R-2620

[1-10]

REVIEW ARTICLE Agricultural Reviews

Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls:

A Review
Prashant Kumar1,2, Pushpanjali Singh1,2, Shipra Chauhan1,2,
M.N. Swaroop1,2, Anuradha Bhardwaj3, T.K. Datta1, Varij Nayan1 10.18805/ag.R-2620

ABSTRACT
Nanotechnology applications are increasingly recognized as potential tools in animal sciences, veterinary medicine, drug delivery,
disease diagnosis and vaccine development. The nanoparticles and their therapeutic trends provide a realistic glimpse of current
and future trends in veterinary diagnosis and medicine. Nanotechnology is ascribed to provide new horizons for applications in
molecular biology and biotechnology by revolutionizing almost every field of veterinary or animal sciences by offering novel nano-
scale tools and materials which can benefit society in all walks of life. The nanoparticles have been employed in diverse biological
and non-biological functions. Nanomaterials can contribute to the farm animals for long-term sustainability by increasing the quality
and quantity of safe, healthy and functional animal products. Although there are advantages while using nanoparticles to enhance
performance and heal diseases in livestock, it is universally recognized that some nanoparticles can cause toxic and adverse effects
on living creatures. Apart from that, the promise of nanoscience in veterinary medicine and livestock reproduction is yet to be
explored. A few studies have been made on the uses of nanoparticles in veterinary medicine, livestock health and reproduction.
Awareness is needed about the possible toxic effects and hazards, which could harm the living world. To improve the efficient and
accurate diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases, more sophisticated research on nanomaterials and nanomedicines is required.

Key words: Antimicrobial, Drug delivery, Nanotechnology, Nanotoxicity, Steroidogenesis.

Nanotechnology is the fastest-growing field of science that 1

ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hisar-125 001,
involves the study of structures and materials on ultra-small
Haryana, India.
or atomic scale molecules which represents one billionth of 2
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132 001, Haryana, India.
a meter (10 -9 m) (Shi et al., 2010). The concept of 3
ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar-125 001,
nanotechnology was described by eminent physicist and Haryana, India.
Nobel Laureate Richard Feynman in 1959 in his talk entitled
Corresponding Author: Varij Nayan, ICAR-Central Institute for
“There’s plenty of room at the bottom”. During this talk, he
Research on Buffaloes, Hisar-125 001, Haryana, India.
illustrated that the modification of atoms is a key feature for
Email: [email protected]
a possible way of synthesis (Sahoo et al., 2007; Singh et al.,
2011 and National Nanotechnology Initiative, 2021). After How to cite this article: Kumar, P., Singh, P., Chauhan, S.,
fifteen years in 1974, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the Swaroop, M.N., Bhardwaj, A., Datta, T.K. and Nayan, V. (2023).
term “Nanotechnology”. The ‘Nano’ word comes from the Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A
Greek prefix that means “dwarf” (Bayda et al., 2020; Kreuter, Review. Agricultural Reviews. doi: 10.18805/ag.R-2620.
2007). The National Nanotechnology Initiatives Council of Submitted: 18-01-2023 Accepted: 21-02-2023 Online: 27-03-2023
the United States of America (2004), describes
nanotechnology as “The understanding and control of matter
at the scale of nanometre approximately 1 to 100nm range” various diagnostic tools that are less expensive, faster and
(Jeevanandam et al., 2018; Jiang et al., 2008) (Fig 1). At more sensitive than others. Nanoparticles have innovative
this scale, the physical, chemical and biological properties physicochemical properties that are superior to bulk
of materials behave often unexpectedly from the adjacent materials due to their huge surface-to-volume ratio, higher
bulk materials (Rai and Ingle, 2012; McNeil, 2005). reactivity, stability, functionality, bioavailability, controlled
Nanotechnologies have the potential to make enormous drug arrival and drug delivery at the specific target site
revolutionary changes in the agriculture and livestock (Mohanraj and Chen, 2006; Num and Useh, 2013).
sectors. Moreover, reforming almost every discipline of Nanomaterials are now widely used in imaging and biomedical
science, including chemistry, molecular biology, research screening and, earlier diagnosis of diseases (Tripp
biotechnology, computer science, veterinary science and et al., 2007). Nanoparticles can penetrate cells, tissues and
animal reproduction (Patil et al., 2009; Buzea et al., 2007). organs more than macroparticles and they have the potential
In recent years, nanotechnologies have been applied in to overcome poor bio-accessibility and high toxicity
various fields of science with promising results. It offers (Underwood and Van Eps, 2012; Prasad et al., 2021).

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

Types of nanoparticles mechanisms can be either intentional or accidental. These

nanoscale particles can enter the body through skin pores,
Nanoparticles are broadly classified into various types based
fragile tissues, infusions, the respiratory system and the
on their origin, size, shape and chemical properties with a
intestinal gut. Their entry and accumulation into the cells
diameter of fewer than 1,000 nm (Brigger et al., 2012;
might cause adverse health effects. Recently, the use of
Jeevanandam et al., 2018; Mahmoudi et al., 2011).
nanomaterials is quite common in the livestock, agriculture
Nanoparticles such as polymers, carbon nanotubes, as well as poultry sector to enhance the shelf life and
dendrimers, silicon oxides, inorganic materials, quantum freshness of food products (Bai et al., 2018). They are also
dots and liposomes have been discovered during the last used to enhance animal immunity, oxidation resistance and
few decades using a variety of components and a growing output while reducing antibiotic use in livestock (Huang et al.,
number of revolutionary novel nanomaterials (Baptista, 2015). According to recent research, the utilization
2009). Some of the common nanoparticles are described coefficient of inorganic trace elements was found to be
below in (Fig 2). These nanomaterials may be: approximately 30%, while nanoparticles were close to 100%.
Organic nanoparticles Selenium nanoparticles have the potential to improve the
health of livestock, poultry and fish, as well as promote
Organic nanoparticles are colloidal materials with unique
growth and enhance feed conversion rate, among various
size-dependent physicochemical properties such as optical,
aspects (Cai, 2012) (Fig 3).
magnetic, catalytic and electrochemical. The most common
types of organic nanoparticles are polymeric nanoparticles, Assisted reproductive technology
liposomes, micelles and dendrimers (Fig 2). Assisted reproductive techniques (ART) have allowed
Inorganic nanoparticles breeders to generate progeny with desirable characteristics
in farm animals that were previously thought to be infertile
This category includes various nanomaterials, such as using traditional breeding methods. The productivity and
quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, buckyballs, nanoshells, profitability of livestock farming systems are strongly
silver and iron oxide (Fig 2). They are generally safe and influenced by farm animals’ reproductive performance.
nontoxic, with unique optical and electrical properties that Nanotechnology has come to the forefront in the area of
can be modified during the development process. reproduction, fertility and optimal reproductive management
Applications of nanotechnology in animal sciences is based on applying various precise strategies which also
take into account cost and environmental implications (Olynk
Nanotechnology in farm animals
and Wolf, 2008; Smith et al., 2018). Traditional processes
Nanoparticles are available in the market and as technology of in vitro fertilization (IVF) and in vitro embryo production,
progresses, their properties would become more microfluidic and nanofluidic. It might be a beneficial tool in
sophisticated for a broader variety of uses. Many developing farm animal breeding and reproduction. Recent, research
countries are rapidly growing market demand for livestock has shown that microfluidics may be used to isolate motile
products. The growing field has tremendous use of sperm without centrifugation with the development of this
nanomaterials in our daily life. These NPs uptake technology, oocyte modification in vitro may also become

Fig 1: Represents the length of the relative size of nanomaterials in comparison to naturally occurring things. Some examples of
nanoparticles are shown at the bottom of the right corner of the figure: fullerene, dendrimer, quantum dot, gold nanoshell, liposome
and polymer nanoparticles (Irache et al., 2011).

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

feasible (Schuster et al., 2003; Suh et al., 2006). An in vitro an impact on this improvement. Furthermore, when
study shows the effect of selenium nanoparticles on buffalo compared to bulk-form selenium nanoparticles (40 nm)
oocyte maturation. They have found that supplementation stimulate greater antioxidant gene expression (El-Naby et al.,
of selenium in large-size or nano-particle forms improved 2020). Nanopurification could be used to separate damaged
buffalo oocytes maturation and the size of nanoparticles has sperm from intact and healthy sperm. The protein-based
elimination method is to bind magnetic nanoparticles with
specific antibodies targeting ubiquitin or lectin a surface
membrane marker of abnormal sperm. Nanopurified bull
(Bos taurus) sperms produced pregnancy rates comparable
to impurified sperm about half of the dose and without any
adverse effects on inseminated cattle. Resulting, a single
diluted nano-purified sperm sample can inseminate more
females (Odhiambo et al., 2014; Petruska et al., 2014).
The purpose of these nanotechnology-based studies
on animal reproduction is to characterize the nanoscale
properties of gametic cells (sperm or oocyte) using atomic
force microscopy (AFM) and similar scanning probe
microscopy (SPM) methods. Development of nano
biosensors for investigation of the physiological status of
reproductive health. Production and development of metal-
based nanoparticles used in fertility control applications
developing nanodevices for reliable cryopreservation of
gametes, embryos and sustainable release of small
molecules such as hormones, vitamins, antibiotics,
antioxidants and nucleic acids, among others (Saragusty and
Arav, 2011). The purpose of these novel approaches is to
characterize and modify matter at the nanoscale to generate
Fig 2: The schematic representation of various types of products with value-added economics, social and
nanoparticles (Silva et al., 2019). environmental value and focus on animal reproductive

Fig 3: The schematic diagram represents applications of nanotechnology in animal science.

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

challenges (Scott, 2007). It is noteworthy, that nanotechnology development of numerous pheromone-based protocols for
has started to flourish in the field of reproduction and fertility biological control of reproductive events, including the male
(Chen and Yada, 2011; Verma et al., 2012). effect, estrous detection, postpartum anoestrous,
Nano-biosensor for animal health and management adolescence, pregnancy diagnosis, male sexual activity and
mother-offspring behaviour is a possible way to the rapid
Researchers have developed nano biosensors for the development of aerosol nano-drug delivery technology
diagnosis of pathogens, diseases, estrus, hormone level (Kekan et al., 2017; Archunan, 2020).
and physiological changes in the reproductive tract of
animals (Monerris et al., 2012). Wearable biosensors are Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems
innovative technologies nowadays becoming increasingly Precise nano-sized drug delivery systems are substantially
important for animal health and management. Biosensors smaller than their targets. It is highly anticipated that these
and wearable technology can be deployed on animals to nanoscale drug delivery methods are a reality through
detect their sweat composition and analyze the sodium advancements in nanotechnology. Nanoparticles are
content present at a particular time (Glennon et al., 2016). rapidly being recognized as an excellent choice for
Respiratory disease in livestock is quite common and may efficiently transporting therapeutic agents into a particular
cause infantile death. The efficient way to early diagnose area inside of an organ, tissue, or cells. The combination
respiratory infections is to measure the rectal temperature of nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles with therapeutic
of a calf by using a thermometer. However, this method is dru gs has now c reated entirely new th erapeu tic
time-consuming and required lots of effort from farmers opportunities for the treatment of mild and severe diseases
during group feeding. The author has developed a wearable in farm animals (Table 1). The usage and effectiveness of
wireless biosensor device to record the body temperature several presently available pharmaceutical drugs have low
of the calf automatically and save time and effort for the bioavailability and undesirable side effects. About 95% of
farmers (Nogami et al., 2014). all therap eutic drugs have po or bio availability and
pharmacokinetics (Scott, 2007). In numerous studies,
Veterinary medicine and diagnosis nanoparticles have shown significant efficiency in the
Nanotechnology has potential applications in biosensing, delivery of antineoplastic compounds (Patil et al., 2009),
bioimaging and veterinary medicine including disease antimicrobial (O’connell et al., 2002) and anti-inflammatory
diagnosis, treatment, pathogen detection and targeted drug com pounds (Manikkaraj a et al., 2020 ). Recently,
delivery (Chakravarthi and Balaji, 2010). The varieties of nanotechnology-based drug delivery methods have been
nanomaterials used in diverse applications like nanoshells developed to enhance the biological activity of medications,
are used to destroy cancer cells by using Infrared Radiation including hormones. The effectiveness of the ovsynch
(IR) carbon nanotubes for sensors and drug delivery, gold estrous synchronization protocols improves ovarian
nanoparticles for disease diagnosis, nanocrystalline silver resp onse, in goats where GnR H and PGF2á are
acts as an antimicrobial agent and iron oxide nanoparticles administered using a nano-based drug delivery system
used for improved magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) which helps to induce greater ovulation synchronization
(Meena et al., 2018). The nanoparticle-based medicine and improved luteal function in synchronized goats. This
preparations have opened up new opportunities for the procedure is frequently employed in farm animals since it
diagnosis and treatment of severe diseases. The area of helps with herd management and is not dependent on the
veterinary medicine requires new innovative solutions to detection of estrus (Hashem et al., 2022). Furthermore,
overcome from current challenges of antibiotic resistance. Bhardwaj et al., (2019) have developed a reliable method
Nowadays antibiotics are frequently used to treat infectious for total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and ferric reducing
diseases. High prices for medication and treatment services ability of plasma (FRAP) assay were used to identify the
continue to require a novel solution in the veterinary sector. potential of antioxidants in Indian Halari donkey milk and
The nano-based systems have been developed to carry French Poitu donkey milk.
cargo including antibodies, vaccines, drugs and hormones Vaccine delivery
at a specific target site. The effectiveness and safety of the
administered drugs are very high when compared to the Nano-vaccines and nano-adjuvants have been widely used
traditional drug delivery system (Cerbu et al., 2021). in the development of animal vaccinations due to their high
Nanoparticles, nanoemulsion, nanogels and nanocapsules capacity to boost immune responses. Nano-vaccines are
are among the most frequent form of nanomaterial-based more effective than traditional vaccination they enhance
nano-carrier used as a controlled drug released into a antigen-antibody interaction to stimulate antigen-presenting
specific location. The nanocarrier protects delivered steroid cells to prevent infections and diseases from spreading.
hormones and vitamins from deactivation and degradation Furthermore, they can be used as an adjuvant to slow down
by oxidation (Joanitti and Silva, 2014). The liposome is a the release of antigens, which will improve vaccine efficacy
spherical phospholipid nanoscale vesicle that can be easily (Awate et al., 2013; Torres-Sangiao et al., 2016). Antigen-
formulated, highly flexible and administrable into the target loaded NPs can target lymph nodes improving vaccination
site of the animal (Sadozai and Saeidi, 2013). The efficacy (Moyer et al., 2016). This novel vaccine contributes

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

to improving efficacy and safety performance in both pets Detection and removal of pathogens
and livestock (Akagi et al., 2011). Liposomal vaccines can
The use of nanotechnology-based sensors gained
be prepared by conjugation of bacteria, soluble antigens
tremendous popularity for the detection of foodborne
and cytokines with liposomes. Liposomes as vaccine pathogens. Nanomaterials are not only used to detect but
adjuvants have firmly been recognized as immunoadjuvants also to bind and remove foodborne pathogens from poultry
(immunological response boosters) capable of enhancing and could have great benefits in reducing the risk of food-
both cell-mediated and humoral immune systems. These borne disease (Kuzma et al., 2008). The nanoparticles have
immune adjuvants act by slowly liberating encapsulated the potential to bind pathogens in the gut of animals to prevent
antigenic peptides on intramuscular injection in lymph colonization and growth and are removed through the waste.
nodes. Vaccination against the foot-and-mouth disease The nanoparticles could replace traditional sub-therapeutic
virus (FMDV) is a major issue since present vaccinations uses of antibiotics such as penicillin, tetracycline, lincomycin
made it difficult to distinguish between infected and and macrolides are also used in veterinary patients and assist
immunized animals (Gregoriadis, 1995). Furthermore, the them to prevent the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
novel nanoparticle-based adj uvants are suitable for (Taylor et al., 2004). Bhardwaj et al., (2019) have developed
mucosal routes. Another biological important rationale for a standardized protocol for the production of recombinant
using mucosal vaccines is that the majority of infections pregnant mare serum equine chorionic gonadotropin (PMSG-
originated on the mucosal surface and protection at this eCG) based on immunoassay with great diagnosis efficiency.
point of entry is required (gastrointestinal, respiratory and Nowadays, ticks (parasitic insects) are the major problems
urinary tracts). The mucosal vaccination with antigens- that cause huge economic losses in the dairy and livestock
loaded particles promises a strong scientific rationale for production sector worldwide (Zaheer et al., 2022). In addition,
protecting antigens from extreme conditions of pH, bile researchers investigated the potential of nanotechnology in
and pancreatic secretions (Desai et al., 1996; Arbos et al., the eradication of tuberculosis worldwide in livestock (Bharti
2003). Although, they provide a slow release of antigens et al., 2022). Recently, Dhoolappa et al., (2022) reported that
(depot effect) for sustainable stimulation of the immune the novel nano-bioscaffolds have excellent wound-healing
system (Storni et al., 2005). properties in animals.

Table 1: Nanoparticles and their application in veterinary medicine.

Animal
Nanoparticles Size (nm) Applications Reference
species
Magnetic NPs 50-200 Anti-tumor effects Cats (Sincai et al., 2005).
Dendrimers <10 Microbicide Pigs (Underwood and van Eps, 2012).
Vaccine delivery and
chemotherapy Mice (Malik et al., 2000; Kukowska-
Latallo et al., 2005).
Nano-emulsion 10-1000 Drug delivery Dogs, Cats (Underwood and van Eps, 2012).
and therapeutics
Micelle <100 Therapeutics Sheep, birds, (Underwood and van Eps, 2012).
horse
Liposome 50-100 Therapeutics, vaccine Cattle, dogs, horses, (Underwood and van Eps, 2012; Matteucci
delivery, sarcomas therapy cats, birds, sheep et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2015).
and antibacterial activity and mice
Nanosphere 1-1000 Vaccine delivery Horse (Underwood and van Eps, 2012).
Quantum dot 2-10 Drug delivery and Mice (Michalet et al., 2005; Bentolila et al., 2009).
bio-imaging
Gold nanoparticles 5-400 Cancer therapy Dog and Cats (Zabielska-Koczyw¹s et al., 2017)
Polymeric NPs 10-1000 Cancer therapy, solid Mice, poultry and (Redhead et al., 2001; Rapoport et al., 2003;
tumors therapy, antifungal guinea pig Yu et al., 1998; Vargas et al., 2004; Franklin
treatment and tuberculosis et al., 2003; Kaur, et al., 2020; Sharma
et al., 2004).
Metallic <50 Treatment of canine Dog (Bogdanchikova et al., 2016).
nanoparticles distemper
In vitro effects against Razi Bovine kidney (Rafiei et al., 2015).
foot-and-mouth disease (RBK) cell line
virus (FMDV)

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

Diagnosis of mastitis and its prevention regulate the endocrine system by modulating the
steroidogenic and apoptotic pathways (Lyngdoh et al., 2020).
Bovine mastitis is the most destructive disease in dairy cows
Similarly, in vivo experiments showed that AgNPs modulated
around the world, caused by a variety of bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus). The most severe infection, steroidogenic pathway mRNA genes (HSD3β, CYP17A1 and
especially in the bovine, is the biggest threat to dairy CYP19A1) expression in ovarian follicles in laying chickens
production (Monistero et al., 2018). The failure of mastitis (Katarzyñska-Banasik et al., 2021). In vitro effect of silver
therapy is due to the rapid emergence of multidrug nanoparticles (SNPs) on the maturation of the rabbit’s
resistance. Therefore, it’s an immediate need to overcome oocytes co-culture with granulosa cells. The reduction of
these traditional antibiotics. Recently, nano-drug have been granulosa cell viability was confirmed by the release of
used to solve these multidrug-resistant problems. Therefore, calcium and lactate dehydrogenase in the culture medium.
increasing the development of nanoparticles including The non-toxic effect of silver nanoparticles on rabbit oocytes
liposomes, nano-gels, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and is also observed due to the presence of zona pellucida
metal nanoparticles increases the enormous attraction for (Syrvatka et al., 2015). Recent, studies have shown that
addressing the treatment challenges associated with mastitis inhaled, ingested, or dermally absorbed nanoparticles can
(Le Ray, 2005; Franci et al., 2015; Wang and Shao, 2017; translocate through the circulatory system and accumulate
Zhou et al., 2018; Algharib et al., 2020). ZnO nanoparticles in different reproductive organs and even can enter into
have been shown to promote growth rate and immunological ovarian theca and granule cells. Which can modulate their
response in livestock. It has the potential to treat subclinical normal function, especially in hormone secretion. In vitro
mastitis in dairy cattle. ZnO can reduce antibiotic resistance studies revealed that certain NPs may enter into granulosa
and improve ciprofloxacin’s antimicrobial activities against cells, causing an alteration in the hormone’s secretion and
microorganisms by interacting with several proteins involved dysplasia of the ovum (Stelzer and Hutz, 2009).
in antibiotic resistance (Num and Useh, 2013). Nanotoxicity and safety issues
Estrus detection Nanotechnology and nanomaterials play an important role
Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that are highly sensitive in reducing risk in animal husbandry and food systems.
to mobile sensing biomolecules. The application of Nanotechnologies can be employed in a wide range of fields,
nanosensors in livestock is to diagnose reproductive tract while many positive outcomes have been achieved, they
infections, metabolic and endocrine disorders as well as in also have several negative effects or possible risks for
estrus detection (Saragusty and Arav, 2011). Management humans, animals, plants and the environment. The toxic
of livestock breeding is costly and time-consuming for dairy effects of nanoparticles are dose-dependent which affects
farmers. Therefore, nanotubes are placed under the skin cellular pathways including apoptosis, necrosis and
during the estrus of animals to measure the estradiol autophagy causing cell death as described in Fig 4. There
concentration in the blood at a particular time. The are various challenges associated with nanomaterials such
nanotubes have a binding affinity towards the estradiol as digestion and metabolism within the animal’s body.
antibody during the estrus phase and transmit the Despite several impressive effects of nanomaterials such
fluorescence signal towards the signal receiver central as targeted vaccine delivery, immune response, growth,
computer. Recently, a new approach based on a colorimetric antimicrobial and bioavailability. Therefore, authorities also
assay to determine odorant chemical compounds must consider the economic, legal and ethical concerns
(pheromones) for diagnosis of estrus in bovine by using regarding the use of nanomaterials. Government and
capped L-tyrosine silver nanoparticles (L-TyrAgNPs). They regulatory authorities, environmental, health and safety
have found that sex pheromones like acetic acid or propionic councils and private and scientific organizations, around the
acid change color from yellow to reddish-brown which might world are recognizing the importance of risk assessment of
have great potential to apply in colorimetric sensors for the nanotechnology (Mason, 2009; Hansen et al., 2013).
identification of the accurate time of estrus (Manikkaraja et al., The current challenges and future perspective
2020). The main constraints in breeding animals are the
accurate time of heat identification. Recently, Bhatia et al., While the process of introducing a new drug to market is
(2021) developed a non-invasive method for estrus costly and complicated, veterinary drugs and medicine must
identification in buffaloes based on seed germination be cost-effective and affordable, human medicine is
inhibition test. subsidized by the national health department in most
countries and animal owners must pay the full price of
Ovarian steroidogenesis prescription drugs for the treatment of their animals.
Granulosa cells are associated with steroidogenesis in the Furthermore, the market for veterinary animals is less than
ovary of mammals. Recent studies have suggested that the that for human health medicine. In addition to that species-
buffalo granulosa cells co-incubated with AuNPs with two specific drug formulation and delivery methods are required
different concentrations (210 9 and 210 10 AuNPs/ml) for for livestock. In the future, nanotechnology will reform
24 h. In the buffalo ovarian granulosa cells, the gold veterinary science and technology and increase livestock
nanoparticles did not show oxidative stress. AuNPs can production to fill knowledge gaps for the welfare of livestock.

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 Nanotechnology for Animal Sciences-New Insights and Pitfalls: A Review

Fig 4: Environmental nanoparticles exposure to animals and its cytotoxic effects. The major routes of exposure to these nanoparticles in
animals are oral, In utero, lactational, dermal and inhalation. Apart from those toxic effects of nanoparticles including reactive oxygen
species (ROS) generation causes oxidative stress and deposition in various organs causing inflammation and allergy. The damage to
DNA, proteins and lipids causes cell death via apoptosis, ferroptosis and necrosis (Sengul and Asmatulu, 2020).

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10 Agricultural Reviews