ESC195: Calculus II

Tutorial 8
Fourier Series
The Fourier Series of a piecewise continuous function on [−𝜋, 𝜋] is given by
∞

𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛=1

where the Fourier Coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are defined by

1 𝜋
𝑎0 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,
2𝜋 −𝜋

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 cos(𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 sin(𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
Fourier Convergence Theorem
If 𝑓 is a periodic function with a period of 2𝜋 and both 𝑓 and 𝑓′ are
piecewise continuous on −𝜋, 𝜋 , then the Fourier series is convergent,
equal to 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓 is continuous and the average of the left and
1
right limits where 𝑓 is discontinuous, [𝑓 𝑥 + + 𝑓(𝑥 − )]
2
Fourier Series
More generally, the Fourier Series of a piecewise continuous function on [−𝐿, 𝐿] is given by
∞
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎0 + ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

where the Fourier Coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are defined by

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,
2𝐿 −𝐿

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓 𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
Equations of Lines and Planes
The equation of a line can be determined by a known point located on
the line, and the direction of the line:
Equations of Lines and Planes
Another way of writing an equation is in terms of the symmetric
equations of 𝐿. This is done by solving for 𝑡 with respect to each
cartesian coordinate, and equating the results:

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑡= = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Note that if any of 𝑎, 𝑏, and/or 𝑐 are 0, this would yield 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 ,

and/or 𝑧 = 𝑧0 respectively.
Equations of Lines and Planes
If we are given two points on a line, we can find an equation for the
line segment between the points. If we consider the points 𝑃0 and 𝑃1
to be located at the tips of vectors 𝐫0 and 𝐫1 :

𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡 𝐫1 − 𝐫0
Equations of Lines and Planes
If we are given two points on a line, we can find an equation for the
line segment between the points. If we consider the points 𝑃0 and 𝑃1
to be located at the tips of vectors 𝐫0 and 𝐫1 :
Equations of Lines and Planes
The equation for a plane is determined by a point on the plane and a
vector that is orthogonal to the plane.
Equations of Lines and Planes
We can calculate the distance between any point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) in space
and a plane given by 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0:

𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑

𝐷=
𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Cylinders are surfaces that consist of all parallel lines that pass through
a plane curve
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Quadric surfaces are graphs of second-degree equations in three variables:

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 + 𝐷𝑥𝑦 + 𝐸𝑦𝑧 + 𝐹𝑥𝑧 + 𝐺𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 𝐼𝑧 + 𝐽 = 0

The two standard forms are given by

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 + 𝐽 = 0

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐼𝑧 = 0
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Ellipsoid:

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2
+ 2+ 2=1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Elliptic Paraboloid:

𝑧 𝑥2 𝑦2
= 2+ 2
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Hyperbolic Paraboloid:

𝑧 𝑥2 𝑦2
= 2− 2
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Cone:

𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2
2
= 2+ 2
𝑐 𝑎 𝑏
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Hyperboloid of One Sheet:

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
2
+ 2− 2=1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
Hyperboloid of Two Sheets:

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
− 2− 2+ 2=1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Vector Functions and Space Curves
Vector functions take a real number and return an 𝑛-component output,
categorized as a vector

𝐫𝑛 𝑡 ∈ ℝ = 𝑥1 𝑡 , 𝑥2 𝑡 , … , 𝑥𝑛 (𝑡) ∈ ℝ𝑛

In other words, their domain is a set of real numbers, and their range is a set of
real-valued, 𝑛-dimensional vectors. We will be restricting ourselves to three-
dimensional vectors, which can have a curve representation in 3D space

𝐫 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑡 , ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑓 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑔 𝑡 𝐣 + ℎ 𝑡 𝐤 ∈ ℝ3
Vector Functions and Space Curves
The limit of a vector function is a vector, found by taking the limits of its
component functions, if they exist.

lim 𝐫(𝑡) = lim 𝑓(𝑡) , lim 𝑔(𝑡) , lim ℎ(𝑡)

𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
Vector Functions and Space Curves
Parametric equations were first introduced as equations in 2D space, where the 𝑥 and 𝑦
components were represented by functions of a single parameter 𝑡. This can be extended
to vector functions, which can be thought of as parametric equations with 𝑛 components.
If we just consider 3D vector functions, they can be represented by curves in 3D space, or
space curves, where the curve 𝐶 is a set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), where

𝑥=𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑦=𝑔 𝑡 , 𝑧 = ℎ(𝑡)

The vector function 𝐫(𝑡) can now be thought of as the position vector of point
𝑃 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑡 , ℎ 𝑡 on 𝐶.
Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Funcitons
The derivative of a vector function is defined the same way as single
variable functions:
𝑑𝐫 ′
𝐫 𝑡 + ℎ − 𝐫(𝑡)
= 𝐫 𝑡 = lim
𝑑𝑡 ℎ→0 ℎ

If the components of the vector function are differentiable functions,

then
𝐫 ′ 𝑡 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 , 𝑔′ 𝑡 , ℎ′(𝑡) = 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑔′ 𝑡 𝐣 + ℎ′ 𝑡 𝐤
Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Funcitons
𝑑 𝑑
𝐮 𝑡 + 𝐯(𝑡) = 𝐮′ 𝑡 + 𝐯 ′ 𝑡 𝐮 𝑡 ∙ 𝐯(𝑡) = 𝐮′ 𝑡 ∙ 𝐯 𝑡 + 𝐮 𝑡 ∙ 𝐯 ′ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝐮 𝑡 = 𝑐𝐮′ 𝑡 𝐮 𝑡 × 𝐯(𝑡) = 𝐮′ 𝑡 × 𝐯 𝑡 + 𝐮 𝑡 × 𝐯 ′ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑
𝑓(𝑡)𝐮 𝑡 = 𝑓′ 𝑡 𝐮 𝑡 +𝑓 𝑡 𝐮′ 𝑡 𝐮 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑡 𝐮′ 𝑓 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Funcitons
Integrals of vector functions can be found by integrating each component function
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
න 𝐫(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝐢 + න 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝐣 + න ℎ(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝐤
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

We can define the anti-derivative 𝐑 such that

𝑏
න 𝐫(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐑 𝑏 − 𝐑(𝑎)
𝑎

න 𝐫(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐑 𝑡 + 𝐂