associated with many aspects of
life. Etruscans believed that their gods significantly influenced their human affairs and practiced
haruspicy, the examination of animal entrails, as an important form of divination in their
religious rituals. The Romans adopted several religious beliefs and practices from the Etruscans,
particularly their fascination with divination and augury, the interpretation of signs and omens
from the gods. The Romans incorporated Etruscan divination techniques into their religious
rituals, such as examining haruspicy and interpreting lightning strikes (fulguration).
The decline of the Etruscan civilization began in the 4th century BCE due to a combination of
factors, including territorial conflicts, invasions, and Roman expansion. By the 3rd century BCE,
the region of Etruria was absorbed into the Roman Republic. Etruscan culture gradually
assimilated into the broader Roman society, fully incorporating the culture into Rome by 90
BCE. The Etruscan language ceased to be spoken and was eventually replaced by Latin. Many
Etruscan cities and their architectural wonders were gradually abandoned or repurposed.
Nevertheless, Etruscan art, pottery, and craftsmanship continued to influence Roman art and
culture, leaving a lasting impact on the development of ancient Italy.
Our understanding of the Etruscans relies heavily on archaeological discoveries, including tomb
excavations, inscriptions, artifacts, and accounts from Greek and Roman sources. However,
many aspects of their culture and history remain mysterious and subject to ongoing research and
exploration.
As the Etruscans built their society in Etruria, another invading population entered Italy. The
Greek colonization of ancient Italy, occurring from the 8th century BCE onward, marked a
notable period of expansion and cultural exchange. The Greek city-states were driven by a desire
for new trade routes, agricultural resources, and fertile land, and established colonies along
Italy’s southern and western coasts. This colonization wave, known as the Greek expansion,
brought the Greek language, culture, and political structures to Italian shores.
Small groups of settlers from various Greek city-states founded Greek colonies in Italy. These
pioneers sought to establish independent city-states that mirrored their homeland’s political and
social structures. Prominent Greek colonies, such as Sybaris, Croton, Tarentum (Taranto), and
Neapolis (Naples), emerged as centers of Greek influence in Italy. They flourished economically,
benefiting from the fertile land and strategic coastal locations. Engaging in maritime trade, they
exported agricultural products, ceramics, and other goods. The colonies played a pivotal role in
expanding Greek influence throughout the Mediterranean, contributing to a vibrant economic
network in the region.
These settlements introduced the Greek language, art, and religious practices to the Italian
peninsula. They implemented Greek-style city planning and agriculture techniques and
constructed impressive temples and theaters. The interaction between Greek settlers, Etruscans,
and the Italic tribes resulted in cultural exchange and the assimilation of Greek customs into local
traditions. However, the relationship between the Greek colonizers and the inhabitants of the
Italian peninsula was not all friendly. Though many encounters between the Etruscans and the
Italic tribes were peaceful trade negotiations, territorial disputes and occasional conflicts arose.
The Greek colonies often faced competition and hostilities from rival powers, notably the
Etruscans and the rising Roman Republic.
In the end, though Greek colonization resulted in the diffusion of Greek culture throughout the
Mediterranean, as the Roman Republic expanded its control over Italy, many Greek colonies
were eventually assimilated into Roman territories. However, the influence of Greek culture on
the region cannot be ignored, as it influenced Rome and, later, the nation of Italy.
In the millennia preceding the rise of the mighty Roman Empire, the Italian peninsula was a
vibrant tapestry of ancient civilizations. From the mysterious Etruscans to the influential Greeks,
the land of Italy bore witness to a rich mosaic of cultures, each leaving its undeniable mark on
the region’s history.
The Etruscans dominated central Italy with their advanced agricultural practices, remarkable
craftsmanship, and intricate religious beliefs. Their city-states flourished, boasting impressive
architecture, elaborate tombs, and a society where women enjoyed unprecedented rights and
social standing.
To the south, Greek colonies thrived along the coastline, transforming Italy into a hub of trade
and cultural exchange. The Greeks brought their language, literature, philosophy, and artistic
traditions, shaping the intellectual landscape of the peninsula. Greek colonies, like Neapolis and
Tarentum, became beacons of Hellenic civilization, fostering economic prosperity and
connections with the wider Mediterranean world.
Meanwhile, the Italic peoples, such as the Samnites and Umbrians, inhabited Italy’s rugged and
diverse regions. These ancient tribes possessed their own distinct cultures, customs, and intricate
social structures. They cultivated the land, constructed impressive fortified settlements, and
engaged in peaceful trade and occasional conflicts with their neighbors.
As these ancient civilizations coexisted and interacted, the Italian peninsula became a dynamic
and ever-evolving river of cultural fusion. It was a place where ideas, traditions, and goods
flowed, influencing one another and leaving a lasting impact on the collective identity of Italy.
Yet, amidst this vibrant tapestry, a new power emerged that would eventually unite and dominate
the entire peninsula—the Romans. Their rise to power and the subsequent transformation of Italy
would forever change the course of history, shaping the region’s destiny and leaving an enduring
legacy that resonates today.
As we turn the page to the next chapter, we delve into the fascinating story of Rome’s ascent and
its profound impact on Italy, tracing the path of an empire that would define the ancient world.
 2

DOMINION OF THE EAGLES: THE ROMAN ERA IN ITALY (753

BCE–476 CE)

A ccording to legend and myth, the founding of Rome is attributed to Romulus and Remus,
twin brothers who were said to have been raised by a she-wolf. The story goes that the
brothers were descendants of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who fled from Troy after its fall and
eventually arrived on the Italian peninsula.
The story of Romulus and Remus has varying forms, but here is the general plotline. As the
twins grew older, they decided to establish a city of their own. However, a dispute arose between
them over the choice of location. Romulus endorsed the Palatine Hill, while Remus desired the
Aventine Hill. Unable to resolve their differences, they sought divine intervention.
Legend has it that they obtained guidance from the gods by observing the flight of birds. Remus
claimed to have seen six birds first, while Romulus later reported seeing twelve. Believing that
the gods favored him, Romulus proceeded to mark the boundaries of his chosen hill by plowing a
furrow around it, symbolizing the walls of the future city.
Remus leaped over the furrow, seemingly mocking his brother’s efforts. Angered by this
defiance, Romulus killed Remus, thus securing his claim as the sole founder of the city. He
named the new settlement "Roma" after himself, and it is said to have been founded on April 21,
753 BCE.
While the founding of Rome is steeped in mythology and legend, historical records suggest that
the city gradually developed through urbanization and the integration of various neighboring
communities. Over time, Rome grew in size and significance, eventually evolving into the
capital of a vast empire that would leave an enduring mark on the world.
There are several recognized periods of Roman history: The Regal Period, the Roman Republic,
and the Roman Empire. The Regal Period of Rome refers to the time of the Roman monarchy. It
is the earliest phase of Rome’s history and is believed to have lasted from approximately 753
BCE to 509 BCE.
According to traditional accounts, seven legendary kings ruled Rome during this period. These
kings are as follows: Romulus (r. 753–716 BCE), Numa Pompilius (r. 715–673 BCE), Tullus
Hostilius (r. 673–642 BCE), Ancus Marcius (r. 642–617 BCE), Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616–579
BCE), Servius Tullius (r. 578–535 BCE), and Tarquinius Superbus (r. 534–509 BCE). Each king
offered something to the foundation of Rome, though the veracity of these legends is quite
unclear.
As the city’s legendary founder, Romulus established the framework for the early Roman state
and its institutions. He also organized the population into military units known as legions. His
successor, Numa Pompilius, was known for his religious reforms and establishment of various
institutions for the faithful. He is credited with creating the calendar and promoting peace and the
arts. Tullus Hostilius, on the other hand, was known as a warlike king who expanded Rome’s
territory and military power. He is often associated with the conflict between Rome and the
ancient neighboring city of Alba Longa.
Ancus Marcius turned his focus inward, honing in on the development of Rome’s infrastructure
and the expansion of the city. He constructed various public buildings, such as the first bridge
across the Tiber River. Tarquinius Priscus was believed to be an Etruscan king who introduced
several innovations to Rome, including the construction of the Circus Maximus (a home for
chariot racing and gladiator games) and the expansion of the Roman Senate. Though his
successor, Servius Tullius, continued Tarquinius Priscus’ political reforms, he also introduced
some adjustments to the Roman military. Best remembered for establishing the Servian
Constitution, which organized Roman society into classes based on wealth, Servius Tullius was
allegedly responsible for the general structure of Roman society. Finally came Tarquinius
Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome. His rule was marked by
tyranny and oppressive governance, leading to the revolt of the Roman people, which ultimately
resulted in the establishment of the Roman Republic.
Remember that the historicity of the Regal Period and the details of the reigns of these kings are
subject to debate and often liberally blend history with mythology and legend. However, these
legendary figures and their stories played a crucial role in shaping Rome’s early identity and
foundation, and there is likely some truth to their existence and accomplishments.
The founding of the Roman Republic marks a significant turning point in Roman history: the
transition from monarchical rule to a system of government based on shared power and
representation. As mentioned earlier, the traditional account of the establishment of the Republic
is attributed to the overthrow of the last Roman king, Tarquinius Superbus, in 509 BCE.
According to legend, Tarquinius Superbus and his family ruled Rome with tyranny and
oppression, which led to growing discontent among the Roman people. The catalyst for the
revolution was the rape of Lucretia, a noblewoman, by Tarquinius’ son. This heinous act
outraged the Roman aristocracy, and they rose up against the oppressive rule of the Tarquin
family.
Lucius Junius Brutus, a prominent Roman noble, played a central role in leading the revolt
against the monarchy. He rallied the Roman people’s support and gained the Senate’s trust.
Together with Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, they formed a coalition to
oust the Tarquin family and establish a new system of government.
The Romans declared themselves a republic, with Brutus and Collatinus serving as the first
consuls. The consuls were established as elected officials who held executive and military
powers. Responsible for leading the state, executing laws, and commanding the military, the rise
of the consuls and the formation of the Republic also marked the end of hereditary kingship and
the introduction of term limits for elected officials.
Based on the principle of res publica, meaning "public affair" or "commonwealth,” the Roman
Republic aimed to distribute power among different institutions and prevent the concentration of
authority in a single individual or family. The Republic was governed by a system of checks and
balances, which included the Senate, assemblies, and magistrates. The Senate, composed of
influential and experienced individuals, served as an advisory and legislative body. Meanwhile,
the assemblies provided a platform for Roman citizens to participate in decision-making, vote on
laws, and elect officials. Lastly, various magistrates were appointed to enforce laws and
administer justice.
The founding of the Roman Republic marked a new era in Roman history, characterized by a
more inclusive and participatory form of government. The five centuries that it endured from 509
to 27 BCE saw a time of political, social, and military transformations that shaped the destiny of
Rome and laid the foundation for its later empire. Though massive tomes could be written about
many of the events that occurred throughout Rome’s existence, note that this text will only
briefly scratch the surface to offer all the salient points about Italy’s vast history.
Even though the Republic offered a more equitable governing solution for its people than the
monarchy, this did not mean class struggles and conflicts evaporated. The Republic’s early days
saw the Conflict of the Orders, spanning from 494 to 287 BCE. It was a pivotal struggle within
the Roman Republic between the patricians (aristocratic class) and the plebeians (common
citizens). The plebeians, facing economic hardships and political marginalization, fought for
greater representation and protection of their rights. Through persistent efforts, they gained
concessions, such as the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs, a position that allowed plebeians to
veto legislation and protect their interests. Over time, the Conflict of the Orders led to greater
social and political equality, as the plebeians secured the ability to participate in the Republic’s
decision-making processes, challenging the patrician elite’s dominance.
Conflict also swelled abroad between the Romans and their various neighbors. Driven by a
desire for security and resources, Rome embarked on a path of territorial expansion. The
Republic engaged in a series of wars, including the Samnite Wars (343–c. 295 BCE) and the
Pyrrhic War (280–275 BCE), through which it gradually expanded its dominion over the Italian
peninsula.
With their homeland largely subdued, the Romans turned their eyes abroad, particularly to the
powerful maritime civilization of Carthage. Founded by the Phoenicians, this ancient culture
rivaled Rome in wealth, military might, and cultural influence, leaving an enduring legacy in
history. Rome’s epic struggles against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars (264–146 BCE),
defined the Republic’s rivalry with the great North African power. Led by military geniuses such
as Scipio Africanus, Rome emerged victorious, securing its dominance in the Mediterranean and
gaining new territories.
Beyond Northern Africa, Rome’s influence extended eastward with the Macedonian Wars (214–
148 BCE) against the Hellenistic Kingdoms. These conflicts, marked by famous battles like
Cynoscephalae (197 BCE) and Pydna (168 BCE), led to the Roman conquest of Greece and
established its supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean.
Yet, even as Rome amassed more and more territory, conflict continually bubbled within their
capital city. The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, were Roman politicians who championed
social and economic reforms in the late Republic. Tiberius sought to address land concentration
by proposing agrarian reforms, while Gaius aimed for a broader range of reforms, including land
redistribution and extending rights to the plebeians. Both faced fierce opposition from the
senatorial class, leading to violent confrontations and their eventual deaths. Their efforts to tackle
inequality and challenge the power of the elites left a lasting scar on Roman politics, establishing
a precedent for pursuing political objectives through radical means and highlighting the growing
social tensions within the Republic.
The tragic demise of the Gracchi brothers created a power vacuum in the Roman Republic and
heightened the existing political instability. It set the stage for the rise of Julius Caesar, who
would emerge as a formidable figure, shaping the course of Roman history and ultimately
leading to the transformation of the Republic into an empire.
Born on July 12 or 13, 100 BCE, Julius Caesar was a prominent Roman statesman, military
general, and one of the most influential figures in ancient history. As is evident by his massive
historical importance, he was a necessary ingredient in the transition from the Roman Republic
to the Roman Empire.
Caesar came from a noble family and rose through Roman politics and military ranks with
charisma, intelligence, and military acumen. He served as a military commander in various
campaigns, including the conquest of Gaul (modern-day France), where he demonstrated
exceptional leadership and won consequential military victories. His campaigns in Gaul
expanded Rome’s territories and brought him immense wealth and popularity among his troops.
Caesar’s political career was equally remarkable. To consolidate power, Julius Caesar, Pompey
the Great, and Marcus Lincinius Crassus formed a political alliance known as the First
Triumvirate. This unofficial partnership allowed them to exert significant influence over Roman
politics, but tensions among the triumvirs would eventually lead to conflict.
In 49 BCE, Caesar defied the Roman Senate’s orders and crossed the Rubicon River,
symbolically starting a civil war against Pompey and the Senate. This marked a point of no
return, as it was an open rebellion against the Roman state. Caesar emerged victorious after a
series of military campaigns, culminating in the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE.
With his triumph, Caesar assumed absolute power and established himself as a dictator. He
implemented numerous reforms to address social and political issues, such as land redistribution,
reforming the calendar (introducing the Julian calendar), and granting Roman citizenship to more
individuals across the empire. These reforms aimed to bolster his popularity and consolidate his
rule.
However, Caesar’s increasing power and ambitions unsettled many senators and aristocrats who
feared the erosion of the Republic’s traditional institutions. On the Ides of March (March 15), 44
BCE, Caesar was assassinated by a group of senators led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius
Cassius Longinus, who believed that his rule threatened Rome’s dearly held republican
principles.
Julius Caesar’s legacy is profound. He is renowned for his military genius, political acumen, and
administrative reforms. His life and death marked a turning point in Roman history, leading to
the Roman Republic’s end and the Roman Empire’s rise under Augustus Caesar. Caesar’s name
became synonymous with the consolidation of power, the shift from republican rule to autocracy,
and the beginning of imperial governance in Rome.
This violent assassination of Caesar plunged Rome into chaos. Eventually, it ushered in a power
struggle between his supporters, led by Mark Antony, and his assassins, led by Brutus and
Cassius. At this time, Gaius Octavius (also known as Octavian), Caesar’s adopted heir, emerged
as an influential figure in Roman politics. He formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and this struggle between the Triumvirate and Caeser’s assassins
culminated in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. Antony and Octavian emerged victorious, and
together with Lepidus, they divided the Roman world between them.
However, the alliance of the Second Triumvirate eventually dissolved. Lepidus’ influence
waned, setting up a bitter clash between Octavian and Antony, who had allied himself with the
Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. This all came to a head at the Battle of Actium. Fought on September
2, 31 BCE, Actium was a naval engagement between the forces of Octavian and Antony, with
support from his Cleopatra. Octavian triumphed conclusively and secured his position as the sole
ruler of Rome. His gain was Antony’s loss, as the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra led to their
downfall and eventual death. In 27 BCE, he assumed the title of Augustus, marking the end of
the Republic and the birth of the Roman Empire. The Republic’s prior republican ideals and
institutions were gradually transformed into a centralized imperial system.
With the establishment of the Roman Empire under the reign of Augustus Caesar (r. 27 BCE–14
CE), a new era began. Augustus laid the foundation for a stable and centralized imperial
government that would endure for centuries. During the early days of the Roman Empire, the
principate system was established, with the emperor holding supreme power but still giving the
appearance of republican governance. Augustus set a precedent for future emperors, and his
successors continued to build Roman authority.
He oversaw the initiation of the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace, which is generally considered to
have started around the dawn of his rule and lasted until around 180 CE—this period of
approximately two centuries witnessed relative peace and stability within the Roman Empire.
Characterized by a decline in large-scale military conflicts, the expansion and consolidation of
Roman rule, the promotion of trade and economic prosperity, and advancements in art,
architecture, and literature, the Pax Romana set the stage for the subsequent centuries of Roman
dominance.
Following Augustus, the four successive emperors belonged to the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
Tiberius (r. 14–37 CE), Caligula (r. 37–41 CE), Claudius (r. 41–54 CE), and Nero (r. 54–68)
ruled with varying degrees of success and infamy. The empire experienced relative stability
during the reign of Tiberius, but the rules of Caligula and Nero were marked by corruption,
extravagance, and cruelty.
After Nero’s death by suicide, there was a chaotic interlude before the Flavian Dynasty (69–96
CE) re-established order. Founded by Vespasian (r. 69–79 CE), his reign oversaw a
reconstruction of Rome, including the iconic Colosseum, which became a symbol of imperial
power and spectacle. His son Titus (r. 79–81 CE) continued his father’s legacy, completing the
Colosseum and demonstrating capable leadership during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
However, it was Domitian (r. 81–96), the younger brother of Titus, whose reign displayed a
more autocratic style. Despite his accomplishments in military campaigns and infrastructure
projects, Domitian’s authoritarian rule sparked discontent, leading to his ultimate assassination.
The early empire was a time of outstanding advancements in art, literature, and architecture.
Roman culture flourished, with poets like Virgil and Ovid, historians like Tacitus, and architects
like Vitruvius leaving lasting contributions. Monumental structures, like the Colosseum, were
built, showcasing the engineering and architectural prowess of the empire.
After the reigns of the Julio-Claudian and Flavian dynasties, Rome entered a period of critical
political and social changes. This period, often called the "Adoptive Emperors" or the "Five
Good Emperors," spanned from the late 1st century CE to the early 2nd century CE.
The Adoptive Emperors, namely Nerva (r. 96–98 CE), Trajan (r. 98–117 CE), Hadrian (r. 117–
138 CE), Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 CE), and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180 CE), were known
for their successful governance and the peaceful transfer of power through adoption. They
prioritized the welfare of the empire, improved administration, and implemented policies aimed
at benefiting the populace. This era was characterized by relative stability, economic prosperity,
and territorial expansion.
Trajan, in particular, led the empire to its greatest territorial extent, encompassing vast regions of
Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. His expansions led Rome to the zenith of its size
with conquests that included the annexation of Dacia (modern-day Romania) and the capture of
the prosperous city of Petra in Arabia. As a result, the Roman Empire controlled a diverse array
of peoples and cultures, fostering a rich cultural exchange and influencing various aspects of
governance, law, language, and architecture.
Hadrian, known for his extensive travels throughout the empire, focused on consolidating and
fortifying the frontiers. He initiated the construction of Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, which marked
the northern limit of the Roman Empire, and implemented defensive measures to secure the
borders.
As a natural consequence of its territorial gains, Rome enjoyed economic growth driven by trade,
agriculture, and the exploitation of natural resources. The empire became the premiere center of
commerce and wealth, brimming with bustling cities and flourishing industries. Construction of
grand public works and monumental buildings, such as the Pantheon and Trajan’s Forum,
showcased the empire’s architectural prowess and opulence. The intellectual and cultural scene
also thrived with publications from prominent writers and thinkers such as Epictetus, Pliny the
Younger, Juvenal, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius himself, reflecting the philosophical and
moral ideals of the time.
The height of the Roman Empire is generally considered to have occurred during the time of the
Five Good Emperors, particularly under the reign of Emperor Trajan. This Golden Age is often
referred to as the "High Roman Empire,” and it marked the pinnacle of Rome’s territorial extent,
military power, and cultural influence.
However, the height of the Roman Empire was not devoid of challenges and internal tensions.
As the empire expanded, it faced increasing pressures and strains on governance, economy, and
military resources. While the 2nd century CE represented a time of remarkable achievements, it
also foreshadowed the complexities and eventual decline the Roman Empire would face in the
centuries to come. The specters of succession, border defense (particularly against the Germanic
tribes), economic pressures, social cohesion, corruption, and conflict from within haunted the
time of the Five Good Emperors and would only grow as the years passed.
After the death of Marcus Aurelius, the reign of his son, Commodus (r. 180–192 CE), proved
tyrannical and ineffective. Here began the slow, painful downward spiral of the Roman Empire.
While pinpointing a single cause for the decline is complex, various factors contributed to its
gradual unraveling. Commodus, known for his extravagant lifestyle and despotic rule, marked
the beginning of a series of weak and ineffective emperors who were bedeviled by military
coups, civil wars, and various political upheavals. Their mismanagement of the empire’s affairs,
rampant corruption, and self-serving policies eroded the stability and integrity of the state. The
deterioration of the political system resulted in frequent assassinations, civil wars, and a decline
in effective governance.
External threats also posed significant challenges to the empire. Germanic invasions from the
north, particularly by the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, and other tribes, put pressure on the
frontiers and weakened the empire’s defenses. Concurrently, the Sassanid Empire in the east
proved to be a formidable rival, leading to conflicts and territorial losses for Rome.
Economic troubles plagued the empire as well. Inflation, debasement of the currency, and
financial mismanagement caused economic instability. The reliance on slave labor and the
decline of small-scale farming disrupted the rural economy, leading to social unrest and a
growing divide between the wealthy elite and the impoverished masses.
Internal divisions and the loss of a unified sense of identity also played a role in the empire’s
downfall. The spread of Christianity, while offering solace to many, weakened traditional Roman
religious and cultural beliefs. The increasing fragmentation of the empire into separate regions
with their own aspirations and loyalties further eroded the unity that had once sustained Rome.
By the 5th century CE, the Western Roman Empire faced continued invasions, political
fragmentation, and a lack of effective central authority. In 476 CE, the last Roman emperor,
tragically and poetically named Romulus Augustus (r. 475–476 CE), was deposed by Odoacer, a
Germanic chieftain, marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Though the Eastern Roman
Empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, would continue until its seat in Constantinople
was sacked by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 CE, the Rome of Romulus, Julius Caesar, and
Caesar Augustus faded into the mists of time. The eagle, the telltale standard of the Roman
Legion, flew no more.
As this chapter on Rome closes, all that remains is a profound appreciation for its enduring
impact on Italian history and the world at large. From its humble origins as a small village to its
rise as a mighty empire, Rome enjoys an enduring legacy in politics, law, architecture, literature,
and culture. It has been a beacon of power and a crucible of civilization, showcasing both the
heights of human achievement and the depths of human frailty. The story of Rome is one of
triumph and tragedy, grandeur and decline, but through it all, the Eternal City has remained a
symbol of resilience and timeless fascination. The lessons and legacy of Rome are a high point in
the annals of Italian history, forever shaping the understanding of the past and informing the
aspirations for the future.
 3

A SPLINTERED LEGACY: ITALY AFTER THE FALL (476–1100 CE)

T heof political
resounding echoes of a once-great empire faded away, leaving behind a shattered mosaic
upheaval, cultural transformation, and uncertain futures. Once the crown jewel of
the Roman Empire, Italy stood as a fragmented land, its majestic cities bearing witness to the
ebb and flow of conquerors and conquerors-to-be. With the demise of the Western Roman
Empire in 476 CE, the stage was set for a tumultuous era that would shape the destiny of Italy
and reverberate across the ages. As the dust settled and the shadow of Rome began to wane, a
vivid tapestry of kingdoms, republics, and empires emerged, each vying for supremacy in a land
teeming with rich history and relentless spirit.
Though the previous chapter primarily focused on the legacy of the Western Roman Empire, for
clarity’s sake, it is important to take a moment to rehash the fate of the Eastern Roman Empire.
By the 3rd century CE, the Roman Empire had become too vast to be effectively governed from
a single center. As a result, the empire was divided administratively into two parts: the Western
Roman Empire, with its capital in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital in
Byzantium (later known as Constantinople).
As previously noted, the decline of the Roman Empire in the West was marked by a series of
internal conflicts, external invasions, economic challenges, and administrative problems.
Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305 CE) attempted to stabilize the empire in the late 3rd and early
4th centuries CE. He introduced administrative reforms, including the division of power and the
establishment of the Tetrarchy, which involved the appointment of two Augusti (senior
emperors) and two Caesars (junior emperors) to govern different regions of the empire. This
division set the stage for the eventual split between East and West.
Emperor Constantine the Great, who ruled from 306 to 337 CE, played a crucial role in the split.
He established Byzantium as his new capital, which he renamed Constantinople (present-day
Istanbul). This signaled a shift in power and influence toward the eastern regions of the empire.
The Theodosian Dynasty, particularly Emperor Theodosius I (r. East 379–392 CE, East and West
392–395 CE), further solidified the division between East and West. The empire was officially
divided into two separate entities in 395 CE after Theodosius’ death, with his sons Arcadius
ruling the East and Honorius the West.
Over time, the Eastern and Western Roman Empires developed distinct cultural and religious
identities. The Eastern Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, had a predominantly
Greek-speaking population and was heavily influenced by Greek and Eastern traditions. In
contrast, the Western Empire, centered in Rome, maintained its Latin language and customs. The
two also had differing theologies, with Catholics in the West answering to the pope in Rome and
Orthodox Christians in the East beholden to the patriarch in Constantinople.
The influence of Roman authority on these two religious figures would direct European history
for the next several centuries. In the West, there was no strong ruler (particularly after 476 CE) to
check the increasing power of the papacy. As a result, many of the ensuing centuries in Europe
revolved around which entities should ultimately have more power: the pope or the kings. In the
Eastern Roman Empire, however, the emperor appointed the patriarch directly, making it clear
who was in charge. This practice is referred to as “caesaropapism,” or the practice of placing the
secular offices above and in charge of religious ones.
First to rise from the ashes of the Western Roman Empire were the very people responsible for
the final nail in its coffin: the Germanic tribes. In 476 CE, Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain and
military leader of the Heruli, Sciri, and Rugii, led a revolt against the last Western Roman
Emperor, Romulus Augustus. Odoacer deposed him, bringing an end to the Western Roman
Empire. This event is often considered the official end of the ancient Roman Empire.
After the deposition of Romulus Augustus, Odoacer did not declare himself emperor. Instead, he
sought recognition and legitimacy from the Eastern Roman Emperor, Zeno (r. 474–491 CE). In
480 CE, Zeno appointed Odoacer as the patrician and ruler of Italy, acknowledging his authority.
In doing so, Odoacer became the first barbarian king of Italy. He maintained a relatively
amicable relationship with the Eastern Roman Empire at first. He recognized the nominal
suzerainty of the Eastern Roman Emperor and sent regular payments as a sign of loyalty.
However, Odoacer effectively ruled Italy as an independent kingdom, making his own decisions
regarding internal affairs.
A combination of Germanic military leadership and Roman administrative structures
characterized his rule in Italy. Still, he kept a lot of the original framework of Imperial Rome in
place. He adopted a policy of maintaining Roman governmental institutions and legal systems.
Odoacer allowed prominent Roman aristocrats to retain their positions in government. Many of
the established elite continued to hold administrative roles and seats of power. Mainly, he sought
to maintain a sense of continuity and reinforce his legitimacy by incorporating Rome’s essence
into his rule.
Odoacer’s reign faced challenges from other Germanic tribes, particularly the Ostrogoths led by
Theodoric the Great. Theodoric had been a thorn in the side of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno for
some time. Aware of his military prowess, Zeno had named Theodoric Master of Soldiers in 483
CE. However, unsatisfied with the rewards bestowed on him for protecting the Byzantine Empire
from outside invaders, he began a campaign against Zeno, raiding and pillaging the lands he had
once protected.
It is unknown which party—Zeno or Theodoric—suggested that he overthrow Odoacer, but
sometime around 488 CE, Theodoric initiated a campaign to conquer Italy with Zeno’s support.
After all, Zeno, though he had initially approved of Odoacer’s kingship, had soured on the
monarch over time since Odoacer had caused problems for the empire by acting increasingly
independent of Zeno’s control. At last, in 493 CE, after years of conflict, Theodoric finally
defeated and subsequently killed Odoacer. Thus the peninsula fell into new hands, establishing
the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy.
However, despite the leadership change, it was very much a case of “Meet the new boss, same as
the old boss.” Like Odoacer, Theodoric sought to maintain Roman administrative structures and
promote stability in Italy. He respected Roman traditions, laws, and institutions and often
presented himself as a defender of Roman culture. Theodoric implemented a well-organized
administration that combined Gothic and Roman elements. He appointed Roman senators and
bureaucrats alongside Gothic officials, fostering a sense of integration.
Theodoric’s court became a center of cultural patronage. He encouraged the restoration of public
buildings, aqueducts, and monuments, contributing to the preservation of Roman heritage.
Theodoric attracted notable scholars and intellectuals, creating a climate of learning and
intellectual exchange.
Religious tolerance was also a central aspect of Theodoric’s rule. He pursued a policy of
religious reconciliation between the Arian Christian Ostrogoths and the Catholic Christian
majority in Italy. Theodoric allowed religious freedom and supported the construction and
restoration of churches. However, tensions between the Arian Goths and Catholic Romans
occasionally led to skirmishes. For all his talk of tolerance, Theodoric favored Arian Christianity
over Catholicism, leading to some instances of mistreatment of Catholic bishops and clergy
members. It is important to add that Arian Christians were also persecuted within the Byzantine
Empire, where Eastern Orthodoxy was the primary form of Christianity.
Religion has not been a prominent topic of discussion thus far, but a brief sidebar is warranted to
explain the differences between Arian Christianity and Catholicism. Arianism arose in the early
4th century CE thanks to the work of Arius, a Christian presbyter from Alexandria, Egypt. Arian
Christians believe that Jesus Christ, as the Son of God, was created by God the Father and was,
therefore, subordinate to the Father. They rejected the concept of the Holy Trinity as co-equal
and consubstantial (of one substance), emphasizing the distinction between the persons of God
the Father and Jesus Christ, his son.
Conversely, Roman Catholics, who trace their identity and roots back to the earliest Christian
communities in Rome, follow the teachings of the Bible, tradition, and the authority of the pope,
who is considered the successor of Saint Peter and the head of the Catholic Church. Unlike the
Arians, Catholics believe wholeheartedly in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, that is, the concept
that God exists in three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy Spirit.
They consider the Father, Son and Holy Spirit to be consubstantial.
Arianism was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church, as it contradicted the doctrine of the
Holy Trinity that later became central to Christian belief. Most Christians in the world today are
Trinitarians. The Arian controversy had significant theological and political implications, leading
to debates, divisions, and conflicts within the early Christian community.
Over time, Arianism gradually lost influence, especially after the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE,
where the Christian position was solidified, and Arian doctrines were rejected. With its
theological framework and hierarchical structure, Catholicism became the dominant form of
Christianity in Western Europe and beyond. However, Arianism gained and maintained weighty
influence and support among Germanic tribes, including the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, who
adopted this belief as they converted from pagan religions to Christianity.
Returning to the political intrigue at hand, after Theodoric died in 526 CE, tensions between the
Goths and Romans escalated. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565 CE) seized the
opportunity to reassert imperial control over Italy and launched a military campaign. Driven by a
relentless ambition to restore the former glory of the Roman Empire, he dispatched his loyal
general, Belisarius, in 535 CE to recapture Italy from the Ostrogoths.
However, the Gothic War (535–554 CE) was far from a swift and easy conquest. The Byzantines
faced fierce resistance from the Ostrogothic forces, and the conflict spanned nearly two decades,
with both sides engaged in a grueling and protracted struggle for dominance. Finally, in 553 CE,
at the Battle of Mons Lactarius, the Byzantines, led by General Narses, defeated the last
Ostrogothic king, Teïas, ending their rule in Italy and establishing Byzantine Italy.
The Ostrogothic Kingdom was crucial in transitioning from Roman rule to Germanic domination
in Italy. Theodoric’s policies, aimed at blending Gothic and Roman elements, left a lasting
impact on the subsequent history of the land. The kingdom’s cultural patronage and preservation
of Roman heritage influenced the development of arts, architecture, and intellectual pursuits. The
Byzantine conquest that followed marked a new phase in Italy’s history, shaping its political and
cultural outlook in the centuries to come.
Italy, under Byzantine rule, had a well-defined political and administrative structure. As a
province of the Byzantine Empire, Italy was governed by an appointed Exarch serving as the
emperor’s representative. The Exarchate of Ravenna, established in the 6th century CE, emerged
as the political and administrative center of the region. The Exarch, residing in Ravenna, held
authority over a considerable portion of the Italian peninsula, particularly the central and
northeastern areas. Responsible for maintaining imperial control, defending Byzantine interests,
and overseeing the province’s administration, the Exarch of Ravenna wielded significant power,
including military command, judicial matters, tax collection, and general governance. Byzantine
administrative practices, including taxation systems, legal codes, and administrative divisions,
left a mark on the regions under Byzantine rule. Some Italian cities, such as Venice, later adopted
elements of Byzantine administrative structures in their governance.
However, despite the Byzantine Empire’s Roman origins, the spread of their rule altered Italy’s
cultural output. During their years stationed in Constantinople, the Eastern Roman Empire had
adopted various practices of art and architecture that significantly differentiated them from their
Western brethren. Byzantine mosaics, characterized by intricate designs, vibrant colors, religious
motifs, and their signature gold background, adorned churches and public buildings. The Basilica
of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo are prime examples of
Byzantine-influenced architecture in Italy. These structures featured domes, arches, and ornate
decorations that reflected signature Byzantine aesthetics.
Furthermore, although Orthodox Christianity—the primary religion of the Byzantine Empire—
did not formally split from the Catholic Church until the Great Schism of 1054 CE, some
uniquely Byzantine religious traditions still crept over to Italy at this time. One such practice
would be the use and veneration of religious icons, though the use of icons in worship would
become a source of great controversy later in the Byzantine Empire.
Another significant change during Byzantine rule was the influx of the Byzantine Greek
language. Latin had reigned supreme during the time of the Romans, and Ostrogothic was
introduced by the Germanic tribes. However, Byzantine Greek was the primary language for
writing and administration. Luckily, Byzantine scholars and texts played a role in preserving and
transmitting Greek and Roman knowledge to the Italian Renaissance. Without them, much of the
ancient wisdom from Greece and Rome might have been lost to the ages. The literary and
intellectual endeavors of later Italian writers and thinkers like Dante Alighieri were influenced by
such works.
Yet, despite all this art, power, influence, and growth, the Byzantine Empire faced mounting
pressures at home and abroad that seriously impaired its ability to maintain long-term control
over the Italian peninsula. The first of such challenges was the rising strength of yet another
Germanic tribe.
The Lombards, originating from northern Europe, began their migration southward in the late 6th
century CE. In 568 CE, they invaded Italy, seeking to establish their own independent kingdom,
and swiftly conquered large portions of the peninsula, including northern and central regions.
They established their capital at Pavia and founded the Lombard Kingdom, or alternately, the
Kingdom of the Lombards.
With a foothold in Italy, the Lombards continued their assault on the Byzantine territories under
a series of aggressive and capable kings. For several decades, as the Byzantines struggled to
control Italy, the Lombards continued adding more land to their domain, pushing the Byzantines
out to the fringes of the Italian coast. Eventually, the Lombard Kingdom covered a substantial
portion of Italy, with the Byzantine Empire retaining control over the Exarchate of Ravenna and
some coastal cities, notably Venice.
The Lombard incursion brought noteworthy changes to Italy’s political and cultural makeup.
Establishing a distinct Germanic kingdom, characterized by their own legal code (the Lombard
laws), customs, and political institutions, their rule introduced a decentralized system of
governance, with power held by Lombard dukes ruling over various duchies within the kingdom.
This kind of decentralized governance continued to be the norm throughout Italy until its
eventual reunification in 1861 CE.
Yet, their presence was not a case of all-out dominance. The Lombards also interacted and
assimilated with the existing Roman population, adopting aspects of Roman culture and
administration. This led to a fusion of Germanic and Roman influences within their kingdom.
Italy was now semi-fragmented, divided between various Lombard duchies, Byzantine-
controlled territories, and independent city-states. The Duchy of Benevento in southern Italy was
one of these independent regions. Though ruled by Lombard dukes, it was the most
unconstrained of all the duchies since the steadily growing papal territories around Rome
separated it from the Lombard Kingdom’s central portion.
The Lombard Kingdom survived for over two centuries, but in 774 CE, a Frankish king came
calling, one with his sights set on far greater ambitions than just Italy: Charlemagne. He was the
ruler of the Franks, a Germanic people who inhabited the region corresponding to present-day
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and parts of Germany during the early medieval years. They
emerged as a prominent group during the Migration Period (500–1500 CE), and their rising
presence just prior to that is thought to have contributed to the eventual fall of the Western
Roman Empire.
Also known as Charles the Great, Charlemagne ruled from 768 to 814 CE and expanded his
regional Frankish kingdom into a vast empire known as the Carolingian Empire. As one of the
most memorable and powerful rulers in medieval Europe, Charlemagne’s reign marked the peak
of Frankish power and the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance, characterized by a cultural
and intellectual revival in the empire. The Franks’ military prowess, political organization, and
close alliance with the Church were central to their success and the establishment of
Charlemagne’s empire.
As stated previously, in the 8th century, Italy was divided into various Lombard duchies and the
Papal States, with the Lombards being the dominant power. The Papacy sought assistance from
external forces to protect itself against Lombard aggression. Pope Adrian I appealed to
Charlemagne for assistance against the Lombards, and in 773 CE Charlemagne answered his call
by crossing the Alps with his Frankish forces and launching a military campaign to protect the
Pontiff’s interests.
Systematically, the Frankish forces vanquished Lombardian strongholds, one after another. By
774 CE, Charlemagne had seized Pavia, the Lombard capital, and deposed King Desiderius (r.
757–774 CE), ending Lombard rule in Italy. In recognition of his military success, Charlemagne
was crowned the King of the Lombards by Pope Adrian I. This further legitimized his authority
over the conquered Lombard territories.
Charlemagne aimed to establish a united Christian empire in Europe, and the conquest of Italy
was a step towards that goal. He sought to consolidate his power by implementing administrative
and political reforms and spreading Christianity. Thus, Charlemagne’s alliance with the Papacy
continued, and he became a patron of the Church. The pope recognized Charlemagne’s authority
and supported his efforts. This close relationship between the Frankish rulers and the Papacy
would have long-lasting implications for the future of Europe.
The Frankish invasion brought significant changes to Italy. Charlemagne’s rule marked a shift
from Lombard dominance to Frankish control. Unlike former conquerors Odoacer and
Theodoric, Charlemagne was not interested in maintaining the administrative structure of his
newly conquered lands. The Lombard aristocracy was largely replaced by Frankish nobles, who
formed a ruling class in the region. He also initiated political reforms that introduced elements of
Frankish governance to Italy. However, despite the upheaval, Italy experienced a period of
relative peace and prosperity under Charlemagne’s rule. He encouraged trade and supported the
development of towns and cities. Charlemagne also tried to revive education and culture,
establishing schools and promoting learning throughout his empire.
His reign and achievements had a profound impact on the subsequent history of Europe.
Charlemagne’s coronation as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800 CE
symbolized the revival of the Roman Empire and the renewal of the title "Emperor of the
Romans" since the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. It marked a dedication to carry
on the memory of Rome in their governance that persists to this day.
After Charlemagne died in 814 CE, his empire was divided among his sons, and Italy became a
part of the larger Carolingian realm. Over time, the Carolingian Empire weakened, and Italy saw
the rise of local powers and the emergence of independent city-states.
The region continued to have local power struggles while the Byzantine Empire maintained its
presence in southern Italy and Sicily. However, the Byzantine hold on Italy steadily weakened as
the years passed. The empire faced constant pressure, first from the Lombards and then from the
Franks, who sought to expand their territories and diminish Byzantine influence in Italy. Already
debilitated by the establishment of the Lombard Kingdom, Byzantine power faded even further
when Charlemagne entered the picture. The continuous fighting became a financial strain on the
empire.
Constant military expenses and the cost of maintaining imperial administration stretched
resources thin. The local population often perceived Byzantine taxation policies as oppressive,
contributing to dissatisfaction and resistance. Furthermore, internal imperial power struggles and
conflicts diverted attention and resources away from Italy. Rival factions and court intrigue
deteriorated the government and left Italy vulnerable to external pressures. By the 800s CE, the
political instability within the empire truly hindered an effective response to the challenges in
Italy. This trend would continue well into the next two centuries.
While the Byzantines attempted to manage the unchecked expansion of the new Frankish king to
the north, a new problem entered from the south: a group of Arabic people, sometimes referred
to as Moors or Saracens. Initial Muslim incursions into Sicily began towards the end of the 8th
century CE. These mainly were Arab and Berber Muslims who came to the island as raiders and
gradually established control.
In 827 CE, a prominent Arab expedition was launched against Sicily under the leadership of
Asad ibn al-Furat. The Byzantines suffered a series of defeats, and by 831 CE, the Muslims had
captured Palermo, the Byzantine capital of Sicily. Later that same year, the Emirate of Sicily was
formally established by Emir Ziyadat Allah I of the Aghlabid dynasty, the rulers of Ifriqiya
(present-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria).
The Aghlabids controlled Ifriqiya on behalf of the larger Abbasid Caliphate that ruled most of
the Middle East and a large portion of North Africa. Under Muslim rule, Sicily grew into a
prosperous and cosmopolitan center. The emirate’s capital was Palermo, which became a
thriving city known for its architectural achievements, vibrant markets, and cultural diversity.
Other major cities on the island included Syracuse and Catania.
The Muslim Emirate of Sicily held strong until 1091 CE, despite continual challenges from the
Byzantines. In the end, a different people expelled the Muslim powers from the island: the
Normans. A medieval people with Norse roots who emerged as a distinct group in the 10th
century CE, the Normans established their homeland in an area in modern-day France known as
Normandy. Renowned for their military prowess, ambitious conquests, and cultural
achievements, they began expanding their territories beyond Normandy. One of the notable early
achievements was the Norman conquest of England in 1066 CE. Led by William the Conqueror
(also known as William I of England), the Normans defeated the English forces at the Battle of
Hastings, leading to the Norman establishment of the Kingdom of England.
Aside from England, the Normans embarked on ambitious European and Mediterranean
conquests. These expeditions included the Norman invasion of southern Italy, led by Robert
Guiscard and his brother Roger. Gradually gaining ground in Sicily over thirty years, the
Normans had conquered the island by the late 11th century CE and ended Muslim rule. The
Norman Kingdom of Sicily was established, marking a momentous shift in the region’s political
landscape.
The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was particularly notable for its multicultural character. The
Normans assimilated with the local Arab, Byzantine, and Lombard populations, creating a
unique blend of cultures and fostering intellectual and cultural advancements. The Norman rulers
of Sicily, such as Roger II and Frederick II, patronized the arts, sciences, and literature, creating
a vibrant and cosmopolitan court. With its strategic location, diverse cultural influences, and
flourishing trade economy, the Kingdom of Sicily became a major center of power and
innovation during the medieval era.
Returning to the mainland of Italy after the death of Charlemagne in 814 CE, the Carolingian
Empire, which encompassed a large portion of Western Europe, began to face challenges. It was
an empire built around one man’s strength and charisma rather than the nation’s power. When
the empire was divided among Charlemagne’s sons, this fragmentation profoundly affected Italy
and its political future.
Without Charlemagne’s strong personality holding the empire together, Italy experienced a
period of political instability as various local powers emerged and sought to assert their
authority. Charlemagne’s sons and the following Carolingian kings struggled to maintain control
over Italy. Still, in the end, the local nobles and bishops often wielded consequential power in
their respective regions.
One of the key developments during this time was the rise of independent city-states. The cities
in Italy, such as Venice, Milan, Florence, and Genoa, began to assert their autonomy and develop
their governments and economies. These city-states became important centers of commerce,
culture, and political power, shaping the future of Italy.
There was also a remarkable rise in papal power. The Papal or Pontifical States had begun to
grow as early as the 8th century CE. However, it was under the reign of Pope Stephen II (r. 752–
757 CE) and his successors that the land holdings of the Papacy expanded further. The most
significant donation came from Pepin the Short (or Pippin), King of the Franks and
Charlemagne’s father. After warring with the Lombards, he gifted some territories he had won to
the pope in 756 CE. Known as the Donation of Pepin (Pippin), this donation included the
Exarchate of Ravenna and some other territories in central Italy.
Charlemagne further enlarged the Papal States during the late 8th and early 9th centuries CE. He
confirmed and expanded the previous donations, granting additional territories and privileges to
the Papacy. Though the lands held by the Roman Pontiff have dwindled over the ensuing
centuries, the Vatican City within Rome remains an independent city-state, serving as the
spiritual and administrative headquarters of the Catholic Church.
Aside from the land mass the papacy was steadily acquiring, the pope also began to play a
crucial role in the political affairs of Italy, with popes seeking alliances and protection from
external powers, often turning to the Carolingian rulers and later to the emperors of the Holy
Roman Empire. This interaction between the Papacy and secular monarchs would become a
defining characteristic of Italian politics in the following centuries.
Aside from seeking agreements with secular leaders, the Catholic Church also used its ability to
create doctrines and religious laws to its advantage. A series of reforms enacted by Pope Gregory
VII (r. 1073–1085 CE) aimed to address various issues within the Church, particularly focusing
on the papacy’s independence and power. Known as the Gregorian Reforms, these measures
sought to strengthen the capacity and autonomy of the papacy by asserting its authority over
secular rulers, curbing simony (the buying and selling of ecclesiastical offices), and combating
clerical marriage and lay investiture.
Pope Gregory VII worked to assert papal supremacy through these reforms, meaning that the
pope held ultimate authority over the Church, including secular rulers and bishops. He
thoroughly believed it was his duty as the Vicar of Christ on Earth to depose secular rulers if
deemed unfit or acting against the Church’s best interests.
Gregory VII also strove to eliminate what he saw as moral quandaries bedeviling the Church.
Chief among his complaints was the widespread practice of simony. This was rampant during the
medieval period, with ecclesiastical offices bought and sold for financial gain. To stamp it out,
Gregory VII decreed that the buying or selling of Church offices was invalid and threatened any
individual involved with the punishment of ex-communication.
Another thorn in Gregory VII’s side was clerical matrimony. He heavily promoted celibacy for
the priesthood, believing that married clergy were far more susceptible to secular influences and
conflicts of interest than those who remained single and chaste. Lastly, he did away with the
practice of lay investiture. Until the Gregorian Reforms, it was common for secular rulers to
appoint bishops and other church officials that resided within their various kingdoms. Gregory
VII considered this an infringement on the Church’s independence and authority. He argued that
only the pope, the spiritual head of the Church, had the right to appoint bishops.
The reforms initiated by Gregory VII met intense resistance from secular rulers, particularly
Emperor Henry IV (r. 1084–1105 CE) of the Holy Roman Empire. The Investiture Controversy,
a conflict between the pope and the emperor over the appointment of bishops, became a foremost
issue during this period and lasted for several decades.
Ultimately, the Gregorian Reforms had a profound and lasting impact on the structure and
authority of the Catholic Church and thus had a lasting effect on the course of history in Italy.
They laid the groundwork for the strengthening of papal power, the development of canon law,
and the assertion of the Church’s independence from secular authorities. The reforms also set the
stage for future conflicts and power struggles between the papacy and secular rulers, laying the
groundwork for the events in medieval Europe.
Beyond the expansions of the papacy in the center of the peninsula, Italy faced invasions and
raids from all angles. Arab raiders from North Africa attacked coastal regions, while the
Magyars, a nomadic people from the east, raided and skirmished along the northern borders.
Additionally, local princes and nobles were locked into petty power squabbles, leading to further
fragmentation and disorganization.
Amid all this chaos, the Byzantine presence in Italy was on its last legs. The empire’s influence
and control over trade and diplomacy waned as regional powers coalesced into prominent city-
states like Venice and Genoa. By the 11th century CE, the threat of the Seljuk Turks to the east
of Byzantine Anatolia (a portion of present-day Türkiye) diverted attention and resources away
from their holdings on the Italian peninsula. The Normans shattered the last vestiges of
Byzantine control in Italy when they swept into the southern portion during their campaign that
began in Sicily.
The Byzantines’ last stand occurred in the coastal town of Bari, a strategic port town on the
Adriatic Sea. The siege of Bari, which took place from 1068 to 1071 CE, was a major military
conflict between the Normans and the Byzantine Empire. Bari had been under Byzantine control
for many years, but the Normans, led by Robert Guiscard, laid siege to the city in an effort to
expand their territorial holdings. The siege lasted three years, but ultimately, the Normans wore
down the Byzantine defenses and emerged victorious. The conquest of Bari marked a key
milestone in the Norman expansion in southern Italy, solidifying their control over the region.
The loss of Italy was a blow to the Byzantine Empire, and it would continue to shrink in the
following centuries. It was eliminated as a political entity in 1453 CE when Constantinople, its
capital, fell to the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the long and illustrious history of the
Byzantine civilization.
The politics within Italy continued to evolve throughout the medieval period, with the emergence
of powerful city-states, the influence of the papacy, and the involvement of foreign powers. The
struggle for power and the complexities of regional politics laid the foundation for the Italian
Renaissance and paved the way for the Golden Age of the Italian city-states.
As the curtain falls on this chapter of Italian history, the echoes of the Byzantine Empire, the
struggles between Lombards and Franks, and the rise and fall of powerful city-states all
intertwine to form a colorful array of narratives. After the failure of the Byzantines on the
peninsula, Italy would not be reunified for centuries yet to come, and bitter power struggles
between wealthy and influential factions were on the horizon. Yet, despite the chaos and
uncertainty, seeds of artistic brilliance were sown, laying the foundation for a cultural rebirth that
awaited its grand debut.
 4

ITALY’S RADIANT REBIRTH: THE TRANSITION FROM THE

MIDDLE AGES TO THE RENAISSANCE (1100–1600 CE)

T hecentury
transition from the 12th century to the dawning of the Italian Renaissance in the 14th
witnessed a profound evolution across the Italian peninsula. As the feudal order of
the Middle Ages gradually gave way to a more urban and mercantile society, Italian city-
states flourished as vibrant centers of commerce, culture, and intellectual exchange. Trade routes
connected Italy to the affluent markets of the East, fueling economic prosperity and fostering a
spirit of innovation. Amidst this backdrop, the seeds of artistic and intellectual revival were sown
as ancient texts from Greece and Rome resurfaced, inspiring a new generation of thinkers. The
stage was set for a remarkable period of rebirth, where pursuing knowledge, celebrating human
potential, and the transformative power of artistic expression would ignite the flame of the Italian
Renaissance.
However, before the Renaissance burst forth in full force, some developments in Italy reshaped
the peninsula’s political lines. To the south, the Normans had ruled in Sicily since they expelled
the Saracens roughly a century before. However, when King William II of Sicily (r. 1166–1189
CE) died, there was a bit of a succession crisis. His aunt, Princess Constance, laid claim to the
Sicilian throne following his death. Unfortunately for her, the Sicilians favored her illegitimate
nephew, Tancred of Lecce (r. 1189–1194), and a war between the two sides ensued. The princess
happened to be married to Henry VI (r. 1191–1197) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and when the
pair were crowned Holy Roman Emperor and Empress in Rome in 1191 CE, her elevation in
status certainly aided her cause.
However, when Tancred died three years later, Henry VI and Constance were able to assume the
throne of Sicily with minimal bloodshed. Tancred’s young son William III (r. 1194) was deposed
and sent to Hohenems in present-day Austria, where he later died, likely murdered at the hands
of Hohenstaufen deputies. His deposition brought a decisive end to Norman rule on the island.
The Hohenstaufens did not hold the kingdom for long, though, and throughout the ensuing
century, Sicily changed hands more than once.
By 1282 CE, the island had passed to the Capetian House of Anjou—a cadet branch of the
French royal House of Capet. During Easter that year, there was a violent uprising known as the
Sicilian Vespers. During a celebration of Vespers (evening prayer in the Catholic tradition) in the
church of Santo Spirito in Palermo, a clash broke out between the local population and French
soldiers. This incident escalated into a widespread revolt, with Sicilians attacking and killing
French residents and soldiers throughout the city. The rebellion quickly spread across the island
as the Sicilian population rose up against the Angevin rulers, ousting Charles I of Anjou (r.
1266–1285 CE) from his throne.
Thus, the Sicilian throne was passed to Peter III of Aragon (Peter I of Sicily) (r. 1282–1285 CE)
through his wife Constance II’s claim. She was the daughter of the last Hohenstaufen king of
Sicily before the French took the island. However, the Angevins did not relinquish their claim to
Sicily so easily. They retained control over the southern mainland territories of the Kingdom,
which included the city of Naples. Over time, these territories evolved into a separate entity
known as the Kingdom of Naples. However, it was still formally called the Kingdom of Sicily
for a time, with the island kingdom often referred to as “Sicily beyond the Lighthouse” or
Trinacria.
As the lines on the map shifted in the south, a bitter dispute bubbled up to the north. The conflict
between the Guelphs (or Guelf) and the Ghibellines was one of the more prominent political and
social rivalries that gripped various regions of Italy during the late Middle Ages, particularly
from the 12th to the 14th century CE. Originating from a dispute over the imperial and papal
powers, the conflict became deeply intertwined with regional politics, power struggles, and
allegiances.
The Guelphs and the Ghibellines took their names from prominent political factions of the time.
The Guelphs derived their name from the Welf family (in Italian, "Guelfo"), who supported the
pope’s authority and advocated for the supremacy of the Papal States over the imperial rule of
the Holy Roman Emperors. The Ghibellines, on the other hand, drew their name from the
Hohenstaufen family, known as the "Waiblingen" in German (in Italian, "Ghibellino"), who
championed the authority of the Holy Roman Emperor.
The conflict between these factions manifested differently across Italian city-states, with
alliances and rivalries varying from one region to another. Cities like Florence, Bologna, and
Perugia became focal points of Guelph influence, while Ghibelline sympathies often prevailed in
cities like Pisa, Siena, and Arezzo. The conflict was not limited to political ideologies but also
encompassed economic, social, and cultural divisions, with each faction attracting different
classes and social groups. Typically, the Guelphs were a relatively newly wealthy group from the
mercantile class, while the Ghibellines tended to be landed nobles whose families had long been
feudal lords.
The Guelph-Ghibelline conflict resulted in prolonged power struggles, feuds, and armed clashes
between rival factions. It led to political instability and intermittent warfare throughout Italy,
with shifting allegiances and the intervention of external powers, such as the Papacy and the
Holy Roman Empire, further complicating the situation. The conflict peaked during the 13th
century CE, culminating in violent clashes and the rise of powerful city-states like Florence and
Milan.
Over time, the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict gradually lost its original ideological significance and
transformed into a broader struggle for power and control between rival factions within Italian
city-states. By the 14th century CE, the conflict began to wane, giving way to other political and
social dynamics.
Although the Guelphs and the Ghibellines eventually faded as distinct political entities, their
legacy and the memories of their conflicts left a lasting impact on Italian history and culture. The
rivalries and divisions between factions became intertwined with regional identities, shaping
political alliances and cultural traditions that persisted long after the conflict subsided. The
prominent poet Dante Alighieri became embroiled in the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict, supporting
the Guelph faction, and was exiled from Florence as a result. Even though Florence was a
Guelph stronghold, there was infighting within the Guelph supporters. Dante aligned himself
with the White Guelphs, a faction within the Guelph party that opposed papal influence and
sought greater independence for Florence. In 1301 CE, the Black Guelphs, a rival faction, gained
the upper hand in Florence’s political scene and accused Dante and other White Guelphs of
financial irregularities and corruption.
As a result, Dante was banished from Florence and faced exile. He was sentenced to pay a hefty
fine and, if unpaid, to be burned at the stake. Dante, unwilling to submit to these terms, chose to
remain in exile and never returned to his beloved city. The experience inspired him to pen his
enduring masterpiece, The Divine Comedy (La divina commedia), which shaped Italian literature
and language while offering a profound commentary on the struggles of his time.
Often referred to as the "Father of the Italian Language,” he is primarily remembered for his
significant contributions to the development and standardization of Italian. In his renowned epic
poem, he broke away from the prevailing tradition of writing in Latin. Instead, he composed his
work in the vernacular Tuscan dialect, which later became the basis for modern Italian.
Immortalized in part thanks to Dante’s work, the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict is a testament to the
complex dynamics of power, ideology, and regionalism in medieval Italy.
With the 1200s ending, the stage was set for a significant shift in Italian life. In the chronicles of
European history, there exists a period that shines as a resplendent dawn, illuminating the path of
civilization with extraordinary brilliance. This era, known as the Renaissance, unfolded first
across the captivating landscape of Italy, and its echoes reverberated throughout Europe.
Emerging from the fertile soil of Italian communes and city-states, the Renaissance bloomed as a
testament to the indomitable spirit of curiosity, creativity, and intellectual fervor. It was a time
when the assumptions of the medieval past were shattered, giving birth to an era that celebrated
the triumph of human potential, transforming the realms of art, literature, science, and
governance. From this period, the Italy of magnificent palaces, soaring cathedrals, and
enlightened minds arose, forever changing how the world would view the region’s legacy.
Though the dates vary depending on the source, most agree it spanned roughly from the 14th to
the 16th centuries CE. This era emerged as a vibrant rebirth of classical ideals and artistic
expression within Italy, particularly in Florence, Milan, and Venice. The Renaissance was a
remarkable surge in human creativity, scientific inquiry, and philosophical exploration.
At its core, it was a reaction against the prevailing medieval mindset. Inspired by the rediscovery
of ancient Greek and Roman texts, scholars and thinkers sought to revive the spirit of classical
antiquity. The result was humanism, a philosophical movement emphasizing the worth and
potential of human beings, and it became a driving force behind the Renaissance. It celebrated
the virtues of reason, individualism, and the pursuit of knowledge across various disciplines.
Art also played an exceptional role in the Renaissance, as artists sought to capture the beauty of
the natural world and the essence of humanity. Masters like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
and Raphael infused their works with a new level of realism and emotional depth, employing
techniques such as chiaroscuro (the use of contrast between light and dark) and linear perspective
to create lifelike paintings and sculptures. This period witnessed the birth of iconic masterpieces
like da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and Michelangelo’s David, which continue to enrapture audiences
today.
However, as mentioned above, the Renaissance was not solely confined to art but also extended
to science, literature, and philosophy. Scholars such as Galileo Galilei and Nicolaus Copernicus
challenged prevailing beliefs about the nature of the universe, paving the way for a scientific
revolution. Intellectual giants like Dante and Francesco Petrarch revitalized literature, penning
influential works that explored human emotions, societal issues, and the human condition.
Moreover, the spread of the printing press in the 15th century CE facilitated the dissemination of
knowledge and ideas, leading to exponential growth in intellectual pursuits.
With its zeal for humanism, artistic excellence, and intellectual exploration, the Italian
Renaissance altered the course of history. It became a bridge connecting the classical past to the
modern world, influencing subsequent movements such as the Enlightenment and shaping the
trajectory of Western civilization. The shadows of the Renaissance’s cultural, artistic, and
intellectual achievements continue to inspire creatives and scientists today.
So what was the fertile political ground that ensured such an explosion of creative and cerebral
endeavors was possible? With the departure of the Byzantine powers, the expulsion of the
Saracens, and the fracturing of various Lombard and Frankish kingdoms, Italy, as a unified idea,
ceased to exist. Instead, Italy had a collection of independent city-states, also known as
communes. Various factors influenced the rise of communes. The economic prosperity of Italian
cities, fueled by trade and commerce, allowed the growth of a wealthy merchant class. As these
merchants amassed wealth and influence, they sought greater political control over their cities.
In contrast to much of Europe at the time, these communes were not usually governed—on paper
at least—by a king or a single ruler. Instead, though the political structure of communes varied,
they generally operated as republics. Power was typically concentrated in the hands of a group of
wealthy families known as the popolo grasso (fat people). However, some communes
experimented with democratic elements, with broader participation from the popolo minuto
(small people), comprising artisans, laborers, and other lower classes.
A commune’s government might look something like this: elected officials administered the city
and made decisions on behalf of the commune. Then, these officials were organized into councils
or assemblies, which deliberated on matters of governance, legislation, and defense. These
communes emerged as centers of economic and political power and were often controlled mainly
by a few wealthy merchant families. Three of the largest—Florence, Milan, and Venice—will be
briefly discussed.
Nestled amidst the lush landscapes of Tuscany, Florence emerged as a beacon of artistic
brilliance and intellectual enlightenment. Originally founded as a Roman settlement, it
blossomed during the medieval period into a flourishing commune. The rise of wealthy merchant
families—the most prominent being the famous and scheming Medici—fueled the city’s
economic prosperity, and their patronage transformed Florence into a thriving hub of commerce
and culture. In the heart of Florence, the magnificent Duomo, with its majestic dome designed by
Filippo Brunelleschi, stood as a testament to the city’s architectural prowess. The project, which
the Medici family funded, took seventy-two years to construct, from 1296 to 1368 CE.
It was not only in the realm of architecture that Florence flourished. The city became a cradle of
artistic innovation, nurturing the talents of visionaries like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and
Botticelli, who left an indelible mark on art history. As a center of humanist thought, Florence
fostered intellectual luminaries like Niccolò Machiavelli, whose groundbreaking works, most
notably The Prince, challenged conventional political wisdom.
Deep in the heart of Lombardy, Milan rose from its humble origins to become a powerhouse of
industry, political intrigue, and Renaissance splendor. Overcoming periods of foreign
domination, the city evolved into a leading center of commerce and craftsmanship. Its strategic
location along crucial trade routes propelled Milan’s economic growth, attracting skilled artisans
and craftsmen from all corners of Europe.
Milan attained political prominence under the reign of the ambitious Visconti and Sforza
families, transforming the city into a vibrant courtly center. It was here that, despite his
Florentine origins, the genius of Leonardo da Vinci flourished, his artistic and scientific pursuits
nurtured by the patronage of the ruling elites. Milan’s architectural achievements, exemplified by
the magnificent Sforza Castle and the breathtaking Duomo di Milano, still stand as majestic
testaments to the city’s Renaissance grandeur. From the realms of fashion and design to the
realms of military might and intellectual curiosity, Milan’s multifaceted legacy continues to
resonate as a testament to its enduring significance.
Venice, the enchanting "Queen of the Adriatic," emerged as a dominant maritime republic,
captivating the world with its unparalleled beauty, opulence, and political astuteness. Built upon
a lagoon, the city’s unique geography bestowed it with a strategic advantage in Mediterranean
trade, allowing Venice to flourish as a thriving commercial hub. Its merchant ships traversed vast
seas, establishing trade networks that extended to Constantinople, the Middle East, and beyond.
The Republic of Venice was governed by a complex system of elected officials and overseen by
the Doge, the chief magistrate and the elected leader of the city-state. Venice upheld a tradition
of political stability, creating an environment conducive to cultural and artistic innovation. The
city’s iconic architectural gems, such as the mesmerizing St. Mark’s Basilica and the graceful
Rialto Bridge, exemplified the fusion of Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance influences that
defined Venetian aesthetics. Venice became a haven for artistic luminaries, including Titian,
Tintoretto, and Giovanni Bellini, whose masterpieces adorned palaces and churches,
immortalizing the city’s cultural opulence. Venice’s reputation as a cradle of maritime
supremacy and refined artistic expression continues to capture the imagination of millions.
These three city-states and other notable ones, like Genoa, Naples, and Siena, fiercely guarded
their autonomy and often engaged in conflicts with neighboring communes to gain and maintain
prosperity. The struggle for power and resources led to rivalries, alliances, and occasional
warfare between city-states. Prominent examples include the conflicts between Florence and
Siena or the long-standing rivalry between Genoa and Venice.
With so many conflicting powers, Italy experienced a turbulent and fragmented political
landscape marked by numerous conflicts, wars, and skirmishes. The city-states, with their
independent governments and rivalries, were often at the center of these disputes, driven by
power struggles, territorial ambitions, and competing interests.
One significant conflict during this period was the Italian Wars (1494–1559), which involved
major European powers and Italian city-states. The wars were characterized by shifting alliances
and the intervention of foreign forces seeking to exert their influence over Italian territories.
Under King Charles VIII (r. 1483–1498 CE) and later King Francis I (r. 1515–1547 CE), the
French made several incursions into Italy, igniting conflicts involving city-states like Florence,
Milan, and Venice. The wars resulted in significant political upheaval and devastation, with
battles fought on Italian soil and the interference of foreign powers leaving lasting scars on the
region.
In addition to external conflicts, internal power struggles among Italian city-states played a
significant role. One in Florence, the Pazzi Conspiracy, will be discussed. Similar power
struggles occurred in other city-states like Milan, where rival factions vied for control, leading to
shifting alliances and armed confrontations.
The Pazzi Conspiracy, an infamous event that unfolded in Florence in 1478 CE, is a significant
chapter in the history of Renaissance Italy. Orchestrated by the Pazzi family, in collaboration
with Pope Sixtus IV (r. 1471–1484 CE) and his nephew Girolamo Riario, the conspiracy aimed
to topple the ruling Medici family and seize control of Florence, setting the stage for a gripping
tale of power, betrayal, and political upheaval.
The Pazzi family, influential bankers and rivals of the Medici dynasty, harbored longstanding
resentment towards their dominant counterparts in Florence. Eager to reclaim their erstwhile
prominence, they plotted to remove the Medici from their position of authority, built on a
foundation of wealth, political savvy, and patronage of the arts.
Under the cloak of secrecy, the Pazzi family allied with Pope Sixtus IV and his nephew,
Girolamo Riario, aiming to orchestrate a decisive blow against the Medici brothers, Lorenzo and
Giuliano. The conspirators planned to strike during a solemn religious service held within the
hallowed walls of the Florence Cathedral under the Duomo that Lorenzo and Giuliano’s
grandfather, Cosimo, had financed.
On the fateful day of April 26, 1478 CE, as Easter Sunday Mass commenced, the unsuspecting
Medici brothers found themselves amid a grand conspiracy. Francesco de’ Pazzi and an
accomplice named Bernardo Baroncelli ruthlessly attacked Giuliano de’ Medici, fatally striking
him down. However, fortune smiled upon Lorenzo de’ Medici, who narrowly escaped the
clutches of death, albeit bearing the scars of the treacherous assault.
Despite the audacious assassination attempt, the Pazzi conspirators’ grand design to incite a
popular uprising against the Medici rule failed to materialize. Instead, the citizens of Florence
rallied around the Medici, fiercely defending their established order. The Pazzi were swiftly
condemned, their ill-fated cause deserted by the very populace they had sought to incite.
The repercussions of the Pazzi Conspiracy were grave. Many of the conspirators, including
Francesco de’ Pazzi and his uncle, Jacopo de’ Pazzi, faced the grim fate of execution.
Meanwhile, Lorenzo de’ Medici, with the unwavering support of the Florentine populace,
consolidated his family’s authority and ensured the continuation of their influential reign.
The failed plot also shaped the trajectory of Florence. The Medici family, emboldened by their
triumph over adversity, solidified their dominance, guiding the city’s destiny for generations to
come. Moreover, this failed assassination attempt catalyzed the ensuing flowering of the
Renaissance in Florence under the patronage and stewardship of Lorenzo de’ Medici, later
known as Lorenzo the Magnificent.
The Papal States, centered in Rome, were not immune to conflicts. The Italian city-states often
found themselves entangled in disputes with the papacy as popes sought to extend their influence
and control over neighboring territories. Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1513 CE), known for his
military prowess, engaged in military campaigns to expand the Papal States, which included
clashes with rival city-states and foreign powers.
Furthermore, the conflicts of the Renaissance were not solely militaristic. Artistic rivalries,
intellectual debates, and political intrigues also shaped the cultural and social landscape of the
time. For instance, the rivalry between Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, two of the era’s
greatest artistic geniuses, was not limited to their creative pursuits but also involved personal and
professional rivalries, leading to intense competition and clashes of egos.
Aside from military might, patronage of the arts and culture proved to be another way communes
flexed their influence. Wealthy merchant families supported the arts by commissioning works
from renowned artists and scholars. This patronage contributed to the advancements in literature,
painting, sculpture, and architecture that defined the development of the Italian Renaissance.
The disputes in Renaissance Italy were multi-faceted and interconnected, involving military
confrontations, political power struggles, and artistic spats. These conflicts left a lasting impact
on the region, shaping its political boundaries, cultural development, and historical memory. The
turbulent nature of the era, with its constant state of flux and competition, contributed to the
remarkable artistic, intellectual, and political achievements that defined the Renaissance period.
As discussed, a vast amount of new wealth allowed for military campaigns and fantastic artistic
and literary endeavors that characterized the Italian city-states of the Renaissance. Italian city-
states, such as Venice, Genoa, and Florence, cultivated strategic relationships along main trade
routes, including the Mediterranean and the Silk Road. Amassing wealth and power through
maritime trade, these city-states often acted as intermediaries between Europe, Asia, and Africa.
They developed extensive trading networks, establishing colonies and trading posts in
Constantinople, Alexandria, and the Levant.
Prominent Italian explorers like Marco Polo embarked on ambitious journeys to the East,
documenting their travels and encounters with different cultures. Marco Polo’s book, The
Travels of Marco Polo, was widely read and sparked curiosity about distant lands and new trade
opportunities.
Italian merchants were pioneers in the exploration and establishment of trading routes. They
ventured into the Atlantic Ocean, charting new paths and reaching as far as West Africa, the
Canary Islands, and the Americas. Notably, Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sponsored
by the Spanish Crown, landed in the so-called “New World” in 1492 CE, opening up a new era
of transatlantic exploration and trade. However, it is important to note that this connection
between the Americas and Europe did not have purely favorable consequences. Present-day
history has accurately seen the exploits of Columbus and his counterparts and contemporaries for
the destructive force they were on the native populations of Africa, the Americas, and the
Caribbean.
Italian merchants and banking families, such as the Medici in Florence, were vital in financing
and facilitating these trade ventures. They introduced innovative banking practices, such as bills
of exchange and letters of credit, which enabled international commerce and the banking
industry’s growth.
The wealth accumulated from trade had a profound impact on Italian cities. Thanks to their
newfound riches, wealthy merchants became patrons, commissioning renowned artists and
architects to create magnificent works that still stand as testaments to this era, such as the
previously noted works of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Brunelleschi.
Italian exploration and trade during this period expanded horizons, stimulated cultural exchange,
and contributed to the economic and intellectual prosperity of the Italian city-states. The voyages
of Italian explorers and the establishment of trade networks laid the groundwork for future global
exploration and the interconnectivity of nations.
Although the independence of the city-states did not endure into the present day, their moment in
the sun had a lasting impact on the country’s political and social landscape. Setting the stage for
the later formation of larger states, the city-state governance model also influenced other
European regions and became an essential template for forming modern nation-states.
While secular institutions have mainly been discussed thus far, it is important to remember that
religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church, held just as much (and sometimes more)
political power at this time. After the Concordat of Worms in 1122 CE solved the Investiture
Controversy mentioned in the previous chapter by recognizing the authority of the Church in
appointing bishops, the pope’s power continued to grow. Beyond its evident domination in
religious matters, the papacy and the Church also played a crucial role in cultural and intellectual
life. The Church was a significant patron of the arts, supporting the development of magnificent
cathedrals, sculptures, paintings, and illuminated manuscripts. Notable artists, such as Giotto di
Bondone and Fra Angelico, were commissioned by the Church to create religious artworks.
The Catholic Church’s influence extended beyond Rome, with various monastic orders and
religious institutions spreading across Italy. These institutions served as centers of education,
scholarship, and charitable activities. Monastic orders like the Benedictines, Franciscans, and
Dominicans established schools and universities, fostering intellectual pursuits and contributing
to learning and knowledge growth.
However, the Catholic Church also faced challenges during this period. The most dramatic was
The Avignon Papacy, or the Babylonian Captivity. In brief, the papal court temporarily moved
from Rome to Avignon, France, from 1309 to 1377 CE. This period marked a significant shift in
the center of papal power and profoundly impacted the Catholic Church and its relationship with
secular rulers.
The move of the papal court to Avignon was initiated by Pope Clement V (r. 1305–1314 CE), a
Frenchman himself. Several factors contributed to this decision, including political pressures,
conflicts within the Italian states, and the influence of the French monarchy under Philip IV (r.
1285–1314 CE). The popes who resided in Avignon during this period were often seen as under
the French kings’ influence and control.
The Avignon Papacy had both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, it
allowed for stability and centralized authority within the Catholic Church. The popes in Avignon
initiated administrative and bureaucratic reforms, improved financial management, and focused
on the organization of the Church. However, relocating the papal court to Avignon led to
criticism and controversy. The papacy became entangled in French politics and was seen as
losing its independence and moral authority. The absence of the papacy from Rome raised
questions about the legitimacy and spiritual significance of the popes based in Avignon.
The Avignon Papacy ended in 1377 CE with the election of Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378
CE), who decided to return the papal court to Rome. However, the return to Rome did not
completely resolve the issues within the Catholic Church, as it soon led to the Great Schism of
1378 CE. This split resulted in popes in Rome competing against rival “antipopes” in Avignon.
This schism further weakened the authority and unity of the Church and was not resolved until
1417 CE with the Council of Constance.
Beyond the controversy of the Avignon Papacy, the later years of the Renaissance witnessed the
beginnings of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that challenged certain practices and
doctrines of the Catholic Church. The Reformation sparked theological debates and led to
schisms within Christianity, significantly impacting the Catholic Church’s influence and the
religious landscape of Europe.
The Italian Renaissance was a period of remarkable achievements and transformative changes
that left a lasting impact on art, culture, and society. The great intellectual and artistic growth,
fueled by the patronage of wealthy merchants and influential families like the Medici, enabled
the emergence of visionary figures whose names are still well-known today. However, the
Renaissance was not without its challenges. It witnessed countless bouts of political instability,
multiplying religious tensions, and continuous social inequalities.
Yet, amidst these difficulties, the Renaissance embodied the human spirit’s boundless creativity,
the pursuit of knowledge, and the desire to question established norms. Its legacy is a testament
to the resilience and potential of human ingenuity, shaping the course of Western civilization for
centuries to come. As the Renaissance came to a close, it paved the way for a new era of
exploration, scientific advancements, and cultural shifts that would shape the course of history—
the dawning of the Age of Enlightenment.
 5

REACTION, REFORMATION, RESURGENCE: THE

ENLIGHTENMENT (1500S–1800 CE)

A sthatthemarked
Renaissance reached its apex, Italy experienced a shifting cultural and artistic landscape
the end of an epoch. The decline of the Renaissance came about due to changing
political dynamics, evolving artistic tastes, economic challenges, and the impact of external
forces. These shifts gave rise to the Baroque, a new artistic and cultural movement that swept
across Italy and transformed the creative landscape, serving as a transitionary period that brought
Italy closer to reunification and the modern era.
Plagued by political instability during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Italy waded through
various conflicts, wars, and power struggles among city-states and foreign occupiers. This
naturally disrupted the thriving artistic and cultural environment of the Renaissance and diverted
resources and attention away from the arts. One of the most pivotal events was the Sack of Rome
in 1527 CE. Though the pope at the time was allied against Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor
(r. 1519–1556 CE), this attack by his Imperial Army, composed of Spanish and German troops,
was not carried out under his orders. After defeating the French at Pavia two years earlier, the
Imperial Army remained largely uncontested for power on the Italian peninsula. However, they
had not been paid, and when the tired and hungry mercenaries mutinied, the poorly defended city
of Rome did not stand a chance.
Under Pope Clement VII’s rule (r. 1523–1534 CE), the city fell victim to brutal and devastating
pillaging. The Imperial Army unleashed chaos, looting, and violence, destroying countless
artworks, manuscripts, and historical treasures. The Sack of Rome symbolized a major turning
point in the power dynamics of Italy, further destabilizing an already politically fragmented
peninsula.
The consequences of the Sack of Rome reverberated throughout Italy and Europe. It shook the
papacy’s authority, highlighting the Church’s vulnerability and the need for secular alliances and
militaristic fortifications. The event also provoked outrage and condemnation, prompting a
renewed sense of nationalism and identity among the Italian states as they sought to defend their
territories against foreign invasions.
Moreover, the Sack of Rome is thought to have accelerated the decline of the Renaissance in
Italy. Many artists, intellectuals, and scholars fled the city, dispersing their talents and ideas
across Europe. The event also marked a transition towards a more turbulent and uncertain era,
paving the way for the rise of the Baroque period, characterized by dramatic, emotional, and
extravagant artistic expressions.
The sociopolitical turbulence directly impacted the economic well-being of the Italian city-states,
which aided the decline of the High Renaissance. Economic crises, trade disruptions, and the
shifting dynamics of the Italian economy impaired patrons’ financial stability and limited their
ability to support grand artistic projects.
Before the 1500s, the Mediterranean had enjoyed a seat of power in European trade. As a result,
Italy had grown wealthy, particularly in port cities like Venice. However, discovering new sea
routes during the Age of Exploration bolstered new maritime powers like Portugal and Spain.
This diverted trade away from the Italian city-states, and the once-prosperous trade hubs saw a
diminished economic influence. The Italian peninsula was also largely excluded from the
morally reprehensible but lucrative Atlantic slave trade.
As a result, wealthy patrons could no longer fund artistic endeavors at the same rate they had
previously enjoyed. Commissions declined, and financial support for artists evaporated,
changing the momentum and output production of the Renaissance as a whole. Furthermore,
artistic tastes and preferences began to evolve, with new styles and movements gaining
popularity. The Baroque period, which followed the High Renaissance, introduced a more
dynamic, dramatic, and emotionally charged approach to art. The allure of the Baroque style
ultimately overshadowed the restrained and idealized qualities of the High Renaissance.
Beyond shifting cultural tastes, between the rise of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic
Church’s reactionary Counter-Reformation, artistic creativity and freedoms were sharply
curtailed in the name of religion. Censoring art and literature became common as the Catholic
Church sought to maintain its supremacy over new Protestant factions. This grasp for power was
fully illustrated by the Council of Trent, which declared not just humanism, but any view that
challenged Catholic doctrine and authority as heresy.
Convened in 1545 CE, the Council of Trent was a landmark event in the history of the Catholic
Church. This ecumenical council, held in the northern Italian city of Trent (Trento), aimed to
address the religious challenges of the Protestant Reformation. Spanning over eighteen years,
sessions ran intermittently from 1545 to 1563 CE. It brought together bishops, theologians, and
church officials across Europe to discuss doctrine, discipline, and religious practices. The council
sought to reaffirm Catholic teachings, clarify points of theological contention that had haunted
the Church for years, and address perceived abuses within the Catholic leadership.
During its sessions, the Council of Trent issued decrees on various topics. It reaffirmed the
authority of Church tradition alongside Scripture, emphasized the importance of the sacraments
and liturgy, and upheld the doctrine of justification through faith and works. It addressed issues
such as the interpretation of Scripture, the role of clergy, the veneration of saints and relics, and
the education and training of priests.
Significant reforms within the Catholic Church were also initiated to combat some of the most
egregious problems highlighted by Protestant detractors. Measures were taken to fight corruption
and improve the moral conduct of the clergy, discouraging extravagant lifestyles among Church
officials. The council also established seminaries for priests’ proper education and training and
standardized the liturgy by publishing the Roman Missal and Catechism. The decrees and
reforms executed at the Council of Trent revitalized and solidified Catholic doctrine and practice,
contributing to the Counter-Reformation and the reaffirmation of Catholic identity in the face of
Protestant attacks. However, as noted above, the council’s decisions stretched beyond religious
life, influencing European art and culture and contributing to creative stifling within Renaissance
artists.
Yet even without the pressure from religion, the classical realism of the Renaissance period was
gradually being supplanted by two new styles: Mannerism and Baroque.
Mannerism was an artistic style that emerged in the late Renaissance, particularly in Italy. It can
be seen as a reaction to and departure from the harmonious and balanced ideals of the High
Renaissance. Seeking to break away from the classical perfection of their predecessors,
Mannerist artists explored more individualistic, imaginative, and complex approaches to art.
Notable characteristics of the Mannerist style include elongated limbs and distorted or contorted
poses. This exaggeration aimed to create a sense of elegance, grace, and an otherworldly quality
in the artwork.
Intricate and elaborate compositions were favored to add complexity, sophistication, and an air
of intellectualism to the works, incorporating symbolism, allegory, and references to classical
mythology. Appreciators of Mannerist art had to interpret and intellectually engage with the
work before them. Additionally, color usage was often unconventional. Vibrant and exaggerated
colors, intense contrast, and unnatural hues created a sense of heightened drama and emotional
impact. Well-remembered Mannerist artists include Parmigianino, Jacopo Tintoretto, and El
Greco.
While Mannerism was primarily an Italian phenomenon and was soon replaced, it also
influenced European art and directly inspired aspects of Baroque art. Emerging in Europe during
the 17th century CE, Baroque art is characterized by its dynamic and dramatic style and
grandeur, emphasizing emotion, movement, and theatricality. One of the defining features of
Baroque art is its use of dramatic lighting techniques, known as chiaroscuro. Artists built on the
legacy of their Renaissance forefathers and skillfully employed light and shadow to create a
sense of depth, three-dimensionality, and heightened drama. This technique allowed for the
accentuation of focal points and created tension and contrast within the artwork.
Mainly, Baroque art is remembered for its opulence and ornamentation. Intricate details,
elaborate decorations, and rich textures created visually captivating and luxurious compositions.
Elaborate drapery, gilded surfaces, and complex architectural elements were typical, contributing
to the overall splendor. Figures in Baroque art were often full of dynamic movement and energy,
with exaggerated gestures and powerful expressions.
Religious themes were prevalent in Baroque art, as the Catholic Church heavily patronized many
artists. Artworks often depicted scenes from biblical narratives, saints, and martyrs and aimed to
elicit a deeply spiritual response from the viewer. Gian Lorenzo Bernini’s sculpture Ecstasy of
St. Teresa is an excellent example. Other prominent Baroque artists include Caravaggio, Peter
Paul Rubens, and Artemisia Gentileschi. Their expressive and dynamic works set the stage for
the later development of Rococo and Neoclassical art styles.
The vibrant artistic achievements of the Renaissance did more than set up the next few centuries
of creative endeavors—they also paved the way for a remarkable intellectual transformation in
Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. The cerebral pursuits of the Renaissance directly shaped
Italy’s cultural landscape into a fertile ground for the seeds of the Scientific Revolution. The
quest for understanding the natural world and unlocking its secrets became an endeavor that
captivated the minds of scholars, scientists, and philosophers. The same spirit of curiosity and
exploration that characterized the artistic innovations of the Renaissance now found expression
in the scientific realm, forever altering the course of human knowledge and shaping the
foundations of modern science. Thus, the transition from the masterpieces of art to the revolution
of science in Italy marked a profound shift in intellectual pursuits and set the stage for a new era
of scientific exploration and discovery.
While the Scientific Revolution from 1543 to 1687 CE is often associated with the advancements
made in countries like England, France, and Germany, Italy also played a significant role in this
transformative period.
One of the prominent figures of this era was Galileo Galilei, the Italian physicist, mathematician,
and astronomer. His groundbreaking work in astronomy included his ardent support for the
heliocentric model of the solar system. Though this challenged traditional scientific beliefs, his
work profoundly impacted the understanding of the natural world. Another notable Italian figure
of the Scientific Revolution was Giambattista Vico, a philosopher and historian. Vico’s
influential work New Science proposed a new approach to understanding history and human
civilization, emphasizing the importance of empirical evidence and rejecting purely speculative
reasoning.
Italian cities, such as Florence and Padua, morphed into centers of scientific activity and thus
attracted scholars from across Europe. Universities in Italy fostered an environment conducive to
scientific inquiry, attracting renowned scientists and scholars who made significant contributions
to various fields. Becoming a magnet for scientific luminaries, the University of Padua was home
to Andreas Vesalius, whose revolutionary work in human anatomy transformed the field of
medicine. The city’s emphasis on empirical observation and the pursuit of knowledge
contributed to the flourishing of scientific disciplines. The achievements and contributions of
Italian scholars during the Scientific Revolution expanded the frontiers of knowledge and set the
stage for the subsequent development of modern scientific methodology and thinking.
It should be evident that Italy offered much to Europe’s cultural, artistic, social, economic, and
political growth. For a collection of disparate city-states, it influenced the trajectory of European
history much more extensively than its geographic reach. However, as the 17th century CE wore
on, bigger powers were coalescing in the continent that far outstripped the resources of Italy’s
fractured landscape. They had wealth and natural resources, to be sure, but it was not the same as
the immense growth that empire nations like Spain, France, and England were beginning to
exhibit.
With the economic decline that came alongside their downward trend in European trading power,
Italy’s various city-states continued to be dragged in and out of the continent’s various social,
political, and military conflicts. The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648 CE) significantly impacted
Italy, although the direct involvement of Italian states varied throughout the conflict.
This war was devastating and primarily fought within the Holy Roman Empire. Aside from the
Italian city-states, it involved many European powers, including the well-connected Habsburg
family, who controlled the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and the Spanish Netherlands. Also
involved were various Protestant German States, France, Sweden, the Kingdom of Denmark-
Norway, and the crowns of England and Scotland. It was mainly a religious conflict between
Protestants and Catholics that spiraled out of control.
Italy was, as has been well documented, a fragmented region consisting of numerous
independent states and city-states. Various powerful European families could and did claim
ownership over these regions at different times. One example is the dueling French and Spanish
claims to the Kingdom of Naples. During the Thirty Years’ War, many of the northern Italian
regions were vassal states of the Holy Roman Empire, so it was practically impossible for city-
states like Tuscany and Mantua not to become embroiled in the war. Changing alliances and
conflicts throughout the war further intensified the internal divisions within Italy.
The Italian peninsula became a battleground for foreign powers involved in the war. Armies
from Spain, France, Austria, and other European states moved across Italian territories, clashing
at sites like Tornavento and wreaking havoc on local populations. The widespread destruction,
pillaging, and loss of life characteristic of the Thirty Years’ War was undoubtedly felt in Italy.
The military presence and the destruction caused by the conflict further disrupted trade routes,
agricultural production, and commerce, so Italian states already under strain from a changing
world suffered from increased economic decline thanks to the fighting. However, it is important
to note that the impact of the Thirty Years’ War on Italy was not uniform across the region, as
different states experienced varying degrees of involvement and consequences. Nonetheless, the
war contributed to the overall instability, political realignments, and economic challenges faced
by Italy during the 17th century CE.
Just a little over fifty years after the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War, another bloody conflict
enveloped Europe. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714 CE) was driven by the
question of who exactly would succeed the childless Charles II of Spain (r. 1665–1700 CE) to
the Spanish throne. The war, which involved multiple nations and kingdoms, reshuffled the
balance of power on the continent.
In brief, the leading contenders were Philip of Anjou, a grandson of King Louis XIV of France
(r. 1643–1715 CE), who was supported, naturally, by France and its allies, and Archduke Charles
of Austria, supported by a coalition that included England, the Dutch Republic, and several
German states. Battles and sieges raged across Europe, taking place in Spain, Italy, the Holy
Roman Empire, and the Low Countries (present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands).
Though the war seemed to be fought for the Spanish crown on the surface, there was a deeper
purpose. All the rulers of Europe were interested in preventing the consolidation of power by a
single dominant state. The ever-shifting and delicate balance of power on the continent was a
central concern as countries sought to curtail the expansionist ambitions of France under Louis
XIV. With such consequences, it is no surprise that the conflict involved the participation of
numerous European powers, including England, France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the
Dutch Republic, Portugal, and various German states.
When the Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1713 CE, it established a compromise whereby Philip
of Anjou gained the Spanish throne, becoming King Philip V (r. 1700–1746 CE), but renounced
any claim to the French crown. The treaty also resulted in a reorganization of multiple territorial
and colonial holdings. The primary winner was England, which gained regions such as Gibraltar
that aided its ascendency over the seas.
After the War of the Spanish Succession subsided, the Italian peninsula was a patchwork of
duchies controlled mainly by larger European powers. Only a few genuinely independent city-
states remained. The subsuming of various regions of Italy into larger empires was not new.
After all, the tug of war between the French Angevins and the Spanish Aragonese had played out
on the Italian peninsula during the medieval period. Just before the War of the Spanish
Succession, Spain had controlled, either directly or indirectly, the majority of the peninsula,
including the large southern kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. Even states that had maintained
independence, like Venice, still relied on protection from the much larger Spanish Empire.
However, the map of Italy shifted again with the investiture of Philip of Anjou on the Spanish
throne. The newly established Spanish House of Bourbon (with deep familial ties to the French
Bourbons) had supplanted a historically Habsburg kingdom, and the Austrian Habsburgs were
uneasy. Naturally, Italy, with its strategic location and political ties to various European royal
entities, could not avoid the fallout from the war.
Chief among these consequences, as mentioned above, were various territorial rearrangements,
most of which were a blow to Spanish holdings. Further treaties to end the war—the Treaty of
Rastatt and the Treaty of Baden—awarded the Spanish Netherlands (modern-day Belgium and
Luxembourg, among other regions) to the Holy Roman Empire and recognized the emperor’s
right to rule over the formerly Spanish-controlled Italian states of Milan, Tuscany, Naples, and
Sardinia. The Duke of Savoy (part of present-day France) gained Sicily from the Spaniards,
though five years later, he would hand it over to the Austrian Habsburgs in exchange for
Sardinia.
So with the Spanish largely expelled from the Italian peninsula, the power dynamics looked
drastically different than they had for at least the last century. The Austrian Habsburgs now held
the old Spanish territories in Italy, which was, in effect, a large percentage of the peninsula.
However, the Kingdom of Naples would only fall under their influence for two brief decades.
During the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1735 CE), in 1734 CE, Prince Don Carlos de
Borbón (Charles of Bourbon), the son of King Philip V of Spain, conquered both Naples and
Sicily, bringing the region back under Spanish influence. However, this time it was under the
leadership of the Spanish House of Bourbon.
In the central portion of the peninsula lay the Papal States under the authority of the pope. He
maintained control over central Italy, including regions such as Latium (Lazio), Umbria, and
Marche. Tracking further north, the area was divided by the Duchy of Savoy, Austrian Habsburg
holdings, and the still-independent Republic of Venice. Milan floated in and out of Austrian
influence throughout the early part of the century. After the War of the Austrian Succession
(1740–1748 CE), it remained in their grasp until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in
1806 CE. As for the Spanish, they had managed to claw back the duchies of Parma and Piacenza
in 1731 CE.
Aside from territorial shuffling, Italy had a general spirit of reform afoot during the 18th century.
This was due, in large part, to the spirit of the Enlightenment, which brought a wave of reform
and intellectual awakening to Italy. Deeply influenced by the ideas of French Enlightenment
thinkers such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, Italian intellectuals and rulers embraced
the principles of reason, individual freedom, and progress.
Outdated and arbitrary legal systems were called into question, with prominent jurists like the
Milanese Cesare Beccaria advocating for the abolition of torture and the establishment of fair
and human criminal justice systems based on rational principles. Enlightened rulers and
educators also recognized the importance of an informed and enlightened citizenry. A good
education was necessary to achieve this, and institutions such as the University of Turin and the
University of Padua underwent reforms to modernize the curriculum and promote critical
thinking.
Unfortunately for Italy, these reforms were not enough for their respective economies to fully
recover after the slump of the 1600s CE. There were brief periods of growth, but the various
succession wars coupled with a nasty famine in the 1760s CE denied the Italian states the same
rate of growth seen in other parts of the European continent at this time. Furthermore, though the
population did grow throughout the century, the rest of the continent’s population grew at a rate
double Italy’s. The stagnation kept the kind of agricultural and industrial revolution seen in
nations like England and France at bay. Furthermore, the nobility was eager to hold on to their
land, power, and prestige and saw these new reformist ideas threatening their traditional way of
life.
Life was getting harder for the average Italian. A region that had once exported many finished
goods suddenly became a net importer and only exported cheaper raw materials or partially
finished items. Work opportunities were scarcer with a contracting economy, and what had been
a slight difference between the northern portion of the peninsula and the southern half split into a
wider chasm. To the north, urban industries could survive in smaller villages and the
countryside, but in the south, the population came to rely solely on agriculture.
Despite these hardships, political and religious reforms continued to wind their way into Italy.
The Catholic Church and the Papal States, with their massive wealth, powerful influence over the
populace, and general immunity from secular legislation, were of particular interest to the
political thinkers of the Enlightenment. Intellectuals like Beccaria and Pietro Giannone
advocated separating church and state, denouncing the Church’s political influence and calling
for religious tolerance. They argued against the Church’s control over education, censorship of
ideas, and suppression of scientific inquiry. These critiques resonated strongly in Italy and laid
the groundwork for subsequent religious reforms and the later unification of the peninsula.
These ideas reached the respective leaders of Europe’s large royal families like the Bourbons and
the Habsburgs. As a result, the cadet branches of these families that controlled Italy, like the
Habsburg-Lorraines in Milan and the Bourbons in Naples, were among the first to make various
political reforms in Italy, mainly during the second half of the 18th century CE.
Milan underwent significant political reforms to modernize its governance and promote greater
participation in political affairs. Under the leadership of enlightened rulers like the Holy Roman
Empress Maria Theresa (r. 1740–1780), these reforms included the abolition of the corrupt
practice of selling offices, the founding of a public bank, the establishment of a more structured
administrative system, and the promotion of economic development through policies that
encouraged trade and industry. She also initiated a cadastral survey to map out the entirety of the
Holy Roman Empire, Milan included.
As for Naples, the rule of King Charles VII (r. 1734–1759) and his successors aimed to
modernize the administration, improve governance, and promote economic development. The
city was also a hub for Enlightenment thought, welcoming cutting-edge intellectuals like
Ferdinando Galiani and Antonio Genovesi. The presence of these philosophers and economists
and the new reforms enacted by the government brought Naples closer to the ideals of the
Enlightenment by fostering progress and improving the overall quality of life for the Neopolitan
people.
The intense focus on intellectual life in the 18th century dovetailed neatly with the rise of
Neoclassical art. In Italy, it gained popularity during the latter half of the century as a reaction
against the ornate and extravagant style of the previously discussed Baroque and equally
elaborate Rococo periods. Inspired by the revival of interest in ancient Greek and Roman art,
Neoclassical artists in Italy sought to capture the ideals of harmony, simplicity, and rationality.
They drew upon classical themes, mythology, and historical events to create works characterized
by clean lines, restrained colors, and a focus on precision and clarity. Artists such as Antonio
Canova and Luigi Valadier became renowned for their neoclassical sculptures and decorative
arts, drawing inspiration from their Roman forefathers and leaving a lasting legacy of timeless
elegance and a renewed appreciation for the classical heritage of Italian art.
Europe was poised for a major change as the Enlightenment reached its zenith. Indeed, a seismic
shift was on the horizon, and a charismatic figure was prepared to capitalize on the moment. The
rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, a visionary leader and military genius, would soon bring forth a
time of tumultuous transformation. With the French Revolution as its catalyst, the Napoleonic
era would challenge established powers, redraw borders, and launch a period of modernity across
the Italian states.
 6

CONQUEST TO UNITY: NAPOLEON AND THE ITALIAN

UNIFICATION (1789–1902 CE)

T hein first ripples of a unified Italy began well before the Risorgimento took place. To the north
France, a revolution erupted in 1789 CE, fueled by ideals of liberty, equality, and
fraternity. The violence and bloodshed with which the French people upended their ancien
régime sent shockwaves throughout Europe as nations began to sprout from kingdoms. The
Italian peninsula, too, was swept up in this revolutionary fervor. The winds of change brought by
the French Revolution resonated with the aspirations of the Italian people that the Enlightenment
ignited. It is no accident that Italy’s patriotic red, white, and green colors began appearing around
this time. The presence of a foreign invader further spurred this new wave of nationalism.
Napoleon Bonaparte, an enigmatic figure who emerged amidst the turmoil of the French
Revolution, came to dominate the European stage around this time. Rising from humble origins
on the French island of Corsica, Napoleon’s meteoric ascent to power saw him transform France
into a formidable military and political force. His ambition and charismatic leadership propelled
him to the newly created role of First Consul and later Emperor of the French. With a grand
vision of reshaping Europe according to his design, Napoleon embarked on a series of military
campaigns to reshape the continent’s political landscape.
Italy, in particular, found itself inexorably linked to Napoleon’s ambitions. The Italian peninsula,
divided into multiple states and under the control of foreign powers, presented an enticing target
for Napoleon’s expansionist agenda. Inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, he sought
to dismantle the old order represented by hereditary nobility and establish a new order based on
meritocracy and national unity. Through military conquest, diplomatic maneuvers, and alliances
with Italian revolutionaries, Napoleon brought about profound changes in Italy, setting the stage
for the eventual unification of the Italian states. When the age of Napoleon dawned, Italy stood
poised at a threshold of a transformative era.
Napoleon’s interest in Italy can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, Italy’s strategic location
and rich cultural heritage made it an appealing target for conquest. Its position in the
Mediterranean at the crossroads of Europe made it a gateway to other territories, allowing
Napoleon to expand his influence and consolidate power. Italy’s history as the birthplace of the
Roman Empire and the Renaissance and its renowned artistic and intellectual legacy held a
strong allure for Napoleon, who saw himself as a new Caesar, a patron of the arts, and a
promoter of Enlightenment ideals.
Furthermore, Italy’s fragmented political landscape handed Napoleon the perfect opportunity to
establish French dominance by exploiting existing rivalries and simultaneously ousting one of
his geopolitical rivals—the entrenched Austrians. The Italian states had changed hands so many
times over the years. Napoleon believed a unified Italy aligned with the principles of the French
Revolution, notably nationalism and popular sovereignty, would be appreciated throughout the
peninsula.
Moreover, Italy offered valuable resources and economic opportunities. The region was
historically known for its agricultural productivity, vibrant trade networks, and wealthy merchant
cities. By gaining control over Italy, Napoleon aimed to secure these economic advantages and
leverage them to support his ambitious military and political endeavors.
Napoleon’s first campaign into Italy in 1796 CE during the War of the First Coalition (1792–
1797 CE) marked the beginning of his extraordinary military career and set the stage for
subsequent conquests. He led the French army and launched a daring and innovative offensive
against the Austrian forces controlling northern Italy. Napoleon employed swift and decisive
maneuvers, utilizing rapid marches, flanking movements, and concentrated attacks to
outmaneuver and defeat his adversaries.
His victories at the battles of Montenotte, Millesimo, and Lodi showcased his tactical brilliance
and earned him the admiration of his troops. The Italian population, weary of foreign domination
and inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, initially welcomed Napoleon as a liberator.
With their support, he established new republican governments in northern Italy, dismantling the
existing structures and promoting reforms such as religious tolerance, the abolition of feudal
practices, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code, a civil law code he designed.
Napoleon’s campaign in Italy secured significant territorial gains for France and laid the
groundwork for his larger vision of a unified Italy. Through diplomatic maneuvering, he
compelled various Italian states to join his cause, gradually eroding the influence of foreign
powers. Yet at the same time, Napoleon ultimately believed that France (controlled by himself,
of course) was more suited to govern Italy than the Italians themselves. This eventually caused
tension and friction between the two parties.
However, he was unsatisfied with solely northern Italy and turned his sights southward. His
campaigns continued in central Italy from 1797 to 1799 CE, and the ambitious French general
made his presence felt throughout the peninsula. One of the pivotal turning points occurred
during the Battle of Rivoli in 1797 CE, where Napoleon showcased his military mind and
achieved a resounding victory against the Austrian forces.
Eager to extend French influence, Napoleon skillfully negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio
the same year, formally concluding the War of the First Coalition. This landmark agreement
marked a significant redrawing of the political landscape in Italy, recognizing French control
over Lombardy while ceding Venetian territories and the city of Venice to Austria. This act
brought a stunning ten centuries of independent Venetian rule to a close. Quickly flexing his new
power over portions of the peninsula, Napoleon founded the Cisalpine Republic, a French-
backed state in northern Italy that embraced the ideals of the French Revolution.
Napoleon directed his attention south toward the Papal States in his pursuit of even greater
dominion. Though short-lived, the occupation of Rome in 1798 CE and the establishment of a
Roman Republic (1798–1799 CE) were symbolic gestures that shook the foundations of the
region. The pope’s temporal authority was diminished, making way for the later attrition of papal
power in the 1800s CE.
Amidst his seemingly endless military conquests, one momentous battle stood out: the Battle of
Marengo in 1800 CE during the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802 CE). Napoleon’s
strategic brilliance was on full display as he secured a slim victory over the Austrian forces,
consolidating French control in northern and central Italy. This triumph not only bolstered
Napoleon’s position but also played a pivotal role in the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire
and the shaping of Italy’s political landscape.
By the turn of the 19th century CE, Napoleon had become the First Consul of France and was in
firm control of the French Republic and all its territories, including Italy. Under Napoleon’s rule,
Italy underwent a series of political and administrative transformations. In 1802 CE, he
established the Italian Republic, a satellite state of France, encompassing territories in northern
and central Italy, but his ambitions in Italy did not stop there.
By 1805 CE, he declared himself King of Italy, bestowing himself with the Iron Crown of
Lombardy, a medieval relic with a murky, potentially Byzantine origin. This act further
solidified his control over the region. It enhanced his legitimacy as a ruler, though it did make
him seem less like a champion of the people and much more like the kind of autocratic foreign
monarch Italy had seen many times before.
During this period, Napoleon continued to launch military campaigns to expand French control
in Italy, facing opposition from various European states, particularly the Third Coalition formed
by Austria, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Naples, and Sicily. However, Napoleon’s
military prowess kept him in the lead with several victories, the most notable being the Battle of
Austerlitz in 1805 CE, which secured French dominance and played a part in the demise of the
Holy Roman Empire.
Napoleon’s presence in Italy brought about significant changes across different aspects of
society. He continued to introduce sweeping reforms, including legal and administrative changes,
economic modernization, and infrastructure development. These reforms aimed to centralize
power, stimulate economic growth, and strengthen the region’s ties to the French Empire. While
these may have benefitted the peninsula, Italian citizens were beginning to sour towards him.
Some still saw him as a liberator who embodied the ideals of the French Revolution, but others
resented foreign occupation and yearned for true Italian independence.
Aware of his fluctuating popularity, Napoleon established satellite states in Italy to cement his
control. These included the Kingdom of Italy, which encompassed territories in northern and
central Italy, and the Kingdom of Naples, governed first by Napoleon’s brother Joseph
Bonaparte and later by his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat. These puppet states aligned with
French interests and continued to implement reforms inspired by the French Revolution.
Italy was divided into three portions—the northernmost part of the peninsula, which was
annexed into the French Empire; some northern and central states that were joined to create the
newly minted Kingdom of Italy; and the southern Kingdom of Naples. The Papal States were
largely left alone since Napoleon retained a somewhat cordial relationship with Pope Pius VII (r.
18001823 CE). After all, the same pope crowned him Emperor of France in 1804 CE, lending an
air of religious legitimacy to his new monarchy. However, when Napoleon invaded the Papal
States five years later, he imprisoned Pope Pius VII and annexed his territories. The pontiff’s
lands were returned to him after Napoleon’s fall in 1814 CE. As for Venice, the Austrians ceded
control to Napoleon after the Battle of Austerlitz, though like the Papal States, Venice would be
returned to Austrian rule after 1814 CE.
While Napoleon’s rule brought some benefits, such as infrastructure development and
administrative efficiency, it also resulted in challenges and resistance. The introduction of
conscription for the French army stirred discontent among the Italian population, leading to
resentment and resistance against foreign occupation. The heavy taxation imposed to fund
Napoleon’s military campaigns also strained the Italian economy and contributed to popular
discontent.
Napoleon’s power began to wane in the early 19th century CE. With his decline, Italy soon
became a battleground, with European powers circling like vultures over the scraps of the French
Empire. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 CE marked the end of Napoleon’s rule in Italy, as the
region was redivided among various powers, including Austria and the smaller Kingdom of
Sardinia.
Despite Napoleon’s eventual defeat and the re-establishment of foreign control in Italy, his
influence left a lasting impact on the region. The Napoleonic reforms, particularly the legal and
administrative changes, laid the groundwork for future developments in Italy, including the fight
for Italian independence and the coming Risorgimento.
The Italian Risorgimento, meaning "resurgence" or "rebirth," refers to the 19th-century CE
movement for Italian unification and independence. It took many different events and nearly
sixty years to come to fruition, but the Congress of Vienna was a catalyzing event. After
Napoleon’s defeat, the larger European powers who had a hand in his downfall redrew that map
of Europe to favor their sociopolitical aims. These nations, primarily Great Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia, were governed by monarchs and were eager to put down any revolutionary
sentiment that lingered inside and outside their kingdoms. Though Napoleon, in the end, was no
great champion of representative government, the years leading up to and during his reign had
been decidedly turbulent for Europe’s monarchies.
However, the cat was out of the bag, and it would be impossible for the European royal families
to return to their heyday of absolutist rule. It was twilight for these kings and queens, but they
did not quite know it yet. In 1820 CE, the first of several revolutionary sparks lit on the
continent. A revolt in Cádiz, Spain, led to the establishment of the Constitution of Cádiz, which
later served as a framework for Italian patriots.
One year later, Italian revolutionaries began to call for a constitution. This had limited success,
and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (formerly the Kingdom of Naples) and the Kingdom of
Sardinia gained constitutions. Unfortunately, though, these gains were short-lived, and with the
Austrian military’s aid, the full power of the monarchs of both kingdoms was restored.
In the 1830s CE, several uprisings ignited across the Italian states, inspired by nationalist
sentiments and the continued spread of liberal ideals throughout Europe. These rebellions, such
as the revolutions in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States, aimed to challenge foreign dominion
over the peninsula and establish independent Italian states.
Two key figures of the Risorgimento must be quickly discussed before proceeding: Giuseppe
Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. As an influential nationalist and political activist, Mazzini
fervently advocated for a unified and independent Italy. He co-founded the secret society known
as Young Italy in 1831 CE, which aimed to promote Italian unity, republican ideals, and popular
participation in the political process. Mazzini’s impassioned writings and powerful oratory
inspired countless Italians to join the cause and fight for their nation’s liberation.
As for Garibaldi, he is remembered as a legendary figure in Italian history whose name remains
synonymous with the spirit of the Risorgimento. Known as the "Hero of Two Worlds," he was a
skilled military leader and a passionate advocate for Italian independence. He led several
successful campaigns, most notably the famous Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 CE, which
will be discussed shortly. With his volunteer army, known as the Redshirts, Garibaldi conquered
the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, playing a crucial part in tying southern Italy to the northern
regions.
In 1848 CE, another wave of revolutions swept Europe, including Italy. The uprisings marked a
significant turning point in the Risorgimento. Revolts erupted in various Italian states,
demanding liberal reforms, constitutional governments, and national unity. Notable events
during this period include the Sicilian uprising and the establishment of another Roman Republic
under the leadership of Mazzini and Garibaldi.
The Sicilian Revolution of 1848 CE marked a pivotal moment in the struggle for Italian
independence and the broader context of European revolutionary movements. Sparked by
widespread discontent with Bourbon rule, Sicilians rose against their oppressive rulers and
demanded political and social reforms. The revolution was somewhat of a populist movement,
with Sicilian civilians taking up arms and forming a provisional government. Their goals
included the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the unification of Sicily with the rest
of Italy. Although Bourbon forces eventually suppressed the revolution, it served as a precursor
to the broader wave of revolutions and upheavals that swept across Europe later.
During the same year, Rome became a stage for significant political change. After the Papal
Minister, Pellegrino Rossi, was assassinated, Pope Pius IX (r. 18461878 CE) fled Rome, and the
Roman Republic was founded. Inspired by nationalist sentiments and dissatisfaction with foreign
rule, Roman citizens and other Italian revolutionaries took to the streets demanding reforms and
independence from the papal authority.
With Mazzini and Garibaldi leading the way, this new Roman Republic aimed to establish a
government based on republican principles, with a constitution and elected officials. However,
the republic faced numerous challenges, including opposition from conservative forces and
military interventions by foreign powers. By 1850, the Republic was no more. Despite its short-
lived existence, it became a powerful symbol of the Italian people’s aspirations for self-
determination. It laid the groundwork for future efforts toward Italian unification and the later
dissolution of the Papal States. Twenty years later, Pope Pius IX would be the last Catholic pope
to rule as a secular monarch; beyond the walls of Vatican City, all of his successors would be
relegated to spiritual authority alone.
Despite the impressive ground gained by revolutionary forces, it was not yet the hour for Italy’s
independence. Harsh repression from conservative troops and foreign intervention, particularly
from the French and the Austrians, pushed back against the work of leaders like Mazzini and
Garibaldi. However, the momentum of the Risorgimento could not be stopped.
A new figure emerged in Sardinia—Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (Count Camillo Benso di
Cavour), was a prominent figure in the Italian Risorgimento and played a vital role in the
unification of Italy. Known for his political acumen and diplomatic skills, Cavour served as the
Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, a leading state in the Italian peninsula. Rather than
the broad militaristic approach favored by revolutionaries like Garibaldi and Mazzini, Cavour
pursued a more strategic approach to consolidate alliances and exploit international rivalries to
advance the cause of Italian unity.
He presented the continual skirmishes in Italy as a diplomatic problem for the rest of the
European continent, hoping to use Emperor Napoleon III’s (r. 18521870 CE) French Empire to
squeeze the Austrians out of the peninsula. His canny diplomacy and calculated actions were
pivotal in the unification process.
Though he and Cavour held the same goal, Garibaldi grew frustrated with the slow pace of
diplomatic machinations. In 1860 CE, another revolt broke out in Sicily against their Bourbon
rulers. Garibaldi, eager to capitalize on the unrest, embarked on an ambitious military campaign
known as the “Expedition of the Thousand” or the “Expedition of the Redshirts.”
The essential aim of the enterprise was to liberate the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which
encompassed the regions of southern Italy and Sicily, from Bourbon rule and unite it with
Cavour’s Kingdom of Sardinia. Garibaldi and his volunteer Redshirt army of about a thousand
men launched from the port of Quarto near Genoa and sailed for Sicily, where they landed at
Marsala in May 1860 CE.
The Redshirts quickly gained support from the local population as they marched through the
island, easily defeating the Bourbon forces in several battles. Their military successes and
Garibaldi’s charismatic leadership fueled a groundswell of popular support, with volunteers
joining their ranks as they advanced. After securing Sicily, Garibaldi proclaimed himself the
island’s dictator in the name of the current king of Sardinia, King Victor Emmanuel II (r.
18491878 CE).
With Sicily now mastered, Garibaldi did not stop. Instead, his forces crossed the Strait of
Messina and marched into mainland Italy, where they encountered minimal resistance. Inspiring
widespread enthusiasm and uprisings among the local population, Garibaldi was viewed as a
champion of Italian independence and unity. As a result, when they moved northward,
Garibaldi’s forces grew significantly in numbers, swelling to around 20,000 volunteers. The
campaign culminated at the Battle of Volturno in October 1860 CE, where Garibaldi’s forces
defeated the Bourbon army.
However, after Volturno, Garibaldi marched no further. Cavour, who had been mostly supportive
of the Expedition of the Thousand in the beginning, feared that it was deteriorating into a
populist fervor. As a result, King Victor Emmanuel II and his forces met Garibaldi and his
Thousand outside of Rome, halting their progress before they moved on to the crown jewel of
the peninsula, which was under French protection at the time. Once Garibaldi turned the regions
he had successfully liberated over to Victor Emmanuel, all of Italy except Rome and Venetia
(Venice and the surrounding lands) was pulled under the crown of Sardinia.
With the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia under the leadership
of King Victor Emmanuel II, the dream of Italian unification was closer than ever. The following
year, in 1861 CE, Italy was officially proclaimed a united kingdom with King Victor Emmanuel
II at its head. Venetia continued under Austrian governance, and Rome remained under papal
control.
Five years later, an opportunity for Venice’s incorporation into the Kingdom of Italy arose
during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 CE. Italy, now led by Prime Minister Alfonso Ferrero
La Marmora, formed an alliance with Prussia against Austria, likely realizing that the war gave
Italy a golden opportunity to reclaim territories under Austrian control. La Marmora’s gamble
paid off when Prussia emerged victorious, and the Treaty of Vienna in 1866 granted Venetia to
Italy. This territorial acquisition was met with joy and celebration among the Italian population,
as it represented the fulfillment of a long-held desire to reunite historically significant regions
with the rest of Italy. Venice’s rich cultural heritage, artistic legacy, and strategic importance
further enhanced the symbolic and practical significance of its incorporation.
Yet, Rome remained outside of Italian control. The Papal States, which included Rome, were
still under the rule of Pope Pius IX and protected by French troops stationed in the city.
However, French troops were needed on their home soil during the Franco-Prussian War
(18701871 CE), and Rome was left vulnerable to Italian forces. In response, Italian soldiers
under the command of General Raffaele Cadorna advanced toward Rome. On September 20,
1870, they breached the city’s defenses, claiming Rome for Italy and ending secular papal rule.
Unlike Venice, Rome’s addition to the Kingdom of Italy was met with mixed reactions.
Supporters of Italian unification celebrated the event as the final step towards a united Italy,
fulfilling a long-held aspiration. Still, in a majority Catholic nation like Italy, the loss of Rome
and the Papal States was a significant blow to the papacy and the Catholic Church.
Following the incorporation of Rome, the Italian government declared the city the capital of the
Kingdom of Italy, solidifying Rome’s status as the political, administrative, and cultural heart of
the newly unified Italian state. The long-dreamed goals of the Risorgimento were realized at last.
Now with the entire territory of the peninsula unified, the Kingdom of Italy entered a period of
consolidation and further development to establish itself as a nation. Victor Emmanuel II and his
successors worked with the government to develop a stable political system focused on
solidifying its authority, implementing administrative reforms, and strengthening state
institutions.
But challenges persisted. Regional disparities, particularly between the industrialized north and
the agrarian south, posed ongoing socio-economic issues. Social tensions, labor disputes, and
political divisions arose as Italy transitioned from a collection of independent states into a unified
nation.
Internationally, Italy sought to solidify its position on the global stage. Eager to catch up with
other European powers, it engaged in colonial expansion, acquiring territories in Africa and the
Mediterranean. They gained Eritrea in 1882 CE, Somalia in 1889 CE, and Libya in 1911 CE.
These overseas ventures aimed to bolster Italy’s prestige and influence but added to the
complexities of managing an empire.
As Italy approached the 20th century, its prime minister, Giovanni Giolitti, powerfully shaped
the country. Both loved and reviled, Giolitti was one of the longest-serving prime ministers in
Italian history and a pivotal figure in the shaping of modern Italy. He was committed to
modernization and economic progress, implementing policies to stimulate industrial growth and
improve the country’s economy. Giolitti promoted free trade, encouraged foreign investments,
and initiated infrastructure projects to enhance transportation and communication networks. His
economic reforms played a crucial role in transforming Italy into an industrialized nation,
particularly in the northern regions, where industrial centers flourished.
Giolitti also sought to address social issues and improve the welfare of the working class. He
introduced labor reforms that protected workers’ rights, regulated working hours, and improved
working conditions. Giolitti’s policies helped mitigate labor disputes and fostered a more stable
social climate.
Furthermore, Giolitti played a significant role in advancing the cause of parliamentary
democracy and political stability. His pragmatic approach to politics involved forming coalitions
and seeking compromise among political factions. Giolitti emphasized the importance of
consensus and worked towards expanding suffrage, making elections more inclusive, and
strengthening democratic institutions.
However, Giolitti’s political career was not without controversy. Though responsible for
bringing Italy prosperity, Giolitti had his fair share of enemies and is remembered for holding
onto power through less-than-moral means. His practice of using personal handshake deals,
corruption, and violence to achieve election results has come to be known as giolittisimo. These
issues tarnished his reputation and created divisions among his supporters and opponents.
Outside of Italy’s growing sense of self, in the early 20th century CE, Europe was teetering ever
closer to an explosion. It was an odd time of transition where traditional kingdoms still existed
alongside modern nation-states, and old alliances faced many shifts and challenges. Italy had
historically been aligned with Germany and Austria-Hungary as part of the Triple Alliance
formed in 1882 CE, and this served Italy by maintaining stability and protecting Italian territorial
ambitions. However, as tensions in Europe escalated, Italy realized strategic choices had to be
made in place of honoring historical obligations.
Italy thus entered into a delicate balancing act. While formally allied with Germany and Austria-
Hungary, Italy maintained reservations about their aggressive territorial aspirations. The
Irredentist movement in Italy was particularly critical of Italy’s continued adherence to the Triple
Alliance. Fervent nationalists who had advocated for the reunification of Italian-speaking
territories, the Italian Irredentists disregarded the constraints of the Triple Alliance and
prioritized Italian territorial ambitions. Of particular importance were the regions of Trentino,
Trieste, and Istria, which were in Austro-Hungarian clutches. The Irredentist movement
challenged Italy’s foreign policy, as it fueled internal pressures and demands for territorial
expansion that directly opposed the obligations and commitments of the Triple Alliance.
So, what alternatives were available if Italy would not stay loyal to the Triple Alliance? In 1902
CE, Italy signed a secret defensive pact with France, the Franco-Italian Agreement. This
agreement aimed to secure French support in Italy’s pursuit of territorial gains in the event of a
conflict with Austria-Hungary. The French agreed to back Italian claims on Libya in exchange
for Italy’s support of French assertions in Morocco. Most importantly, it demonstrated Italy’s
willingness to pursue its present national interests over its historical alliance commitments.
However, Europe was a tinderbox, and Italy’s careful balancing act was becoming impossible to
maintain. Though now a unified country, the oncoming century would bring untold violence and
conflict to Italy at home and abroad. Looming on the horizon was the gathering storm of World
War I (19141918 CE), which would test Italy’s alliances, ambitions, and resilience. As the world
plunged into this cataclysmic conflict, Italy faced critical decisions that shaped its destiny and
tested its aspirations for territorial expansion and international prominence. The Risorgimento
had laid the groundwork, and now Italy stood as one nation on the precipice, ready to face the
challenges and uncertainties of the turbulent times ahead.
 7

THE CRUELEST CENTURY: ITALY ENTERS THE AGE OF

MODERNITY (1914–1980 CE)

W hen Archduke Franz Ferdinand slumped forward in his car on June 28, 1914 CE, Europe’s
carefully constructed balance of power collapsed into total calamity. Alliances were called
upon, and soon all of the major nations of Europe were at each other’s throats. Incensed by
the slaying of their crown prince, Austria-Hungary looked to Germany to support their war
against Serbia. Serbia turned to Imperial Russia, who, in turn, reached out to France. Gavrilo
Princip’s bullet started a regional conflict, quickly spiraling out of control into a global war.
At the outset of World War I, there was the old Triple Alliance of Austria-Hungary, Germany,
and Italy. However, Italy chose not to honor the agreement and instead remained neutral.
Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire also entered the fray on the side of Austria-Hungary, and
together the four nations formed the Central Powers. On the other side was Serbia, backed by the
Allied Powers of Russia, France, Great Britain, Japan, and later, Italy and the United States.
The challenging decision to opt for neutrality in the early days of World War I was controversial
but not one that would last very long. Instead, Italian leaders saw an opportunity to renegotiate
territorial claims and potentially expand their influence by joining the side that offered the most
advantageous terms. In 1915 CE, Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies after signing the
Treaty of London, which promised territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary.
Soon, the Italian front became a significant theater of war, with intense fighting in the
mountainous regions along the Austro-Italian border. The rugged terrain presented substantial
challenges to both sides, and the front line spanned the length of the Alps, from the Adriatic Sea
in the east to the Swiss border in the west. Steep mountains, deep valleys, and harsh weather
conditions made military operations extremely fraught.
Under General Luigi Cadorna’s command, Italian forces launched several offensives to break
through the Austro-Hungarian lines and seize control of strategic positions. However, progress
was slow and costly due to the challenging mountainous terrain and the formidable defensive
posts held by the enemy. Furthermore, history has not been kind to Cadorna and his tactics. His
Austro-Hungarian opponent, General Svetozar Boroević von Bojna, routinely outmatched him.
Boroević skillfully utilized the natural advantages of the terrain to mount a strong defense.
Though the Western Front is remembered for trench warfare, the Italian Front, or Isonzo Front,
was also characterized by a series of trench lines and fortified positions. The geography of the
Alps further forced intricate systems of mountain warfare, including artillery, mine warfare, and
savage hand-to-hand combat.
The battles along the Italian front were marked by brutal fighting and heavy casualties. Soldiers
faced enemy fire, extreme weather conditions, avalanches, landslides, and disease. One of the
most significant engagements on the Italian front was the Battle of Caporetto in 1917 CE. The
Austro-Hungarian and German forces launched a massive offensive that resulted in a
breakthrough, causing the collapse of the Italian line and forcing the Italian army to retreat.
However, the Italian front witnessed a turnaround in 1918 CE. With the support of Allied forces,
Italy launched a successful counteroffensive at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which contributed
to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. On November 3 of the same year, Italy and
Austria-Hungary signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti, effectively ending hostilities on the Isonzo
Front. This was a massive victory for Italy, granting it control over contested regions like
Trentino, South Tyrol, Trieste, Gorizia, and Istria—regions that the Irredentists had wanted to
fold into the Kingdom of Italy before the onset of the war.
A little over a week after Villa Giusti, on November 11, the Armistice of Compiègne was signed,
bringing World War I to an official close. Naturally, the Italian front had a profound impact on
Italy’s experience of World War I. It claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands of soldiers,
resulted in widespread destruction, and exacerbated social and economic hardships within the
country. The harsh realities of war and the sacrifices made by soldiers on the Italian front left a
deep chasm within Italy’s collective memory and shaped the nation’s post-war aspirations and
political developments.
After the conclusion of World War I, Italy faced significant challenges across political,
economic, and social spheres. The war left a legacy of destruction and disillusionment across
Europe, particularly in Italy, with increased political fragmentation and the rise of extremist
movements. The nation grappled with economic hardships, including inflation and
unemployment, as well as social unrest fueled by veterans’ demands and workers’ strikes. The
post-war period saw a reevaluation of traditional values and the emergence of new cultural
movements. These challenges set the stage for further political developments, eventually leading
to one Benito Mussolini.
The rise of fascism can be attributed to Italy’s aforementioned challenges during the early 20th
century CE. Mussolini was a charismatic leader and quickly emerged as the driving force behind
the movement. Fascism gained momentum after the horrors of World War I as Italy struggled
with social unrest, economic woes, and a general disillusionment with traditional politics.
Founding the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista or PNF) in 1921 CE, Mussolini
capitalized on nationalistic fervor, anti-communist sentiments, and the palpable fear that led to a
desire for strong leadership. The party’s ideology emphasized the primacy of the state, exalting
national identity and promoting authoritarian rule. Mussolini and his followers promised to
restore order and tackle economic and social problems while calling on the historical legacy of
ancient Rome to be their guide.
Fascism capitalized on widespread discontent with the liberal democratic system, which was
perceived as weak and ineffective. The party employed aggressive propaganda, utilizing mass
rallies, paramilitary squads (such as the Blackshirts), and a cult of personality around Mussolini
to gain power and suppress opposition.
In 1922 CE, Mussolini marched on Rome, showcasing the power of his supporters. This led to
the appointment of Mussolini as prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III (r. 1900–1946
CE). Once in power, Mussolini quickly consolidated it, dismantling democratic institutions and
establishing a one-party dictatorship. Corporatist policies that aimed to bring industry, labor, and
agriculture under state control were enacted, and his regime also pursued an aggressive public
relations campaign that promoted nationalism, imperialistic ambitions, and the dream of Italy as
a world power.
Fascist Italy emphasized totalitarian control, with pervasive censorship, surveillance, and
suppression of political opposition. Dissent was stifled, and propaganda was used to shape public
opinion and maintain the regime’s authority. Mussolini’s authoritarian rule directly impacted
Italy’s involvement in World War II as part of the Axis Powers.
To the north in Germany, after the humiliating defeat in World War I, nationalistic sentiment and
a desire for stability drove Adolf Hitler to power. Mussolini, though not necessarily hugely
enamored by Hitler personally, was aware of certain ideological affinities the two nations shared.
He was also cognizant of Hitler’s popularity and somewhat jealous of his success. Mussolini,
eager to revive the glory of Rome, believed that allying himself with Nazi Germany and Imperial
Japan was the surest route to this goal.
In addition to ideological considerations, strategic and geopolitical interests played a role in
Italy’s alliance choices. Mussolini sought to expand Italy’s influence and territorial possessions,
particularly in the Mediterranean. He believed aligning with Germany and Japan would present
opportunities for territorial gains, resource access, and increased military power.
Italy formally joined the Axis powers by signing the Pact of Steel in May 1939 CE. This
solidified the military and political alliance between Italy and Germany and laid the foundation
for their collaboration throughout World War II. Subsequently, Italy’s alignment with Japan in
the Tripartite Pact of 1940 CE further entrenched its position as an Axis Power. Thus, the same
year the Tripartite Pact was signed, Italy entered into World War II against the Allied Powers of
Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, and later, the United States. Sadly for Italy, their
entanglement in this global conflict would prove disastrous for the nation.
Italy’s military capabilities were limited compared to its Axis partners, and its armed forces were
ill-prepared for the demands of a large-scale war. Still, its involvement in the conflict made
fighting in the Mediterranean an absolute reality. Italian military campaigns did not have the
same ferocity as their German allies and suffered from strategic errors, logistical challenges, and
weak leadership. The invasion of Greece in 1940 CE and the subsequent counteroffensive by
Greek and Allied forces resulted in a significant setback for Italy.
However, the main thrust of Italian aggression came under Marshal Rodolfo Graziani in the
North Africa campaign from 1940 to 1943 CE. This was primarily waged against British and
Commonwealth forces to seize control of Egypt and the Suez Canal and would give Italy a
strategic advantage in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. When Graziani failed to achieve
the desired results against the British, well-known “Desert Fox” General Erwin Rommel of the
German Afrika Korps arrived to take over the floundering Axis cause.
Italian forces were inadequately prepped and often lacked sufficient resources and supplies. The
inexperience of their commanders led to tactical errors, and it was easy for the British to hold
them off. Rommel’s arrival in North Africa in early 1941 CE injected new energy into the
Italian-German joint campaign. Under his leadership, the Axis forces launched a series of
offensives known as the Desert War, which achieved initial success. They pushed the British
Eighth Army back, capturing Tobruk and advancing deep into Egypt.
Eventually, the tide of the campaign turned against the Axis powers, with reinvigorated British
forces ultimately pushing them out of North Africa. The Italian troops suffered heavy losses, and
the campaign ended in May 1943 with the final surrender of Axis forces in Tunisia.
Aside from the failure in North Africa, Italy suffered setbacks in other theaters of the war that
exposed the weaknesses of Mussolini’s fascist reign. Internal opposition to Mussolini’s
leadership grew, and the Italian Fascist Grand Council voted to strip him of his powers. His
arrest and subsequent imprisonment marked the end of his regime and the collapse of fascist rule
in Italy. Mussolini officially stepped down in July 1943 CE.
Several months after the failure in North Africa, Italy was invaded by the Allied Powers. British
and American forces landed near Calabria and began a systematic campaign to liberate Italy
from German occupation and dismantle the fascist hold on the nation. The Allies faced solid
German resistance, particularly in the mountainous terrain of central Italy, but managed to make
gradual progress northward nevertheless.
Five days after the Allies landed, Italy officially surrendered on September 8, 1943 CE, and one
month later, Italy declared war on their former partners, joining the side of the Allied powers in
the struggle against Hitler. However, the Germans remained entrenched on the peninsula, and the
fighting persisted until the eventual liberation of Rome in June 1944. Cognizant of the turning
tide and fearful for his safety, on April 28, 1945 CE, Benito Mussolini attempted to flee Italy
with his mistress, Clara Petacci. Captured by Italian partisans, they were executed by firing
squad the following day. After the execution, their bodies were taken to Milan and hung upside
down in the Piazzale Loreto. Subjected to abuse and mutilation by the crowd, Mussolini and
Petacci were eventually taken down and buried in an unmarked grave. However, they were later
reinterred by their respective families.
After the upheaval faced by Italy in World War II, a period of intense rebuilding and
transformation began. The country transitioned from a monarchy to a republic in 1946 CE, and
King Umberto II (r. 1946) abdicated as a democratic system was formally established by the will
of the people. Though Italy faced numerous challenges, including economic disparities between
the northern and southern portions of the nation, political stabilization, corruption, and social
reconstruction, the post-war years still witnessed significant industrial growth, urbanization, and
the development of a welfare state.
Like many other nations, Italy embarked on a path of reconstruction and modernization. This led
to the “Italian Economic Miracle,” also known as Il Boom, an unprecedented period of economic
growth and transformation that rocked Italy during the 1950s and 1960s CE. The country
witnessed significant industrial expansion, particularly in manufacturing, automobiles, and
fashion. Mass migration from rural areas to urban centers fueled the labor force and contributed
to urbanization. The Italian Economic Miracle is one of the major success stories in recent
history, raising the quality of life for many Italians. As living standards and consumption rose, a
healthy middle class emerged, spurring infrastructural developments, including the construction
of highways, factories, and residential buildings.
However, even as the economy progressed, Italy was not immune to the popular beliefs of the
1960s and 1970s CE. Social movements, political protests, and overall cultural shifts were the
hallmark of these decades. Among these were student uprisings, labor strikes, and activism that
advocated for civil rights, women’s rights, and increased political participation. These
movements reflected the desire for social justice and an eschewing of traditional values.
Alongside these societal changes, Italy faced political instability, characterized by frequent
changes in government and the rise of extremism on both sides of the political spectrum. The
country was affected by acts of terrorism. One group, in particular, was the Red Brigades, which
carried out high-profile kidnappings and assassinations, like the kidnapping of former prime
minister Aldo Moro. This was a period of progressive change and political turmoil, further
characterized by an economic slump after the post-war years of prosperity.
The twentieth century was an unbelievable time of maturation for Italy, growing from a disparate
collection of states under one crown into a democratic nation with a fully formed national
identity. It became a pivotal player on the world stage, fighting in major conflicts and having a
decisive impact on the future of the European continent. Towards the end of the twentieth
century, Italian culture became a lucrative export for the nation, with designers and fashion
houses producing exquisitely made goods that became a hallmark of luxury worldwide. The
brand names Armani, Ferrari, Gucci, Lamborghini, Prada, Pucci, and Versace are all Italian and
came into existence during the 20th century CE. It was throughout these one hundred years that
Italy became the country it is today: a destination for tourism, fashion, gastronomic delights,
history, and culture.
 8

ITALY TODAY AND TOMORROW (1980–2020S CE)

F ine leather goods. Gorgeous sports cars. Delicious food. Beautiful people. Stunning cities.
Delectable wine. These have all been staples of Italian culture for at least the last seventy
years. However, though these things are all true, more lurks beneath the surface. In Italian
history’s dynamic and ever-changing landscape, the period from the 1980s CE to the present is
filled with profound transformations, challenges, and triumphs.
This era witnessed Italy navigating a complex web of political, economic, social, and cultural
shifts, shaping the nation’s identity and trajectory in the modern world. From political scandals
to economic reforms, from social movements to technological advancements, the multifaceted
story of Italy’s journey in recent decades tells a tale of globalization, internal and external
pressures, and the fight to redefine its role on the international stage.
After the political movements, terrorism, and economic downturns of the previous decade, the
1980s CE began as a period of economic growth and rampant consumerism. Though the early
portion of the decade saw continued violence from left-wing extremist groups like the Red
Brigades, the focus was less on political ideology and more on business, money, and the
economy. The protests that had been so popular just a few years prior saw less and less turnout
as the wider population turned away from political activism. Union membership, election
turnout, and political party membership faltered throughout the decade.
Thus, with this elevation of the financial sector and general withdrawal from Italian political
concerns came greed, corruption, and scandal. In the early 1990s CE, Italy was rocked by the
Tangentopoli Investigations. Known as the "Clean Hands" or Mani Pulite operation, these were a
series of high-profile corruption investigations that exposed kickbacks, bribes, and
embezzlement within the government and the nation’s political and business elite. The probe was
initiated by a group of prosecutors in Milan led by Antonio Di Pietro, who targeted politicians,
officials, and business leaders from across the political spectrum. It reached as high as the former
prime minister and head of the Italian Socialist Party, Benedetto “Bettino” Craxi, who would
ultimately face multiple political corruption charges.
Though necessary and cleansing, the investigations were detrimental to the Italian political
machine and eventually led to the complete unraveling of several major political parties. The
Christian Democracy Party became the Italian Popular Party and was relegated to the fringes of
political discourse. The Italian Socialist Party, a major political player since the 1960s, was fully
dissolved, as was one of its offshoots, the Italian Democratic Socialist Party. The final party to
fall was the Italian Liberal Party, which the famed Camillo di Cavour founded in the mid-1800s
CE. Naturally, such a shake-up sent shockwaves through Italian society, rattling the foundations
of the political establishment and triggering a profound crisis of confidence in the country’s
institutions.
The Tangentopoli Investigations had a far-reaching impact on society and politics, becoming a
watershed moment in Italian history. They highlighted the urgent need for political reform,
transparency, and accountability. While the investigations caused political instability in the short
term, they also sparked a wave of anti-corruption measures and institutional reforms to rebuild
public trust and restore integrity in Italian politics. The public outcry and power vacuum that
followed the scandal contributed to the rise of new political forces, including the formation of the
center-right Forza Italia party by media mogul Silvio Berlusconi.
Berlusconi served as Prime Minister three times and became a formidable force in Italian politics
as the new millennium loomed. Though charismatic and savvy, Berlusconi’s leadership was
marred by personal and political controversies. His Forza Italia Party, established in 1994,
quickly gained popularity by championing conservative and center-right ideologies. Despite the
lessons supposedly learned by the Tangentopoli Investigations, allegations of corruption, tax
fraud, and sex scandals haunted the Berlusconi regime. His media empire, built when he was a
private citizen, generated conflicts of interest. At the same time, his polarizing rhetoric sparked
debates about media influence, democratic norms, and the independence of the judiciary in Italy.
Nevertheless, Berlusconi’s tenure as Prime Minister also saw economic reforms that aimed to
meet the difficulties posed by the 1990s CE. Facing high public debt, slow economic growth, and
unemployment, various reforms and structural adjustments were made to address these
challenges. The modernization of the world was happening at an ever-quicker pace as a
technology boom took off, and Italy was forced to acknowledge the impact of globalization on
its industries and workforce. This was evident in the nation’s foreign policy and its continued
role within the European Union (EU), of which it had been a member since the late 1950s CE.
As the new millennium dawned, Italy was wracked by another period of political instability
characterized by rapid changes in government leadership. The country grappled with
immigration, social welfare reform, and well-worn regional disparities between the northern and
southern halves of the peninsula. On the global stage, Italy also participated in international
military operations, particularly the peacekeeping missions in the Balkans and the NATO-led
coalition in Afghanistan. Italian troops remained there for a lengthy period, only leaving
Afghanistan in 2021 CE.
The early years of the 21st century CE were not economically kind to the Italians. The global
financial crisis of 2008 CE slammed the country’s economy, bringing a recession, economic
instability, and high unemployment. These obstacles were frequently addressed with austerity
measures, but this was unpopular among the citizens and often led to social unrest and
discontent.
On the heels of fiscal devastation, like many other Western nations in the 21st century CE, there
has been a significant rise of populist and anti-establishment movements. Two such are the Five
Star Movement and the League Party, bolstered by social media usage. As a nation on Europe’s
borders, immigration and European integration have dominated the public discourse. The recent
waves of migration from the Middle East and Africa have profoundly impacted the Italian
peninsula, causing demographic shifts and highlighting the existing economic inequality within
the nation.
Regarding its relationship with the EU, tensions have arisen over fiscal policies, migration, and
Italian sovereignty. The nation’s relationship with the EU is ever-evolving, but debates on the
country’s future in the Union and the impact of EU policies on Italian governance continually
appear. Despite the struggles, Italy has embraced digitalization and innovation, with thriving
fashion, design, automotive, and tourism sectors.
In the 2020s CE, the COVID-19 pandemic unnerved Italy and the world. The country was
severely affected by the virus, with many cases and fatalities, becoming Europe’s epicenter of
the contagion in the spring of 2020. Even as the disaster of the pandemic fades into history, it
starkly highlighted the fragilities of Italy’s healthcare system and its integral connection to the
well-being of its populace.
The future will pose significant challenges for Italy. The high public debt, low growth rates, and
persistent gap between the north and the south all threaten the health of the Italian economy.
Addressing structural issues, improving competitiveness, and fostering innovation will be crucial
for sustainable and realistic economic growth. Furthermore, establishing political stability will be
critical moving forward after several decades of fluctuating government leadership and eye-
popping scandals. Strengthening institutions, promoting transparency, and enhancing public trust
in politics will be essential.
Italy faces demographic challenges like many developed nations, including an aging population
and low birth rates. This directly impacts the health of social security systems and future labor
markets, so implementing policies to address these issues and promote social cohesion will be
vital. Lastly, though climate change impacts the entire world, Italy is particularly vulnerable as a
peninsular country in a warmer climate. There is a need to address environmental challenges and
foster sustainable development to ensure a healthy and safe future for Italians.
Italy has been a land of opportunity and innovation since its earliest beginnings. With a deep
history and many natural gifts, the nation is renowned for excellence. Heralded for the finer
things that life has to offer—be that art, culture, fashion, food, wine, or even just the view of the
glittering Mediterranean—Italy continues to captivate the imaginations of millions.
As we close this intriguing exploration of the beautiful tapestry that is Italy, I thank you for
joining us on this journey through time and culture. If you’ve found A Brief History of Italy:
Tracing the Renaissance, Unification, and the Lively Evolution of Art and Culture enlightening
and captivating, I kindly ask that you take a few moments to share your thoughts on Amazon.
Your review will help others discover the riveting story of Italy’s past and offer valuable
feedback for us to further improve and refine our future works. Your voice matters in the
narrative of history, and I am grateful for your participation and time. Grazie mille!
 OTHER BOOKS BY DOMINIC HAYNES

(AVAILABLE ON AMAZON & AUDIBLE)

A Brief History of Ukraine: A Singular People Within the Crucible of Empires

A Brief History of Western Philosophy: Unraveling the Secrets of Time, the Mind, and Existence

A Brief History of Portugal: Blazing the Trail of a Voyage-Shaped Nation

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