DATA MANIPULATION

Computer Science: An Overview by J. Glenn Brookshear and Dennis Brylow publisher Pearson
 Data Manipulation
 Computer Architecture
 Machine Language
 Program Execution
 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
 Communicating with Other Devices
 Other Architectures

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
 Computer Architecture
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor
 Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
 Registers
 General purpose
 Special purpose
 Bus
 Motherboard

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CPU and main memory connected via
a bus

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 Motherboards
 The motherboard
 is the main printed circuit board.
 contains the buses, or electrical
pathways found in a computer.
Buses allow data to travel
among the various components.
 accommodates CPU, RAM,
expansion slots, heat sink/fan
assembly, BIOS chip, chip set,
sockets, internal and external
connectors, various ports, and
the embedded wires that
interconnect the motherboard
components.

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 Central Processing Unit
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is known as the brain
of the computer. It is also referred to as the processor.
 The CPU executes a program, which is a sequence of
stored instructions.

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 Central Processing Unit
 Some CPUs incorporate hyperthreading or
hypertransport to enhance the performance of the CPU.
 The amount of data that a CPU can process at one time
depends on the size of the processor data bus.
 Speed of the CPU is measured in cycles per second -
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
 Overclocking is a technique used to make a processor
work at a faster speed than its original specification.

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 Central Processing Unit
 The latest processor technology has resulted in CPU
manufacturers finding ways to incorporate more than one
CPU core onto a single chip.
 Dual Core CPU - Two cores inside a single CPU
 Triple Core CPU - Three cores inside a single CPU
 Quad Core CPU - Four cores inside a single CPU
 Hexa-Core CPU - Six cores inside a single CPU
 Octa-Core CPU - Eight cores inside a single CPU

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 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Subsystem that performs addition, subtraction, and
comparison for equality
 Components
 Registers, interconnections between components, and the
ALU circuitry
 Register
 Storage cell that holds the operands of an arithmetic
operation and holds its result
 Bus
 Path for electrical signals

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 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Registers are similar to RAM with following minor
differences
 They do not have a numeric memory address but are
accessed by a special register designator such as A, X or R0
 They can be accessed much more quickly than regular
memory cells
 They are not used for general purpose storage but for
specific purposes such as holding the operands for an
upcoming arithmetic computations.
 A typical ALU has 16, 32 or 64 registers.

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 The Control Unit
 Control unit
 Tasks: fetch, decode, and execute

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MACHINE LANGUAGE
 Stored Program Concept
 A program can be encoded as bit patterns and stored in
main memory.
 From there, the CPU can then extract the instructions and
execute them.
 In turn, the program to be executed can be altered easily.

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 Terminology
 Machine instruction: An instruction (or command)
encoded as a bit pattern recognizable by the CPU

 Machine language: The set of all instructions recognized

by a machine

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 Machine Language Philosophies
 Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
 Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
 Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola and ARM

 Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

 Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
 Example: Intel

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 Machine Instruction Types
 Data Transfer: copy data from one location to another
 Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to compute a
new bit patterns
 Control: direct the execution of the program

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Adding values stored in memory

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Dividing values stored in memory

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An architecture of the machine

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 Parts of a Machine Instruction
 Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
 Operand: Gives more detailed information about the
operation
 Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-code

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The composition of an instruction

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Decoding the instruction 35A7

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 A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

1 RXY LOAD reg. R from cell XY.
2 RXY LOAD reg. R with XY.
3 RXY STORE reg. R at XY.
4 0RS MOVE R to S.
5 RST ADD S and T into R. (2’s comp.)
6 RST ADD S and T into R. (floating pt.)

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 A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

7 RST OR S and T into R.
8 RST AND S and T into R.
9 RST XOR S and T into R.
A R0X ROTATE reg. R X times.
B RXY JUMP to XY if R = reg. 0.
C 0 HALT.

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 A Simple Machine Language
 14A3: Load
 The contents of the memory cell located at address A3 to
be placed in register 4.
 20A3: Load
 The value A3 to be placed in register 0.
 35B1: Store
 The contents of register 5 to be placed in the memory cell
whose address is B1.
 40A4: Move
 The contents of register A to be copied into register 4.

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 A Simple Machine Language
 5726: Add
 The binary values in registers 2 and 6 to be added and the
sum placed in register 7.
 634E: Add
 The values in registers 4 and E to be added as floating-
point values and the result to be placed in register 3.

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 A Simple Machine Language
 7CB4: Or
 The result of ORing the contents of registers B and 4 to be
placed in register C.
 8045: And
 The result of ANDing the contents of registers 4 and 5 to be
placed in register 0.
 95F3: Xor
 The result of XORing the contents of registers F and 3 to be
placed in register 5.
 A403: Rotate
 The contents of registers 4 to be rotated 3 bits to the right in
a circular fashion.
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 A Simple Machine Language
 B43C:
 Compare the contents of register 4 with the contents of
register 0.
 If equal, the pattern 3C would be placed in the program
counter so that the next execution executed would be the
one located at that memory address.
 Otherwise, nothing would be done.
 C000:
 Stop program execution.

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An encoded version of the instructions

QUIZ
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PROGRAM EXECUTION
 Program Execution
 Controlled by two special-purpose registers
 Program counter: address of next instruction
 Instruction register: current instruction
 Machine Cycle
 Fetch
 Decode
 Execute

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The machine cycle

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Decoding the instruction B258

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A program stored in main memory

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The fetch step of the machine
cycle

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The fetch step of the machine cycle

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ARITHMETIC/LOGIC
INSTRUCTIONS
 Arithmetic/Logic Operations
 Logic: AND, OR, XOR
 Masking
 Rotate and Shift:
 circular shift (rotation)
 logical shift
 arithmetic shift
 Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
 Precise action depends on how the values are encoded
(two’s complement versus floating-point).

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Masking

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Circular shift

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Logical shift

QUIZ 46
COMMUNICATING WITH
OTHER DEVICES
 Communicating with Other
Devices
 Controller: An intermediary apparatus that handles
communication between the computer and a device
 Specialized controllers for each type of device
 General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire)
 Port: The point at which a device connects to a computer
 Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with peripheral
devices as though they were memory cells

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Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus

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A conceptual representation of
memory-mapped I/O

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 Communicating with Other Devices

 Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory access by a

controller over the bus
 Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus speed impedes
performance
 Handshaking: The process of coordinating the transfer of
data between components

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 Communicating with Other Devices

 Parallel Communication: Several communication paths

transfer bits simultaneously.
 Serial Communication: Bits are transferred one after the
other over a single communication path.

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 Data Communication Rates
 Measurement units
 Bps: Bits per second
 Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
 Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
 Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
 Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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 Quiz
 Assume that the machine (using the simple machine
language as described) uses memory-mapped I/O and
that the address B5 is the location within the printer port
to which data to be printed should be sent.
a. If register 7 contains the ASCII code for the letter A, what
machine language instruction should be used to cause
that letter to be printed at the printer?
b. If the machine executes a million instructions per second,
how many times can this character be sent to the printer
in one second?

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 Quiz
 Assume that the machine (using the simple machine
language as described) uses memory-mapped I/O and
that the address B5 is the location within the printer port
to which data to be printed should be sent.
c. If the printer is capable of printing five traditional pages
of text per minute, will it be able to keep up with the
characters being sent to it in (b)?

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 Quiz
 Estimate how long it would take to transfer a 250-page
novel (about 500,000 characters) encoded in 16-bit
Unicode characters at a transfer rate of 54Mbps.

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What’s on the Outside of the Box?

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 What’s on the Outside of the Box?
 Connectors on a notebook may vary

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 Universal serial bus
 USB (universal serial bus) ports
 Connects up to 127 peripheral devices
 USB 2.0 (high-speed USB)—fully compatible with USB 1.1
products, cables, and connectors
 Designed to replace older parallel and serial ports
 Connects a variety of devices to the computer, including:
 Keyboards
 Mice
 Printers
 Digital cameras

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 Universal serial bus
 USB 2.0
 Uses an external bus
 Supports data transfer rates of 480 Mbps between the
computer and the peripheral device
 Supports hot swapping—ability to connect and disconnect
devices without shutting down the computer
 Plug-and-play (PnP)—allows computers to automatically
detect the device when you plug it in
 USB 3.0 (2008): 5Gbps
 USB 3.1 (2013): 10Gbps
 USB hub
 Device that plugs into existing USB port
 Contains four or more additional ports
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 FireWire
 FireWire (1395 ports)
 Created by Apple in 1995
 IEEE 1394 Higher Performance Serial Bus, also known as
Sony i.Link
 Offers high-speed connections for dozens of peripheral
devices (up to 63)
 Enables hot swapping and PnP
 Data transfer rates of FireWire
 FireWire 400—400 Mbps
 FireWire 800—800 Mbps
 Declared “dead” by Steve Jobs.

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 Video connectors
 VGA (video graphics array)
 15-pin male connector—works with standard monitor
cables
 Transmits analog video signals
 Used for legacy technology cathode ray (CRT) monitors
 DVI (Digital visual Interface) port—lets LCD monitors use
digital signals
 Onboard video—video circuitry built into the
motherboard where the video connector is on the back of
the system unit case

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 HDMI

 High-Definition Multimedia
Interface
 A video/audio interface for
transmitting uncompressed video
data, and
compressed/uncompressed audio
data.
 Digital replacement for analog video
standards.
 Designed: 2002 (7 companies).
 HDMI 2.1: 48Gbps.
 Newer version: 3D, Ethernet data
connection, Consumer Electronics
Control (CEC) extensions. 68
 Additional connectors

 Telephone
 Network
 PC card slot
 PC card
 ExpressCard
 Sound card
 Game card
 TV/sound
capture board

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OTHER ARCHITECHTURES
 Other Architectures
 Technologies to increase throughput:
 Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
 Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors simultaneously
 SISD: No parallel processing
 MIMD: Different programs, different data
 SIMD: Same program, different data

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Pipelining

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 Parallel processing
 Method where more than one processor performs at the
same time—faster processing

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