Tense and aspect

3.19
We here consider the present and past tenses in relation to the progres-
sive and perfective aspects. The range can be seen in the sentence
frame 'I _ _ _ _ _ with a special pen', filling the blank with a
phrase having the verb base write:
SIMPLE COMPLEX
progressive
present write am writing present

was writing past

perfective
have written ~resent) perfect
past wrote had written past (or plu-) perfect

perfect progressive
have been writing ~resent) perfect
had been writing past (or plu-) perfect

3.20

Present

We need to distinguish three basic types of present:

(a) Timeless, expressed with the simple present form:
I (always) write with a special pen (when I sign my name)
As well as expressing habitual action as here, the timeless' pres-
ent is used for universal statements such as
The sun sets in the west
Spiders have eight legs
(b) Limited, expressed with the present progressive:
I am writing (on this occasion) with a special pen (since 1 have
mislaid my ordinary one)
Normally he lives in London but at present he is living
in Boston
In indicating that the action is viewed as in process and of lim-
ited duration, the progressive can express incompleteness even
with a verb like stop whose action cannot in reality have duration;
thus the bus is stopping means that it is slowing down but
has not, yet stopped. The progressive (usually with an adverb
of high frequency) can also be used of habitual action, con-
veying an emotional colouring such as irritation:
He's always writing with a special pen - just. because he likes
to be different
41
 (c) Instantaneous, expressed with either the simple (especially in a:
series) or the progressive form:
Watch carefully now: first, I write with my ordinary pen;
now, I write with a special pen
As you see, I am dropping the stone into the water
The simple present is, however, usual in radio commentary on
sport (,Moore passes to Charlton'), and in certain performative
. declarations ('I name this ship Srtaefell') it is obligatory.
Note
The verbs keep (on), go on have a similar function to the normal progressive auxiliary be:

John { keeps } asking silly questions

goes on

Past
3.21
An action in the past may be seen
(1) as having taken place at a particular point of time; or
(2) over a period; if the latter, the period may be seen as
(a) extending up to the present, or
(b) relating only to the past; if the latter, it may be viewed as
(i) having been completed, or as
(ii) not having been completed

Past- Present Future

(1)

(2a)

(2bi) y

(2bii) v

Typical examples will be seen to involve the perfective and progressive

aspects as well as the simple past:
(1) I wrote roy letter of 16 June 1972 with a special pen
(2a) I have written with a special pen since 1972
(2bi) I wrote with a special pen from 1969 to 1972
(2bii) I was writing poetry with a special pen
Habitual activity can also be expressed with the simple- past (,He always
wrote with a special pen'), but since - unlike the simple present-
this is not implied without a suitable adverb, used to or (less commonly)
would may be needed to bring out this sense:
42
 H e {used
would to} write
. · h a specia· I pen
WIt

Note
Past time can be expressed with present tense forms. The 'historic present' 'is fairly
common in vivid narrative:
At that moment, in comes a policeman
but has no such journalistic overtones with verbs of communicating:
John tells me that there was a car accident last night
On the other hand, past tense forms need not refer to past time. 'Did you want
to see me?' is little more than a slightly politer version of 'Do you ... ?'

3.22
The past and the perfective
In relation to (2a), it is not the time specified in the sentence but
the period relevant to the time specified that must extend to the
prese~ t. Contrast
John lived. in Paris for ten years
(which entails that the- period of residence has come to an end and
which admits the possibility that John is dead) with
John has lived in Paris for ten years

which entails that John is still alive but permits the residence In
Paris to extend either to the present (the usual interpretation) or
to some unspecified date in the past. Compare also:
For generations, Nepal has produced brilliant mountaineers

.
F or generations, S parta { produced duci } lear
c Iess warners
.
was pro ucmg .

The first claims that Nepal is still in a position to produce more

mountaineers, even if a long time may have elapsed since the last
was produced. The second sentence, on the other hand, is uncommitted
as to whether any further warriors can be produced by Sparta.
The choice of perfective aspect is associated with time-orientation
and consequently also with various time-indicators (lately, since, so far, etc).
It is therefore helpful to consider these two together, Here are some
examples:
ADVERBIALS ADVERBIALS
WITH SIMPLE PAST WITH PRESENT PERFECT
(refer to a period now past) (refer to a period beginning in the
past and stretching up to the pres-
ent)
yesterday (evening) . {SinCe last January
I worked throughout January I have worked up to now
{
on Tuesday' lately .
already
43
ADVERBIALS WITH EITHER
SIMPLE PAST OR PRESENT PERFECf
today
I worked t . th
{ have worked } { tfcfrs~oRour

Note
There is some tendency (especially in ArnE) to use the past informally in place of the
perfective, as in I saw it already (= 'I have already seen it').

3.23

Indefinlte and definlte

Through its ability to involve a span of time from earliest memory

to the present, the perfective has an indefiniteness which makes it an
appropriate verbal expression for introducing a topic of discourse. As
the topic is narrowed down, the emerging definiteness is marked by
the simple past as well as in the noun phrases. For example:
He says that he has seen a meteor. at some time (between earliest
memory and the present)
as compared with
He says that he saw the meteor last night that everyone is so
excited about
Compare also:
Did you know that John has painted a portrait of Mary?
Did you know that John painted this portrait of Mary?

3.24

Past perfect
What was said of the perfect in 3.21 - applies to the past perfect,
with the complication that the point of current relevance to which the
past perfect extends is a point in the past:
Past Present Future
relevant point
~P'P'7'?Z~7Z""""W?ltI v
Thus:
(I say now [present] that) When 1 met him [relevant point in the past]
John had lived in Paris for ten years
In some contexts, the simple past and the past perfect are interchangeable; eg:

I ate my lunch after my wife {chaamde } home from her shopping

- come
44
Here the conjuhction after is sufficient specification to indicate that the
arrival from the shopping expedition had taken place before the eating,
so that the extra time indication by means of the past perfect becomes
redundant.
Note
There is no interchangeability when the past perfect is the past of the perfect:
John tells me that he hasn't seen Mary since Monday
John told me that he hadn't seen Mary since Monday
*John told me that he didn't see Mary since Monday

3.25

The past and the progressive

As with the present, the progressive when used .with the past speer-
fies the limited duration of an action:
I was writing with a special pen for a period last night but my
hand grew tired
In consequence, it is a convenient device to indicate a time span
within which another event (indicated by the simple past) can be seen as
taking place:
While I was writing, the phone rang
The ability to express. incomplete action with the progressive IS
illustrated by the contrasting .pair:
He read a book that evening (implies that he finished it)
He was reading a book that evening (implies that he did not finish it)
and more strikingly by ~
The girl was drowning in the lake (will permit 'but someone dived
in and rescued her')
The girl drowned in the lake e

Habitual activity may be expressed by the progressive provided it IS

clear that the habit is' temporary:
At that time, we were bathing every day
and not merely sporadic:
·We were sometimes walking to the office
But general habits may be' pejoratively referred to:
My brother was always losing his keys

3.26

The perfect progressive

Limited duration (or incompleteness) and current relevance can be jointly
expressed with the perfect progressive. Compare:
45
 He has eaten my chocolates (they are all gone)
He was eattng my chocolates (but I stopped him)
He has-been eating my chocolates (but there are some left)
Frequently the perfect progressive implies an especially recent activity,
the effects of which are obvious, and the adverb just commonly
accompanies this usage:
It has rained a great deal since you were here
Oh look! It has just been raining

3.27

Verbal meaning and the progressive

As pointed out in 2.8, the progressive occurs only with dynamic

verbs (or more accurately, with verbs in dynamic use). These verbs [A]
fall into five classes while the stative verbs [B], which disallow the
progressive, can be seen as belonging to one of two classes.

[A] DYNAMIC
(1) Activity verbs: abandon, ask, beg, call,' drink, eat, help, learn,
listen, look at, play, rain, read, say, slice, throw, whisper, work,
write, etc.
(2) Process verbs: change, deteriorate, grow, mature, slow down, widen,
etc. Both activity and process verbs are 'frequently used in
progressive aspect to indicate incomplete events in progress.
(3) Verbs of bodily sensation (ache" feel, hurt, itch, etc) can have
either simple or progressive aspect with little difference in
meanmg,
(4) Transitional event verbs (arrive, die, fall, land, leave, lose, etc)
occur in the progressive but with a change of meaning compared
with simple aspect. The progressive implies inception, ie only
the approach to the transition. •
(5) Momentary verbs (hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap, etc) have
little duration, and thus the progressive aspect powerfully
suggests repetition.

[B] STATIVE
(I) Verbs of inert perception and cognition: abhor, adore, astonish,
believe, desire, detest, dislike, doubt, feel, forgive, guess, hate, hear,
imagine, impress, intend, know, like, love, mean, mind, perceive,
please, prefer, presuppose, realize, recall, recognize, regard, re-
member, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste, think, understand,
. want, wish, etc. Some of these verbs may take, other than a
recipient subject (7.11), in which case they belong with the Al
class. Compare:
I think you are right [B I]
I am thinking of you all the time [AI]
46
 (2) Relational verbs:apply to (everyone), be, belong to, concern,
consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, equal, fit, have,
include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, remain
(a bachelor), requ;"e,. resemble, seem, sound, suffice, tend, etc.

The future
3.28
There is no obvious future tense in English corresponding to the time/tense
relation for present and past. Instead there are several possibilities for
denoting future time. Futurity, modality, and aspect. are closely related,
and future time is rendered by means of modal auxiliaries or semi-
auxiliaries, or by simple present forms or progressive forms.

3.29

'Will' and 'shall'

will or '/I + infinitive in all persons
shall + infinitive (in 1st person only; chiefly BrE)
I will] shall arrive tomorrow
He'll be here in half an hour
The future and modal functions of these auxiliaries can hardly be
separated; but shall and, particularly, will are the closest approximation
to a colourless, neutral future. Will for future can be used in all persons
throughout the English-speaking world, whereas' shall (for 1st person) is
largely restricted in this usage to southern Br E.
The auxiliary construction is also used to refer to a statement seen
in the past from a point of orientation in the future:
They will have finished their book by next year
Note
Other modal auxiliaries can have future reference also: 'He may leave tomorrow' = 'He will
possibly leave ...'

3.30
'Be going to' + inrmitive
This construction denotes 'future fulfilment of the present'. Looked at
more carefully, be going to has two more specific meanings, of which one,
'future of present intention' , is used chiefly with personal subjects:
When are you going to get married?
The other meaning is 'future of present cause', which is found with
both personal and non-personal subjects:
She's going to have a baby
It's going to rain
47
Both of these suggest that the event is already 'on the way'. Be going
to is not generally used in the main clause of conditional sentences,
willl'll or shall being preferred instead:
If you leave now, you'll never regret it •

3.31

Present progressive

The present progressive refers to .a future happening anticipated in the

present. Its basic meaning IS 'fixed arrangement, plan, or programme':
He's moving to London
Since the progressive is used to denote present as well as, future, a
time adverbial is often used to clarify in which meanmg the verb
is being used:
They are washing the dishes { '!:t:r

The present progressive is especially frequent with dynamic transitional

verbs like arrive, come, go, land, start, stop, etc, which refer to a
transi tion between two states or positions:
The plane is taking off at 5.20
The President is coming to the UN this week

3.32

Simple present

The simple present is regularly used in subordinate clauses that are

conditional (introduced by if, unless, etc) or temporal (introduced by
as soon as, before, when, etc):
What will you say if I marry my boss?
I'll tell you about it when we get home
The use 'of the simple present in main clauses may be said to repre-
sent a marked future aspect of unusual certainty, in that it attributes
to the future something of the positiveness one normally associates
with present and past events. It is used for statements about the cal-
endar:
Yesterday was Monday, today is Tuesday, and tomorrow is Wednesday
and to describe immutable events or 'fixtures':
When is high tide?
What time is the football match?
Both the simple present and the progressive are often used with dynamic
transitional verbs: arrive, come, leave, etc, both having the meamng of
'plan' or 'programme':
48
The tram· {leaves
. I . } tonig. ht firom Ch'icago
IS eavzng .

3.33

'Will/shall' + progressive
The auxiliary verb construction can be used together with the progres-
sive infinitive to denote a 'future-as-a-matter-of-course': will/shall + be +
+ V-ing. The use of this combination avoids the interpretation (to
which will, shall, and be going to are liable) of volition, insistence, etc:
He'll do his best -(future or volitional interpretation possible)
He'll be 'doing his best (future interpretation only)

This complex construction can be used to convey greater tact and

consideration than the simple auxiliary construction does:

When will you {Pbut on . } another performance?

e putting on

Wh en WI
'11 you { bcome? .?
e comtng .

3.34
'Be to' + infinitive
This expresses (a) arrangement, (b) command, or (c) contingent future:
(a) We are to be married soon
There's to be an investigation
(b) You .are to be back by 10 o'clock
(c) If he is to succeed, he must work harder

3.35
'Be about to' + infinitive
This construction expresses near future, ie imminent fulfilment:
The taxi is here and we are about to leave
Be ... to may enclose other items such as shortly or soon to provide
a means of future expression; with other items again (bound, liable,
certain, (un)likely), future expression is overlaid with modal meaning:
He is certain to address the meeting (= It is certain that he will address ...)

3.36
Future time in the past
Some of the future constructions just discussed can be used in the
past tense to express time which is m the future when seen from a
viewpoint in the past.
49
 (1) AVXILIARY VERB CON~TRUCTION with would (rare; literary
narrative style)
The time was not far off when he would regret this decision
(2) be going to + INFINITIVE (often with the sense of 'unfulfilled
intention)
y ~u were going to give me your address
(3) PAST PROGRESSIVE
I was meeting him in Bordeaux the next day
. (4) be to + INFINITIVE (formal = 'was destined', 'was arranged')
He was later to regret his decision
The meeting was to be held the following week
(5) be about to ('on- the point of)
He was about to hit me

Mood
3.37

Mood is expressed m English to a very mmor extent by the sub-

junctive, as in ~
So be it then!
to a much greater extent by: past tense forms, a~ in
If you taught me, I would learn quickly
but above all, by means of the modal auxiliaries, as m
It is strange that he should have left so early

3.38

The subjunctive
Three categories of subjunctive may be distinguished:
(a) Th.e MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE in that-clauses has only one
form, the base (V); this means there is lack of the regular
indicative concord· between subject and finite verb in the 3rd
person singular present, and the present and past tenses are
indistinguishable. This subjunctive can be used with any verb in
subordinate that-clauses when the main clause contains an expression
of recommendation, resolution, demand, and so on (JVe demand,
require, move, insist, suggest, ask, etc that ...). The use of this
subjunctive occurs chiefly in formal style (and especially in ArnE)
where in less formal contexts one would rather make use of other
devices, such as to-infinitive or should + infinitive:
50
 It is necessary that every member inform himself of these rules
It is necessary that every member should inform himself of
these rules
It is necessary for every member to inform himself of these
rules
.(b) The FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE also consists of the base (V)
but is only used in clauses in certain set expressions which have
to be learned as wholes (see 7.63):
Come what may, we will go ahead
God save the Queen!
Suffice it to say that ...
Be that as it may .
Heaven forbid that .
(c) The SUBJUNCTIVE were is hypothetical in meaning and is used
in conditional and concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses
after optative verbs like wish. It occurs as the 1st and 3rd
person singular past of the verb be, matching the indicative was,
which is the more common in less formal style:

If she {were} to do something like that, ...

was

. He spoke to me as if I {::e} deaf

I wish I{w~re} dead

was .

Note
Only were is acceptable in 'As it were' (= so to speak); were is usual in 'If I were you'.

3.39

Modal past

Just as was could replace were in 'If 1 were rich' , so in closed or

unreal conditions involving all other verbs than be, it is the past tense that
conveys the impossibility. Other modal or quasi-modal uses of the past
are illustrated by
1 wondered if you'd like a drink .
which involves an attitudinal rather than a time distinction from 'I wonder
if you'd like a drink', and
We were catching the 8 o'clock train and it is nearly 8 o'clock already
which seems to depend on a covert subordinating clause such as 'We
agreed that ...' in which the past tense is purely temporal.
51
 The uses of the modal auxiliaries

3.40
CAN/COULD

can

(1) Ability He can speak English but he can't

= be able to, be capable of, write it very well ('He is able to
know how to speak/capable of speaking ...')

(2) Permission Can } I smoke in here?

= be allowed to, be permitted to May
(Can is less fonnal than may in ('Am I allowed to smoke in here?')
this sense)

(3) Theoretical possibility (Contrast Anybody can make mistakes

may = factual possibility) The road can be blocked (' It is pos-
sible to block the road')

could

(1) Past ability I never could play the banjo

(2) Present or future permission Could I smoke in here?

(3) Present possibility (theoretical or We could go to the concert

factual) The road 'Could be blocked

(4) Contingent possibility or ability If we had more money, we could

in unreal conditions buy a car

Note

[a] Ability can bring in the implication of willingness (especially in spoken English):

can} you do me a favour?

Coul d
[b] Past permission is sometimes expressed by could:
This used to be the children's room but they couldn't make a noise there because
of the neighbours
More generally, the -past can/could for permission and possibility is could have + V-ed:
Tonight you can dance if you wish but you could have danced last night equally
[c] With some perception verbs, can V corresponds to the progressive aspect be V-ing
with dynamic verbs: '
I can hear footsteps; who's coming?

52
3.41
MAY/MIGHT

may

(1) Permission You may borrow' my car if you like

= be allowed to
(In this sense may is more formal mustn't } borrow
than can. Instead of may not .You are not allowed to my car
or rare' mayn't, the stronger . { may not
mustn't is often used in the nega-
tive to express prohibition.)

(2) Possibility (usually factual) The road may be blocked ('It is

possible that the road is blocked';
less probably: 'It is possible to block
the road')

might

(1) Permission (rare) Might I smoke in here?

(2) Possibility (theoretical or We might go to the concert
factual) What you say might be true

Note

[aJ May and might are among the modal auxiliaries which involve differences of meaning in
passing from declarative to interrogative or negative.
[b] There is a rare use of may as a 'quasi-subjunctive' auxiliary, eg to express wish,
normally in positive sentences:
May he never set foot in this house again!

3.42
SHALL/SHOULD

shall

(1) Willingness on the part of the He shall get his money

speaker in 2nd and 3rd person. You shall do exactly as you wish
Restricted use

(2) Intention on the part of the I shan't be long

speaker, only in 1st person We shall let you know our decision
We shall overcome

(3) a Insistence. Restricted use You shall do as I say

He shall be punished
b Legal and quasi-legal The vendor shall maintain the
injunction equipment in good repair

53
Of these three meanings it is only the one of intention that is -widely
used today. Shall is, on the whole and especially outside BrE, an
infrequent auxiliary with restricted use compared with should, will, and would;
will is generally preferred, except in 1st person questions:
Shallj*Will I come at once?
In the first person plural, eg
What shall/will we drink?
shall asks for instructions, and will is non-volitional future (especially 10
ArnE). Will Ilwe has become increasingly common not only in con-
texts of non-volitional futurity (Will I see you later ?), but also in
sentences expressing helplessness, perplexity, etc:
How will I get there? What will I do? Which will I take?
This usage is predominantly ArnE (though should is commonly preferred)
but examples may be found in BrE too. A similar meaning is also
conveyed by be going to:
What are we going to do?

should

(1) Obligation and logical necessity You should do as he says

( = ought to) They should be home by now

'(2) 'Putative' use after certain ex- It is odd that you should say this
pressions, eg: it is a pity that, to me
I am surprised that (see 11.51, I am sorry that this should ha ve
12.12, 12.17) happened

(3) Contingent use (1st person only We {ShOUld} love to go abroad (if
and especially Br E) in the main would we had the chance)
clause (= would)
~
(4) In rather formal real conditions If you should change your, mind,
please let us know

3.43'
WILL/WOULD
will

(1) Willingness. Used In polite re- He'll help you if you ask him
quests Will you have another cup of cof-
fee?
Will you (please, kindly , etc) open the
window?
(2) Intention. Usually contracted 'II; I'll write as soon as I can
mainly 1st person We won't stay longer than two
hours
54
(3) Insistence. Stressed, hence no ' /I He 'will do it, whatever you say
contraction ~ ('He insists on doing it ... ')
(Cj He 'shall do it, whatever you
say = 'I insist on his doing it ... ')
He 'will keep interrupting me

(4) Prediction (a) Specific prediction:

Cf the similar meanings of other will } be finished
expressions for logical necessity The game { must by now
and habitual present. The con- should
tracted form '/I is common. (b) Timeless prediction:

0·1
1 {Will
fl float} on wa t er
oats
(c) Habitual prediction:
He'll (always) talk for hours if
you give him the chance

would
(1) Willingness Would you excuse me?
(2) Insistence It's your own fault; you 'would take
the baby with you

(3) Characteristic activity in the past Every morning he would go for a long
(often aspectual in effect) walk (ie 'it was customary')
John 'would make a mess of it
(informal = 'It was typical')
(4) Contingent use in the main clause He would smoke .too much if 1
of a conditional sentence didn't stop him

(5) Probability That would be his mother

Note
Volition with preference is expressed with would rather/sooner:
A: Would you like tea or would you rather have coffee?
B: I think I'd rather have tea.
The expression with sooner is informal. .

3.44
MUST

(1) Obligation or compulsion in the You must be back by 10 o'clock

present tense (= be obliged to, Yesterday you had to be back by
have (got) to); except in reported 10 o'clock
speech, only had to (not must) is
used in the past. There are two . you {had to} be
Yesterday you said
must
negatives:( 1) =. 'not be obliged back by 10 o'clock
to': needn't, don't have to;
(2) = 'be obliged not to': mustn't. needn't }
You don't have to be back by
{
are not obliged to
10 o'clock '

55
(2) (Logical) necessity There must be a mistake
Must is not used in sentences but: There cannot be a mistake
with negative or interrogative
meanings, can being used instead.
Must can occur in superficially Mustn't there be another reason for
interrogative but answer-assum- his behaviour?
ing sentences.

3.45
OUGHT TO

Obligation; logical necessity You ought to start at once

or expectation They ought to be here by now

Note
Ought to and should both denote obligation and logical necessity, but are less categoric-
al than must and have to. Ought to is often felt to be awkward in questions involving
inversion, and should is preferred. Still less categorical than ought is hadj'd better/best
(plus bare infinitive):
A: Must you go?
B: Well, I don't have to, but I think I'd better (go).

3.46
The tense of modals

Only some of the modals have corresponding present and past forms:
PRESENT PAST

can could
may could (might)
shall should
will/,ll wouldj'd
must (had to)
used to
ought to
need
dare dared

He can speak English now He couldn't come yesterday

He'll do anything for money He wouldn't come when I asked him
yesterday
The usual past tense of may denoting permission is could:

Today, we {can} stay the whole afternoon

may
Yesterday, we could only stay for a few minutes
S6
The following modals are not. used in. the past tense except, in re-
ported speech: must, ought to, and need. Had to serves as the past
of both must and have to:
must
He {h } leave now
as to

He { ~~USt~ } leave in a hurry yesterday

*must .
*ought to
Yesterday the children *needn't go out and play
?daren't
dared not
did not dare

must
ought to
needn't
He said the children daren't go out and play
dared net
didn't dare

3.47

The modals and aspect

The perfective and progressive aspects are normally excluded when the
modal expresses 'ability' or 'permission', and also when shall or will
express 'volition'. These aspects are freely used, however, with other modal
meanings; eg
He may have missed the train.
He may have been visiting his mother
'possibility' { He can't be swimming all day
He can't have been working

He must have left his umbrella on the bus

'necessity' { I must be dreaming
You must have been sitting in the sun
'predi ti , { The guests will have arrived by now
c Ion John will still be reading his paper

57