ELECTRONIC DEVICES

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
TOPIC
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
2. TYPES OF SOLID MATERIALS ON THE BASIS OF FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP
3. COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDUCTORS , INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
4. COMMENT : BAND STRUCTURE AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES
5. TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
6. CONDUCTION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
7. EXTRINSIC SEMiCONDUCTORS

8. PN JUNCTION
9. PN JUNCTION WITH FORWARD BIAS
10. PN JUNCTION WITH REVERSE BIAS
11. PN JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
12. REVERSE BREAKDOWN
13. TRANSISTOR

14. TRANSISTORACTION
15. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION AND ITS USE AS AN AMPLIFIER
16. GAINS IN COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER
17. RELATION BETWEEN  & 
18. ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES OVER VACUUM TUBERS
19. LOGIC GATE
20. EXERCISE - 1
21. EXERCISE - 2
22. EXERCISE - 3
 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1. ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
In isolated atom the valence electrons can exist only in one of the allowed orbitals each
of a sharply defined energy called energy levels. But when two atoms are brought nearer
to each other, there are alterations in energy levels and they spread in the form of bands.

(i) Overlapped energy levels are termed as energy bands

(ii) The energy band formed by the overlapping of valency electrons is known as volency energy band.
(iii) The energy band formed by the overlapping of conduction electrons is known as conduction energy band.
(iv) Electrical conduction in solid can take place only when electron remains present in its conduction energy
band.
(v) The minimum energy required for excitting an electrond from valency energy band to conduction energy
band is known as forbidden energy gap (Eg)  Eg = CEBmin – VEBmax
2. TYPES OF SOLID MATERIALS ON THE BASIS OF FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP
2.1 Conductor

Those solid substances in which forbidden energy gap is zero are known as conductors

2.2 Insulator
These are solids in which the energy band formation occurs in such a manner, Conduction
Empty
that valence band is completely filled while the conduction band is completely band

empty. Furthermore the valence band and the conduction band are separated Forbidden
6eV
by a large forbidden energy gap Eg  6eV.. band

The energy band in diamond is shown is Fig. There occurs a forbidden band Filled Valence
band
of width 6 eV between conduction and valence band. No electron can have
energy corresponding to the forbidden band.
Thus an electron needs at least 6 eV to reach the empty conduction band. Such an energy can not be
supplied by heat or electric fields that are generally used in laboratories. Therefore diamond is an insulator.
2.3 Semiconductor

Conduction
These are solids in which the forbidden energy gap between the valence band
band an dthe conduction band is small, of the order of 1eV . At 0 kelvin -1eV } Forbidden { }
band
temperature, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction Valence
band is completely empty. At OK, it behaves lie an insulator (electron band
OK TK
can not absorb infinitesimal energy because there is a forbidden gap
just above the top of the valence band).
At a finitude temperature, (room temperature), some electrons gain energy due to thermal motion and jump
from the tope of the valence band to the conduction band. These electrons contribute to the conductions to
the conduction of electricity in a semiconductor. The forbidden gap in semiconductor is small ~ 1eV . At
finite temperature, some balance electron goes to conduction band. Then the formlessly is in the middle of
 the gap
The energy gap is some semiconductors is as follows :
Eg (Silicon) = 1.12 eV ; Eg ( Germanium ) = 0.7 eV
Eg (Indium antimonide ) 0.17 eV ; Eg (Gallium arsenide) = 1.43 eV
Eg ( Tellurium ) = 0.33 eV. The energy gap decreases slightly with increases in temperature.
3. COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDUCTOR
Conductor , INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR
Insulator Semiconductor

1. Valence band is partially Completely empty conduction At OK, the conductive band is
filled or valence band and band separated from completely empty while valence band is full
conduction band overlap filled valence Separated by small energy gap

2. There is no forbidden energy The forbidden gap is large Separated by small energy gap
gap Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV Eg (si)
Eg (diamond) ~ 6 eV

3. At room temperature , all At room temperatue, electrons At room temperature, may

electrons remains in the do not get sufficient thermal electrons have sufficient energy
partially , filled valence band energy to cross over the to go to conduction band. ( see
or over lapped band forbidden energy band remains Fig 46 )
empty

4. Conducts electric current. Does not conduct electric May conduct electric current but
Very small resistivity ( ohm. current (negligible conduction ) conducton is small. Medium
meter ) Very large resistively ( ohm resistivity and medium
 (Cu) = 1.7 × 10–8 m meter) conductivity
 (Ag) = 1.6 × 10–8 m  ( glass) ~ 1011 – 1012 m  (Si) = 2100 m
The conductively is high  ( diamond) ~ 1014 m  (Ge) = 0.47 m
  10 7 to 10 8 ohm/m Very low conductivity  (Ge) ~ 2.13
(or siemen /m)  ~ 10–10 to 10–14 m  (Si) ~ 4.7 × 10–4
Verylow conductivity (ohm/m).
 ~ 10–10 to 10–15
ohm /m ( or siemen/m)

5. Only electrons are the No current carriers ( the electric Both electrons and holes
current carriers Number of conduction is almost zero for all contribute to current conduction.
free electrons ( in Cu) ~ 1028 practical purposes, see  Numner of free electrons
per m3 mentioned before) (at room temperature ) is
in Ge ~ 1019 per m3
in Si ~ 1016 per m3

6. Conductivity decreases with Conductivity negligibly small Conductivily increases with

temperature. however increases slightly at temperature (the resistivity/
very high temperatues. resistance decreases with
temperature).
 ( resistivity )

Temperature

The temperature coefficient of

resistance of a semiconductor is
negative
4. COMMENT : BAND STRUCTURE AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES

The optical properties of a solid are closely related with their energy band structure. The photons of visible
light have energies between about 1eV and 3 eV , as sin the case of insulators like mica, diamond, then visible
light from valence band can not go to conduction band. The such solids are transparent to visible light.
In case of semiconductors, since band gap is ~ 1 eV , the visible light is readily absorbed and these are
usually opaque, to visible light,. Infrared photons have energies less than 1eV and therefore infrared light is not
absorbed by Si or Ge.
The metals are usually opaque, because electrons in the partially filled band can readily absorbs visible light
photon without leaving the valence band.
The ultraviolet photons energies are large and if they are more than the Eg of insulators, then those insulators
will absorb UV radiation. Thus some special glasses are although transparent for visible light are opaque for
UV light.

5. TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS :
 The semiconductor are of two types.
(1) A semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor. The imputity must be less than
0.01 ppm (parts per million), i.e., less than 1 in 108 parts of semiconductor. At low temperature, the electrons
are present in valence bonds of the semiconductor.As the tem perature is increased a few electrons are raised
to conduction bond .
 In intrinsic semiconductors:- ne(0) = nn(0) = ni = AT 3/2 e – Eg /2KT

Where ne(0) is electron density in conduction

band, ne(0) is hole density in valance band and ni is the density of intrinsic carriers.

At absolute zero all the valence electrons are tightly bound and no free electron is available for electrical
condition. In the band picture, at absolute zero temperature. The conduction band is completely empty while,
the the valence band is fully filled. The Semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute zero.
At room temperature ( ~ 300K ), some of the electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and move away
from the influence of the nucleus, i.e., the covalent bond may be broken. The electron, so obtained is free
to move in the crystal and conduct electricity ( see Fig). The vacancy created in the covalent bond is called
a hole.
 conduction
band

gap Eg

Valence band
with holes

When a covalent band is broken, the electron hole pair is created.Thus in intrinsic semiconductor
Number of holes = number of free electrons nh = ne

6. CONDUCTION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

In intrinsic semiconductor , the number of free electrons and holes are equal. Both electrons and holes
contribute in current conduction. For the purpose of flow of current , a hole , behaves like a positively charged
particle having some effective mass. Therefore while the electron moves from negative electrode a of the
battery to the positive electrode though the semiconductor, the hole moves in opposite side .
The holes exist only inside a semiconductor. There are no holes in a metal. There , electric conduction through
holes takes place inside the semiconductor only. Outside, in the metal wires, the electric current flow is due
to electrons only. ( In cell current flow is due to the motion of positive and negative ions).

electron flow
hole flow

Intrinsic semi
conductor

+ -

In an instrinsic semiconductor the current flow occurs due to the motion of both, the electrons and the holes,.
Let e = magnitude of charge on the electrons, nh= number density of holes, µe = mobility of electrons an µb
= mobility of holes , then the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is  = e ( neµe + nh µh)onsider a block
of semiconductor of length , area of cross section A and having density of electron and holes as ne and nh
respecitively when a potential difference say V is applied across it, current  flows through it as shown in fig.
The current  is made of electron current e and hople current h.

Thus,  = e + h ............(i)
If ve is drift velocity of electrons,
then   e = ene Ave ...........(ii)
 Similarly , the hole current is given by
h = ene Avh .......(iii)
Using equations (ii) and (iii), the equation (i) becomes
 = eA ( ne ve + nh vh) .......(iv)
if R is the resistance offered by the simiconductor to the flow of current, then

V V
 = or = eA ( ne ve + nh vh) .......(v)
R R
The electric field set up across the semiconductor is given by

V
E = or V = E

Therefore, equation (v) becomes

E
= eA (ne ve + nh vh )
R

E
or – = e ( n e ve + n h v h )
A
R


A
But R = = resistivity of the material of semiconductor


E
Therefore,  = e (ne ne + nh vh) ......(vi)

Mobnility of electrons or holes is defined as the frigt velocity acquired per unit electric field. Therefore, mobility
of electrons and holes is given by

ve vh
µe = and µh =
E E
From equation (vi) ,we have

1  ve v 
n .  nh . h  or
= e  e E E
 = e (ne µe + nh µh) .........(vii)

1
where  =  is called conductivity of the material of semiconductor and µe and µh are electron and hole

mobilities respectively.
Comment
(i) In pure semiconductors, at any temperature t, the carrier concentration ne = nh = n and the conductivity
 is determined by the value of Eg (width of the forbidden band) (see relations given above).
(ii) In metal , however , the value of n is almost the same at different temperatures. The resistance arises due
to interaction of free (conduction) electrons with the lattice vibrations (see, chapter 3, 3-5 also).
(iii) At absolute zero, n = 0,  = 0 i.e., the pure semiconductor behaves like a perfect insulator. However ,
as temperature increases both n and s increses.In germanium at T  300 K, ne = nh = 2.5 x 1019 per
m3.The higher is the temperature , higher is the conductivity and lower is the resistivity.
(iv) The temperature coefficient of the resistance of a semiconductor is negative .
(v) Pure semiconductors are of little use ( may be used as heat or light sensitive resistance).
Ex. Which one is more sensitive to heat, germainium or silicon ?
Sol. Germanium is more sensitive to heat silicon. Electronsfrom the valence bean of geramanium require less
energy toi move from valence band to conduction band.
7. EXTRINSIC SEMiCONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in which impurities have been added in a controlled manner is called extrinsic semiconductor
. The process of deliberately adding impurities to a semiconductor is called doping. The impurity atoms are
either from V group ( such as arsinic (as), antimony (Sb), phosphorus (P) etc. or from  group ( such as
Aluminium (A) , gallium (Ga) , indium (In) etc. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, (i) N-type
(extrinsic) semiconductor and (ii) P-type (extrinsic) semiconductor.
The conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor is controlled by the amont of doping,  part of a donor impurityper
109 parts of germanium increases its conductivity by a factor of neraly103.
The compounds of trivalent and penta valent elements also behave like semiconductors,
(indium antimonide), In P, GaP.
7.1 N-Type Semiconductor

N- Type ( n- type ) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount of pentavent (V group) impurity to
a sample of intrinsic semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities are P ( phophorus
Z + 15), As ( Z = 3), Sb ( Z = 51), Bi (Z = 83 ).

In the energy band pricture we say that impurity atoms, produce donor
energy levels just below the conduction band . Ther electrons from these
levels jump to the conduction band easily by gaining thermal energies
( at room temperature). There may also break some covalent bonds
producing electron hole paire, but their number is small. So in this type
of extrinisc semiconductor, there are a large number of free electrons
(donated by impurity atoms ) and a negligible number of holes from
cavalent cond breaking.
 The impurity atom on donating electrons becomes positive ions. However the over all charge on the
semiconductor is zero. The negative charge of the immobile positive charge of the immobile positive ions .
The majority charge carriers are electrons (negative charge) . Therefore, this type of extrinsic semiconductor
is called n - type .
The Fermi level does not lie in the middle of band gap, but it shifts towards the conduction band.
The few hole s formed by covalent bond breaking are called minority charrge carriers.
The conductivity of th n-type semiconductors is controoled by the amoutn of impurity atoms added in it. Since
7.2 P-Type Semiconductor

P-type (pype) semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount of trivalent (III groupe ) impurity to intrinsic
semiconductor. The impurities may be Boron ( Z = 5), AI (Z = 13, Ga ( Z – 31) In (Z = 49 ), TI (Z = 81 ). For
each acceptor ion there exist a hole in this type of semiconductor , there are a large number of holes present.
The majority charge carriers are holes. Therefore it is called a p-type semicondutor.

In the band picture, we say that acceptor energy levels lie just above the valence band. These levels accepts
electrons from the valence band and creates holes. The breaking of covalent bonds may create electron-hole
pairs but their number is very little. The majority carriers are holes. The minority carriers are electron.
The conduction takes place mainly through the motion of holes
nh >> ne
p  eµh nh
The overall charge on p-type semiconductor is zero. It is represented as shown in Fig. The positive charge
of free holes is balanced by the negative charge of immobile impurity ions.
 Note :-
When temprature is increased, covalent bonds break. This increases minority charge carriers. At very high
temperature, it may happen that electron-hole numbers obtained from bond breadking , far excceds the cahrge
carrirers from impurities . Then the semiconductor behaves like intrinsic semiconductor . The critical temperature
at which this happens is 85°C for germanium and 200°C for silicon.
Ex. Calculate the conductivity and the resistivity of intrincis silicon crystal at 300 K. It is given that µe =1350
cm2 | volt, sec, µh = 480 cm2 |volt, sec and at 300 K, the electron-hole pair concentrationis 1.072 x 1010
per cm3.
Sol. The conductivity for intrinsic semiconductor is
      = e ( neµe + nh µh)
Given, ne = 1.072 × 1010 m3
= 1.072 × 1016 per m3
Also ne = nh for intrinsic
semiconductor, Further,
µe = 1350 cm2 / volt.sec
= 0.1350 m2 /volt-sec µh = 0.048 m2 /volt-sec
Therefore ,
 = 1.6 × 10–19 × 1.072
× 1016 × (0.135 + 0.048 )
–4
= 3.14 × 10 ohm /meter
= 3.14 × 10–4 siemen per meter

1
The resistivity r = = 104 /3.14

= 3185 ohm. meter
Ex. The concentration of acceptor atoms in a p3-type germanium crystal is 4 × 1015 per cm3 .Find the
conductivity of the crystal at 300 K. The µh for germanium at 300 K is 1900 cm2 /volt sec. It is assumed
that all the acceptor atoms are ionized at this temperature.
Sol. For extrinsic semiconductor (p-type )
        = nh eµh
Given nh = 4 × 1015 per cm3
= 4 × 1021 per m3
µh = 1900 cm2 / volt-sec
Thus  = 4 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 0.190
= 1.216 × 102 ohm /m
= 121.6 siemen/m

Ex. In a pure silicon sample,1013 atoms of phosphorus are doped per cm. If all the donor atoms produce
carriers andµe = 1200 cm2 /volt-sec then,calculate the resistivity of the sample.
Sol. Given ne = 1013 per cm3
= 1019 per m3
µe = 0.12 m2 /volt sec
Therefore, for doped , n-type semiconductor
     = e neµe
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 1019 × 0.12
= 0.192 ohm m–1
The resistivity is

1
 = = 5.2 ohm meter
0.192
8. PN JUNCTION
When a piece of p-type material and piece of n-type matrial are joined in such a manner that cyrstal structure
remains continuous at the boundary, then a pn junction is formed.It is also called a pn junction (PN junction)
diode. A PN junction can not be made by simply pushing the two pieces together as it would not lead to a
single crystal structure .There are special fabricaton techniques to form a PN junction.
Immediately after a PN junction is formed, the following process are initiated :

(i) The negative ions on P-sides and positive ions on N-sides are immobile.The majority holes from P region
diffuse into N region, and the majority electrons from N region diffuse into P region.
(ii) Due to the above, the electrons and holes at the juction region recombine and disappear (i.e., cavalent
bonds are completed ).
(iii) As a result, a layer of negative ions on P-side and a layer of positive ions on N-side is formed at the
junction. In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion of free charge carriers
occurs. So this region is called depletion region. The charge density on the two sides of the junction (
due to ion layers) is shown in Fig.
(iv) The uncompensated ion layers in the depletion region generates an electric field in this region. The electric
field points from N side to P side. This electric field prevents further tdiffusion of holes from P-sides. It
also prevents further diffusion of electrons from the N side to P side . The electric field is called barrier
electric field.
(v) The barrier electric field gives rise to a difference of potentail from one side to the other side. This is called
barrier potential (or potential barrier ). For silicon PN junction the barrier potential is about 0.7 V while for
germanium PN junction, it is about 0.3V.

(A) (B) (C)

(vi) For holes the potential on the N-sides is higher . Holes can not cross the deplection region because of this
barrier potential . Fig 60 (B). For electrons the potential barrier is shown in Fig. 60(C)
(vii) On the average the potential barrier height in PN junction is ~ 0.5 V and the width of the depletion region
~1 µm or 10–6 m. The barrier electric field is thus

V 0.5
E = = = 5 × 105 volt /m
d 10 6
9. PN JUNCTION WITH FORWARD BIAS
(i) When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the P-side and the negative terminal to the N-side
of a PN-junction, then it is said to be forward biased (Fig).
 (ii) The holes are repelled from the positive terminal and compelled to move towards the junction. The electrons
are also repelled from the negative terminal and move towards the junction . This reduces the depletion
region for a forward biased PN-junction
(iii) The potential barrier is reduced . More charge carries diffuse across the junction.
(iv) In the P-type material, near the positive terminal , an electron breaks the covalent bond and goes to
battery. As a result a hole is created in P-sides . At the same time an electron enters the N-sides from
the negative terminal. The currrent in the P - region airses due to flow of the holes while the currrent in
the N-regioon is due to electrons.
(v) The electric field at the barrier, due to the battery is from P side to N side (forward bias). This is in
opposition to the barrier electric field.
(vi) If battery potential is increased, the potential barrier is further reduced. More majority carriers diffuse
across the junction. The current increases.
10. PN JUNCTION WITH REVERSE BIAS
(i) When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the N-side and the negative termanl is connected
to the P-side of thePN junction , then it is said to be reverse biased.
(ii) The holes in the P-region are attracted towards the negative terminal and the electrons in the N-region are
attracted twowards the positive termanl . Thus the majority carriers move away from the juction. The
depletion region increases for a reverse biased PN- junction,

(iii) The barrier potential increases , This makes it more difficult for the majority carriers to diffuse across the
junction .
(iv) A very little current called reverse saturation current flows due to minority carrier flow.It is of the order of
nanoamperes (10–9A)for silicon and microamperes (10–6 A) for germanium PN -diodes.
(v) In reverse bias situation , the junction behaves like a highresistivity material sanwiched in between two
regions.
(vi) The effective capacitance of PN junction in the reverse bias condition is of the order of few pico farads.
11. PN JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Forward bias characteristics
The circuit diagram for studying the V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias is shown in
Fig. In forward bias the depletion region decreases, the barrier potentail decreases, and current folws due to
diffusion of charge carriers across the junction . Majority holes from P side cross over to N side, and majority
electrons from N side cross over to P side, The current voltage chracteristics is shown in Fig.
The diode current is negligibly small for first few tenths of a volt. The reason is that the diode does not conduct
will till the external voltageV, overcomes the barrier potential . The voltage at which the current starts to increse
repidly is called cut-in or Knee voltage (Vo) of the diode. For a silicon diode Vo ~7volt and for germanium Vo
junction diode in reverse bias is shown in Fig.

In reverse bias state, the depletion region increases and potential barrier also increases. The majority holes
in P region and majority electrons in N region , now do not cross the junction . They donot give rise to any
current.

In reverse bias a very smal current flows. This arises due to the flow of minority charge carriers across the
junction . The reverse current is only few µ A for germanium diodes and only a few nA for silicon diodes. It
remains small and almost constant for all reverse bias voltages less than the break down voltage V Z. At
breakdown, the current increses rapidly for small increase in voltage

The full charactaristics, forward and reverse bias are shown in Fig. The PN junction diode thus is a unidirectional
device. Large current (mA) flows in one direction, but neglible current flows in the reverse direction.
The symbol used for PN junction diode is shown in Fig.

The equation for diode current is

 = o ( eeV /kT –1)

 Where o is called saturation current, V is positive for forward and negative for reverse bias, k is Boltzmann
constant, T is temperature and e = 1.6 ×10–19 C.

12. REVERSE BREAKDOWN

If the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the PN junction increases rapidly at VZ (see
fig). The voltage at which this happens is called breakdown voltage or Zener voltage.
There two mechanism which causes this breakdown . One is called avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown and the other is called avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown . When reverse bias is increased the electric field at then junction also increases. At some
stage the electric field becomes so high that it breaks the covalent bonds creating electron,hole pairs. thus
a large number of carriers are generated . This causes a large current to flow. This machanism is know as
Zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown. At high reverse voltage, due to high electric field, the miniority charge carriers, while
crossing the junction acquires very high velocities . These by collision breaks down the covalent bonds ,
generating more carriers. A chain reaction is established , giving rise to high current. This mechanism is
called avalanche breakdown .
Avalanche breakdown:-
The covalent bonds where the junction break down liberating a large number of electron hole pairs.Then the
reverse current increases abruptly to high value .This is called avalanche break down and may damage the
junction.This phenomenon is used to Zener diode and used in voltage regulator.
Ex. In a pure germanium sample, the electron and hole mobilities at room temperature are 3600 cm2/volt-sec,
1700 cm2/volt-sec respectively. If the electron-hole concentration is 2.5 × 1019 m–3, then the conductivity
of Ge is-
(A) 15.7 mho-m–1 (B) 2.12 mho-m–1 (C) 1.21 mho-m–1 (D) 0.5 mho-m–1
Sol. (B)  = nie (e + n)  ni = p i
= 2.5 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10–19 (.36 + .17) = 2.12 mho-m–1
Ex. In a pure silicon sample, 1013 atoms of phosphorous are doped per cm3. If all the doner atoms produce
carries and e = 1200 cm2/volt-sec, then the resistivity of the sample is-
(A) 5.208 ohm-m (B) 520.8 mho-cm (C) 5.208 mho-m (D) 5.208 mohm-m
Sol. (A)  = 5.208 ohm-m
13. TRANSISTOR

A transistor is an electronic device formed by p and n type of semiconductor which is used in place of a
triode valve. It was discovered in 1948 by American scientists Bardeen, shockley and Barattain . Transistors
are of two types: p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor.
13.1 p-n-p Transistor :
It consists of a very thin slice of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two small crystals of p-type
semiconductor (fig). The central slice is called the 'base' while the left and right crystals are called the 'emitter'
and the 'collector' respectively. The emitter is given a positive potential negative potential with respect to the
base. Thus , the emitter -base (p-n) junction on the left is under forward-bias (high resistance ). The symbol
for this transistor is shown in Fig. 12(b) in which the direction of the arrow indicates the direction of current
(direction of flow of holes).

13.2 n-p-n Transistor :

It consists of a very thin slice of p-type semiconductor (fig). In this transistor the meter is given a negative
potential while the collector is given a positive potential with respect to the base. Again, the emitter -base (n-p)
junction on the left is under forward-bias, while the base collector (p-n) junction on the right is denser reverse- bias
.*The symbol for the n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. (b) in which the direction of the arrow indicates the direction
of current (opposite of the direction of flow of electrons).

(a) (b)

A transistor can be connected in a circuit in three difference ways. They are :

(i) common-base configuration, (ii) common-emitter configuration and (iii) common-collector configuration. The
work 'common' is related with that electrode which is common in input and output circuits. This common
electrode is generally grounded. Hence the above three configurations of connection are also called respectively
as grounded -base configuration, grounded-emitter configuration of connection are also called configuration .
Each configuration has its own characteristics.
13.3 Working of p-n-p Transistor
A 'common-base ' circuit of a p-n-p transistor is shown in Fig. 14. The emitter- base (p-n) junction on the left
is given a small forward bias ( fraction of a volt ) while the base-collector (n-p) junction is given a large reverse-
bias (a few volts).
 Holes are the charge-carriers with in the p-n-p transistor, while electrons are the charge-carriers in the external
circuit.
The small current which leaves the base terminal B is called the 'iB 'base-current' the larger current which
leaves the collector terminal is called the 'collector -current ' iC.Both these currents combine to enter the
emitter terminal E and constitute the emitter-current iE. Clearly,
i E = I B + iC
The base being very thin, the number of hole-electron combinations in it is very small, and almost all the
holes entering the base from the emitter reach the collector. . Hence the collector-current iC is only very
slightly less than the emitter current iE.
13.4 Working of n-p-n Transistor
A circuit known as 'common-base' circuit of n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. The two n-regions contain the mobile
electrons while the central thin p-region contains the mobile (positive) holes. The emitter-base by means of
a battery VEB, while the base-collector (p-n)junction on the right has been given a large reverse-bias by means
of battery VCB.

The electrons are the charge-carriers with in the n-p-n transistor as will as in the external circuit (whereas hole
sate the charge-carriers with in p-n-p transistor).
The small current entering the base terminal B is the base current iB, while the larger current entering that
collector terminal C is the collector-current iC. Both currents combine to leave the emitter terminal E and
constitute the emitter current iE.
Thus iE = iB + iC

14. TRANSISTORACTION
There are four possible ways of biasing the two PN junctions (emitter junction and collectro junction ) of a
transistor .These are tabulated below.
 E = C + B ; B << C, and B << E
Thus C is always less than E, but the difference is small.
Since the emitter junction is forward biased its resistance is small, while the collectro jucntion is reverse
biased, therefore its resistance is large. Thus , a transistor is a device which transfers E current from low
resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit (C ~ E). Thus it is,
transfer + resistor = transistor
( The name transistor originated from the above action of the transistor).

15. TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION AND ITS USE AS AN AMPLIFIER

A junction diode cannot amplify a signal . A transistor consisting of two p-n junctions, one forward-biased and
the other reverse-biased ,can , however , be used for amplifying a weak signal The forward-biased junction
has a low-resistance path whereas the reverse-biased junction has a high-resistances path. The weak input
signal is applied across the forward-biased (low resistance) junction and the output currents are signal is taken
appears with a much higher voltage. The transistor thus acts as an amplifier .

When a transistor is to be operated as amplifier, three different basic circuit connection are possible, as
illustrated inFig. These are (a) common-base (b) common emitter and (c) common-collector circuits.
15.1 Transistor as Common-Base Amplifier
15.2 Common-Base Amplifier using an n-p-n Transistor :
Fig. shows the common-base amplifier circuit using an n-p-n transistor. The base is made common to the input
and the output circuits.
The emitter-base input circuit is forward-biased by a low-voltage battery V EB so that the resistance of the input
circuit is small . The collector -base output circuit is reverse-biased by means of a high-voltage battery VCC
so the at the resistance of the output circuit is quite large. RL is a load resistance connected in the collector-
base circuit. The weak input a-c voltage signal is applied across the emitter-base circuit and the amplified
output signal is obtained across the collector-base circuit.
Let iE , iB and iC be the emitter -current and collector-current irrespectively when no a-c voltage signal is
applied to the input circuit. (The arrows represent the direction of hole current, that is conventional current
which is opposite to the direction of electron current) . By Kirchhoff's first law, we have
iE = iB + iC .....(1)
Due to the collector- current iC, the voltage drop across RL is iC RL. Therefore, the collector-to- base voltage
(potential difference between collector and base )VCB would be given by
VCB = VCC – iC RL .....(2)
When the input a-c voltage signal is applied across the emitter-base circuit, it changes the emitter-base
voltage and hence the emitter-current iE which, in turn , changes the collector current iC. Consequently , the
collector to base voltage VCB varies in accordance with equation (2) . This variation in VCB , when the input
signal is applied, appears as an amplified output.
Phase Relationship between Input and Output voltage Signals in CB circuit :
The output voltage signal is in phase with the input voltage signal in the common -base amplifier.
15.3 Gains in Common-Base Amplifier :
The various gains in a common-base amplifier are as follow:
(i) a-c Current Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change i the colllector-current to the change in the
emitter-current at a constant collector-to-base voltage, and is denoted by . Thus

 iC 
 (a – c)  i 
E V
CB

The value of  is slightly less than 1 (actually, there is a little current loss).
(ii) a - c Voltage Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output voltage to thechange in the
input voltage , and is denoted by AV .
Suppose, on applying an a-c input voltage signal, the emitter current changes by iC and correspondingly
the collector-current changes by iC . If Rin and Rout be the resistances of the input and the output circuits
respectively, then

iC  R out iC Rout

A V = iE  R in = iE × Rin

Now , iC /iE is the a-c current-gain and Rout / Rin is called the 'resistance gain'.
 AV =  × resistance gain
Since the resistance gain is quite high, AV is also quite high although  is slightly less than 1.
(iii) a-c Power Gain: it is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input
power.
Since power = current x voltage, we have
a-c power gain = a-c current gain × a-c voltage-gain
= 2 × resistance gain
15.4 Common-Base Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor :

15.5 Transistor as Common-Emitter Amplifier :

Common-Emitter Amplifier using an n-p-n Transistor: Fig.shows the common-emitter amplifier circuit using an
n-p-n transistor. The emitter is made common to the input and the output circuits.
The input (base-emitter) circuit is forward-biased by a low-voltage battery VBE so theat the resistance of the
input circuit is small. The output (collector-emitter) circuit is reverse-biased by means of a high voltage battery
VCC so that the resistanc eof the outputcircuit is high. RL is a load resistanc econnected in the collector-
emitter output circuit. The weak input a-c signal is applied across the base-emitter circuit and the camplified
output signal is obtained across the collector -emitter circuit.

Let iE, iB and iC be the emitter-current, base-current and collector- current respecitively when no a-c voltage
signal is applied to the input curcuit. (The arrows represent the direction of the hole current, that is
conventional current which is opposite to the direction of electron current.) By Kirchhoff's first law, we have
iE = iB + iC
Due to the collector current iC (Which is only slightly smaller that iE ), the voltage drop across RL is iC RL.
Therefore , the collector -to -emitter voltage (potential between collector and emitter) V CE would be given by
VCE = VCC – iCRL
When the input a-c voltage signal is applied across the base-emitter circuit, it changes the base-emitter
voltage and hence the emitter -current iE which, in turn , changes the collector current iC. Consequently, the
collector-to-emitter voltage V CE varies in accordance with equation. (ii). This variation in V CE , when the input
signal is applied , appears as an amplidied output.
15.6 Phase Relationship between Input an Output Voltage Signals :
In a common-emitter amplifier the input voltage signal and the output voltage signal obtained across the
collector and the emitter are out of phase with each other.
The output voltage signal is 180° out of phase with the input voltage signal in the common-emitter
amplifier.
16. GAINS IN COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER

The various gains in a common-emitter amplifier are as follows:

(i) d-c Current Gains: it is defined as the ratio of the collector current to the base current, and is denoted
by  (d-c) . Thus

iC
 (d-c) = i
B

In a typical transistor , a small base- current (  10µA) produces a large collector -current(  500µA). Thus
 500
 (d-c) = = 50
10
(ii) a-c Current Gain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector -current to the change in the
in the base -current at a constant collector to emitter voltage , and is denoted by  (a-c) . Thus

 iC 
 (a -c) =  i 
B V
CE

(iii) Voltage gain : Suppose , on applying an a-c input voltage signal, the input base-current changes by iB
and correspondingly the output collector-current changes by iC. If Rin and Rout be the resistance of the
input an dthe output circuits respectively , then

iC  R out i C Rout

AV = iB  R in =  i × Rin
B

Now, iC/iB is the a-c current gain (a-c) and Rout / Rin is the resistance gain
 AV=  (a-c) × resistance gain.
Since  (a-c) >>  (a-c), the a-c voltage gain in common-emitter amplifier is larger compared to that is
common -base amplifier., although the resistance gain is smaller .
From equation (i) and (ii), it follows that
AV = gm × Rout
(iv) a-c Power Gain : It is defined as the ratio of the change in the output power to the change in the input
power.
Since power = current × voltage , we have
a-c power gain = a-c current gain × a-c voltage gain
=  (a-c) × AV
=  (a -c) × {  (a-c) x resistance gain}
= 2 (a-c) × resistance gain.
Since  (a-c) >>  ( a-c) , the a-c power gain in common-emitter amplifier is extremely large compared
to that in common-base amplifier.
(v) Common-Emitter Amplifier using a p-n-p Transistor :

17. RELATION BETWEEN  AND  

CB current gain ()

CB current gain () is the ratio of output current to the input current in common base configuration of a
transistor.
C
dc = 
E

 C
ac = 
E
 CE current gain ()
CE current gain () is the ratio of the output current to the input current in emitter cofiguration of the transistor.
C
dc = 
B

 C
ac = 
B

The CB current gain  and CE current gain  are related by the rollowing relations.
1 1
= 1 +
 

 =
1

 =
1 
The above relations are applicable for both dc and ac current gains.
Comment. The value or  is always less than 1.  ~ 0.9 to 0.99 or more. The value of  is always much
greater than 1. ~ 95 to 999 or so.
Ex. The dc current gain of a transistor in CB configuration is 0.99 . Find its dc current gain in CE configuration
(A) 99 (B) 400 (C) 300 (D) 50
Sol. (A) Given dc = 0.99

 dc 0.99 0.99
Therefore, dc= 1  = = or     dc= 99
dc 1  0.99 .01
Ex. When the emitter current of a transistro is changed by 1 mA, its collector current changes by 0.995 mA
. Calculate (i) its common base current gain and (ii) its common emitter current gain

 C 0.995 (mA)
Sol. (i)  =  = = 0.995
 1 (mA)

 0.995 0.995
(ii)  = = = = 199
1  1  0.995 .005
Ex. In certain transistor dc = 0.98 and E = 1 mA . Find the corresponding values of base current and collector
current.

C C
Sol. (i) dc =  or 0.98 = thus      C = 0.98 mA
  mA 

(ii) Using B = E – C we get    B = ( 1– 0.98) mA = 0.02 mA

18.ADVANTAGES OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES OVER VACUUM TUBERS

(i) No heater or filament is required for semiconductor devices. Therefore no heating delays occur and no
heating power is needed.
(ii) Semiconductor devices are much smaller in size and light in weight.
(iii) Very low operating voltages are required for semiconductor devices.
(iv) Semiconductor devices have long life with not ageing effect.
(v) Semiconductor devices are shockproof.
(vi) Semiconductor devices consume little power and results in greater circuits efficiency .
(vii) Semiconductor devices donot produce any humming noise.
(viii) These devices are made of solid crystals & also smaller is size so their transportation is very easy
 (ix) Power cosumption is less
(x) The get on & off instantly while vaccum tubes takes same time
Note -
(i) Semiconductor devices are not useful at high temperatures. For germanium , beyond 85°C and for silicon
beyond 200°C , the extrinsic properties and modified and semiconductor circuits starts failling
(ii) Vacuum tubes are used where very high voltag and power is required.
19. LOGIC GATE
A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on certain logical relationship between the input and the output
voltages of the circuit.
The logic gates are built using the semiconductor diodes and transistors.
Each logic gate is represented by tits characteristic symbol.
The operation of a logic gate is indicated in a table, known as truth table. This table contains all possible combinations
of inputs and the corresponding outputs.
A logic gate is also represented by a Boolean algebraic expression. Boolean algebra is a method of writing
equations showing how an output depends upon the combination of inputs. Boolean algebra was invented by
George Boole.

Basic logic gates

(1) OR gate (2) AND gate (3) NOT gate
OR gate : - The output and an OR gate attains the state 1 if one or more inputs attain the state 1.
Logic symbol of OR gate

A
Y = A+ B
B

The Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A or B.

Truth table of a two input OR gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND gate : The output of an AND gat attains the state 1 if and only if all the inputs are in state 1.
Logic symbol of AND gate
A
Y = AB
B
The Boolean expression of AND gate is Y = A.B It is read as Y equal A and B
Truth table of a two input AND gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NOT gate : The output of a NOT gate attains the state 1 if and only if the input does not attain the state 1.
Logic symbol of NOT gate
A Y

The Boolean expression is Y  A , read as Y equals NOT A.

Truth table of NOT gate
Input Output
A B
0 1
1 0
COMBINATION OF GATES :
The three basis gates (OR, AND and NOT) when connected in various combinations give us logic gates such
as NAND, NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.
The NAND gate
Logic symbol of NAND gate
A
Y = AB
B
The Boolean expression of NAND gate is Y  AB
Truth table of a NAND gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
The NOR gate
Logic symbol of NOR gate
A
Y = A+ B
B
The Boolean expression of NOR gate is Y  A  B
Truth table of a NOR gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
UNIVERSAL GATES :
The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of NAND gates
(or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved entirely from NAND or NOR
gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR) gates will gives use different gates.
The NOT gate from a NAND gate : When all the inputs of a NAND gate are connected together, as shown
in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate
A
Y
B
Truth table of single-input NAND gate
Input Output
A B = (A) Y
0 0 1
1 1 0
The AND gate from a NAND gate : If a NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a single input NAND
gate), the resulting circuit is an AND gate as shown in figure and truth the table given show how an AND
gate has been obtained from NAND gates.
A
Y
B Y’
Truth table
A B Y' Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
 The OR gate from NAND gate : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NAND gate,
the resulting circuit is an OR gate.

A
A
Y
B B

Truth table
A B A B Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
The NOT gate from NOR gates : When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected together as shown in
the figure, we obtain a NOR gate.

A y
B

The AND gate from NOR gates : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the NOR gate,
the resulting circuit is an AND gate.

A
Y

The OR gate from NOR gate : If a NOR gate is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate), the resulting
circuit is an OR gate.
A
Y
B
XOR AND XNOR GATE :
The exclusive - OR gate (XOR gate) : The output of a two -input XOR gate attains the state 1 if one and
only one input attains the state 1.
Logic symbol of XOR gate
A
Y
B

The Boolean expression of XOR gate is Y  AB  A B or Y  A  B

Truth table of a XOR gate

Input Ouput
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Exclusive : NOR gate (XNOR gate) The output is in state 1 when its both input are the same that is, both
0 or both 1.
 Logic symbol of XNOR gate
A
Y
B

The Boolean expression of XNOR gate is Y = A.B + A.B or Y = A  B

Truth table of a XNOR gate

Input Ouput
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Laws of Boolean Algebra
Basic OR, AND, and NOT operations are given below :
OR AND NOT
A+ 0 = A A. 0 = 0 A + A = 1

A + 1 = 1 A. 1 = 1 A. A = 0

A+ A = A A . A = A A .A= A
Boolean algebra obeys commutative, associative and distributive laws as given below :
Commutative laws :
A + B = B + A ;
AB = BA
Associative laws :
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A . (B . C) = (A . B) . C
Distributive laws :
A (B + C) = AB + AC
Some other useful identities :
(i) A + AB = A
(ii) A. (A + B) = A.

(iii) A + A B = A + B

(iv) A.( A + B) = AB

(v) A + BC = (A + B) (A + C)

(vi) ( A + B) (A + C) = A C
De Morgan’s theorem :
First theorem :

A  B  A.B

Second theorem :

A.B  A  B
RAPID REVISION PACKAGE
 EXERCISE-1
Q.1 In conductors
(A) conduction band is completely empty but forbidden energy gap is small
(B) conduction and valence bands are overlapped
(C) valence band is completely filled but the conduction band is completely empty
(D) no energy band is present
Q.2 The forbidden energy gap of a germanium semiconductor is 0.75 eV. The minimum thermal energy of
electrons reaching the conduction band from the valence band should be
(A) 0.5 eV (B) 0.75 eV (C) 0.25 eV (D) 1.5eV
Q.3 The energy of a photon of sodium light ( = 5890Å) equals the band gap of a semiconductor. The minimum
energy required to create an electron-hole pair is
(A) 0.026 eV (B) 0.31 eV (C) 2.1eV (D) 6.4 eV
Q.4 The forbidden energy band gap in conductors, semiconductors and insulators are EG1, EG2 and EG3
respectively. The relation among them is -
(A) EG1 = EG2 = EG3 (B) EG1 < EG2 < EG3
(C) EG1 > EG2 > EG3 (D) EG1 < EG2 > EG3
Q.5 On increasing temperature the specific resistance of a semiconductor
(A) decreases (B) increases (C) remains constant (D) becomes zero
Q.6 Which of the following statements is not correct
(A) Resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in temperature
(B) In an electric field, displacement of holes is opposite to the displacement of electrons
(C) Resistance of a conductor decreases with the increase in temperature
(D) n-type semiconductors are neutral
Q.7 Wires P and Q have the same resistance at ordinary (room) temperature. When heated, resistance of P
increases and that of Q decreases. We conclude that -
(A) P and Q are conductors of different materials
(B) P is N-type semiconductor and Q is P-type semiconductor
(C) P is semiconductor and Q is conductor
(D) P is conductor and Q is semiconductor
Q.8 In a good conductor the energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band is -
(A) Infinite (B) Wide (C) Narrow (D) Zero
Q.9 In a semiconducting material the mobilities of electrons and holes are e and h respectively. Which of
the following is true -
(A) e > h (B) e < h (C) e = h (D) e < 0; h > 0
Q.10 Those materials in which number of holes in valence band is equal to number of electrons in conduction
band are called
(A) conductors (B) Intrinsic semiconductors
(C) p-type semiconductors (D) n-type semiconductors
Q.11 In p-type semiconductor holes move in
(A) forbidden region (B) conduction band
(C) valence band (D) all the above regions
Q.12 Which of the following statement is wrong
(A) Resistance of extrinsic semiconductors can be changed as required
(B) In n-type semiconductor the number of electrons increases in valence band
(C) In p-type semiconductors the number of holes increases in valence band
(D) In pure semiconductor fermi band is situated in between the valence band and conduction band
Q.13 P-type semiconductor is formed when -
A. As impurity is mixed in Si
B. Al impurity is mixed in Si
C. B impurity is mixed in Ge
D. P impurity is mixed in Ge
(A) A and C (B) A and D (C) B and C (D) B and D
Q.14 In extrinsic semiconductors -
(A) The conduction band and valence band overlap
(B) The gap between conduction band and valence band is more than 16 eV
(C) The gap between conduction band and valence band is near about 1 eV
(D) The gap between conduction band and valence band will be 100 eV and more
Q.15 Fermi level of energy of an intrinsic semiconductor lies -
(A) In the middle of forbidden gap
(B) Below the middle of forbidden gap
(C) Above the middle of forbidden gap
(D) Outside the forbidden gap
Q.16 If ne and vd be the number of electrons and drift velocity in a semiconductor. When the temperature is
increased -
(A) ne increases and vd decreases (B) ne decrases and vd increases
(C) Both ne and vd increases (D) Both ne and vd decreases
Q.17 The electron mobility in N-type germanium is 3900 cm2/v.s and its conductivity is 6.24 mho/cm, then
impurity concentration will be if the effect of cotters is negligible -
(A) 1015 cm3 (B) 1013/cm3 (C) 1012/cm3 (D) 1016/cm3
Q.18 In semiconductor the concentrations of electrons and holes are 8 × 10 18/m3 and 5 × 1018/m3 respectively.
If the mobilities of electrons and hole are 2.3 m2/volt-sec and 0.01 m2/volt-sec respectively, then
semiconductor is -
(A) N-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-metre
(B) P-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(C) N-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm-metre
(D) P-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-metre
Q.19 A potential difference of 2V is applied betwee n the opposite faces of a Ge crystal plate of area 1 cm2
and thickness 0.5 mm. If the concentration of electrons in Ge is 2 × 10 19/m3 and mobilities of electrons
m2 m2
and holes are 0.36 and 0.14 respectively, then the current flowing through the plate
volt  sec volt  sec
will be -
(A) 0.25 A (B) 0.45 A (C) 0.56 A (D) 0.64 A
Q.20 A potential barrier of 0.50 V exists across a P-N junction. If the depletion region is
5.0 × 10–7 m wide, the intensity of the electric field in this region is -
(A) 1.0 × 106 V/m (B) 1.0 × 105\ V/m (C) 2.0 × 105 V/m (D) 2.0 × 106 V/m
Q.21 If no external voltage is applied across P-N junction, there would be -
(A) No electric field across the junction
(B) An electric field pointing from N-type to P-type side across the junction
(C) An electric field pointing from P-type to N-type side across the junction
(D) A temporary electric field during formation of P-N junction that would subsequently disappear
Q.22 No bias is applied to a P-N junction, then the current -
(A) Is zero because the number of charge carriers flowing on both sides is same
(B) Is zero because the charge carriers do not move
(C) Is non-zero
(D) None of these
Q.23 Just before the reverse breakdown in a semiconductor diode
(A) The forward current is much larger then the reverse current
(B) The forward current is much less then the reverse current
(C) The forward current is equal to the reverse current
(D) The reverse current is much large than the forward current
Q.24 The main cause of avalanche breakdown is
(A) collision ionisation (B) high dopring
(C) recombination of electron and holes (D) none of these
Q.25 The main cause of Zener breakdown is
(A) the base semiconductor being germanium
(B) production of electron-hole paris due to thermal exciation
(C) low doping
(D) high doping
Q.26 Which of the following statements is correct ?
(A) The deplection region of P-N junction diode increases with forward biasing
(B) The depletion region of P-N junction diode decreases with reverse biasing
(C) The depletion region of P-N junction diode does not change with biasing
(D) The deplection region of P-N junction diode decreases with forward biasing
Q.27 When reverse bias in a junction diode is increased, the width of depletion layer
(A) increase (B) decreases (C) does not change (D) fluctuate
Q.28 A semiconductor device is connected in a series circuit with a battery and resistance. A current is found
to pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed, the current drops almost to zero. The
device may be -
(A) A P-type semiconductor (B) An N-type semiconductor
(C) A PN-junction (D) An intrinsic semiconductor
Q.29 The approximate ratio of resistances in the forward and reverse bias of the PN-junction diode is -
(A) 102 : 1 (B) 10–2 : 1 (C) 1 : 10–4 (D) 1 : 104
Q.30 The dominant mechanisms for motion of charge carriers in forward and reverse biased silicon P-N junctions
are -
(A) Drift in forward bias, diffusion in reversebias
(B) Diffusion in forward bias, drift in reverse bias
(C) Diffusion in both forward and reverse bias
(D) Drift in both forward and reverse bias
Q.31 A semiconductor X is made by doping a germanium crystal with arsenic (Z = 33). A second semiconductor
Y is made by doping germanium with indium (Z = 49). The two are joined end to end and connected to
a battery as shown. Which of the following statements is correct -

(A) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is forward biased

(B) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is forward biased
(C) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction is reverse biased
(D) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction is revese biased
Q.32 In the given figure, which of the diodes are forward biased ?

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

(A) 1, 2, 3 (B) 2, 4, 5 (C) 1, 3, 4 (D) 2, 3, 4

Q.33 For the given circuit of PN-junction diode, which of the following statements is correct -
(A) In forward biasing the voltage across R is V
(B) In forward biasing the voltage across R is 2V
(C) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is V
(D) In reverse biasing the voltage across R is 2V
Q.34 Current in the circuit will be -

5 5 5 5
(A) A (B) A (C) A (D) A
40 50 10 20
Q.35 The diode used in the circuit shown in the figure has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V at all currents and
a maximum power rating of 100 milliwatts. What should be the value of the resistor R, connected in series
with the diode for obtaining maximum current -

(A) 1.5  (B) 5  (C) 6.67  (D) 200 

Q.36 In the following circuits PN-junction diodes D1, D2 and D3 are ideal for the following potential of A and B,
the correct increasing order of resistance between A and B will be -

(i) – 10 V, – 5 V (ii) – 5V, – 10 V (iii) – 4V, – 12 V

(A) (i) < (ii) < (iii) (B) (iii) < (ii) < (i) (C) (ii) = (iii) < (i) (D) (i) = (iii) < (ii)
Q.37 Which is the correct diagram of a half-wave reactifier -

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.38 In the diagram, the input is across the terminals A and C and the output is across the terminals B and
D, then the output is -

(A) zero (B) same as input (C) full wave rectifier (D) half wave rectifier
Q.39 If a full wave rectifier circuiit is operating from 50 Hz mains, the fundamental frequency in the ripple will
be -
(A) 50 Hz (B) 70.7 Hz (C) 100 Hz (D) 25 Hz
Q.40 In a full wave rectifiers, input ac current has a frequency . The output frequency of current is -
(A) /2 (B)  (C) 2 (D) None of these
Q.41 A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt is connected to a diode and resistor R in the circuit shown
so that half wave rectification occurs. If the forward resistance of the diode is negligible compared to R
then rms voltage (in volt) across R is approximately -

200
(A) 200 (B) 100 (C) (D) 280
2

Q.42 In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown. Which one of the following wave forms is true for VCD, the output
across C and D?

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.43 A full wave rectifier circuit along with the input and output voltage is shown in the figure.

The contribution to output voltage from diode – 2 to -

(A) A, C (B) B, D (C) B, C (D) A, D
Q.44 The output current versus time curve of a rectifier is shown in the figure. The average value of the output
current in this case is -

(A) 0 (B) i0/ (C) 2i0/ (D) i0

Q.45 n-p-n transistors are preferred to p-n-p transistors because -
(A) they have low cost
(B) they have low dissipation energy
(C) they are capable of handling large power
(D) electrons have high mobility than holes and hence high mobility of energy
Q.46 An n-p-n transistor circuit is arranged as shown in fig. It is -

(A) a common-base amplifier circuit

(B) a common-emitter amplifier circuit
(C) a common-collector amplifier circuit
(D) none of the above
Q.47 What is the voltage gain in a common-emitter amplifier, where input resistance is 3 and load resistance
24 ? Take  = 0.6 -
(A) 8.4 (B) 4.8 (C) 2.4 (D) 1.2
Q.48 Compared to CB amplifier, the CE amplifier has-
(A) lower input resistance
(B) higher output resistance
(C) lower current amplification
(D) higher output resistance
Q.49 In the given transistor circuit, the base current is 35 A.The value of Rb is -
E C

Rb RL
7V

(A) 100 k (B) 200 k (C) 300 k (D) 400 k

Q.50 I. In a P-N-P type common base amplifier the input and output are in same phase.
II. In a P-N-P common base amplifier input and output are out of phase.
III. In a N-P-N- common base amplifier the input and output are in same phase.
IV. In a N-P-N common base amplifier input and output are out of phase.
State if -
(A) I and III are correct (B) II and III are correct
(C) I and IV are correct (D) II and IV are correct
Q.51 In a transistor the base is made very thin and is lightly doped with an impurity because-
(A) to enable the collector to collect 95% ofthe holes or electrons coming from the emitter side
(B) to enable the emitter to emit small number of holes or electrons
(C) to save the transistor from higher current effects
(D) none of the above
Q.52 In an NPN transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10–6s. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base.
The current transfer ratio will be-
(A) 0.95 (B) 0.96 (C) 0.97 (D) 0.98

Q.53 In an NPN transistor the values of base current and collector current are 100A and 9 mA respectively, the
emitter current will be-

(A) 9.1mA (B) 18.2mA (C) 9.1A (D) 18.2A

Q.54 For a common base amplifier, the values of resistance gain and voltage gain are 3000 and 2800 respectively.
The current gain will be -

(A) 0.93 (B) 0.83 (C) 0.73 (D) 0.63

Q.55 Given below are four logic gate symbol (figure). Those for OR, NOR and NAND are respectively -

(A) 1, 4, 3 (B) 4, 1, 2 (C) 1, 3, 4 (D) 4, 2, 1

Q.56 The following truth table corresponds to the logic gate -
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
X 0 1 1 1
(A) NAND (B) OR (C) AND (D) XOR
Q.57 The combination of ‘NAND’ gates shown here under (figure) are equivalent to -

(A) An OR gate and an AND gate respectively

(B) An AND gate and a NOT gate respectively

(C) An AND gate and an OR gate respectively

(D) An OR gate and a NOT gate respectively

Q.58 For the given combination of gates, if the logic states of inputs A, B, C are as follows A = B = C = 0
and A = B = 1, C = 0 then the logic states of output D are -

(A) 0, 0 (B) 0, 1 (C) 1, 0 (D) 1, 1

Q.59 Which of the following gates will have an output of 1 -

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.60 This symbol represents -

(A) NOT gate (B) OR gate (C) AND gate (D) NOR gate
Q.61 The output of a NAND gate is 0 -
(A) If both inputs are 0
(B) If one input is 0 and the other input is 1
(C) If both inputs are 1
(D) Either if both inputs are 1 or if one of the inputs is 1 and the other 0
Q.62 Which logic gate is represented by the following combination of logic gates -

(A) OR (B) NAND (C) AND (D) NOR

Q.63 The output of OR gate is 1 -
(A) If both inputs are zero
(B) If either or both inputs are 1
(C) Only if both input are 1
(D) If either input is zero

ANSWER KEY
Q.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B B C B A C D D A B C B C C A A D A D A
Q.No. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. B B A A B D A C D B D B A B B C B C C C
Q.No. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. B B B A D B C D B A A D A A C B A D C A
Q.No. 61 62 63
Ans. C C B
 EXERCISE-2

Q.1 Two identical capacitors A and B are charged to the same potential V and are connected in two circuits at
t = 0 as shown in figure. The charge of the capacitors at a time t = CR are respectively-
V V
+– +–

R R
(A) VC, VC (B) VC/e, VC (C) VC, VC/e (D) VC/e, VC/e
Q.2 In the circuit shown in figure, Voltage V0 is–
12 V

Si Ge

V0 2.2 K

(A) 11.7 volt (B) 11.3 volt (C) 0 (D) None

Q.3 Determine current I in the configuration-

10 V Si I
10 
Si
(A) 1 amp (B) 0 amp (C) less than 1 amp (D) None
Q.4 In the given circuit V01 & V02 are–
Si
4.7 k
12 V V02
V01
Ge

(A) 11.3 V & 0.3 V (B) 0.3 V & 11.3 V (C) 11.3 V & 11.3 V (D) 0.3 V & 0.3 V

Q.5 A cube of germanium is placed between the poles of a magnet and a voltage is applied across opposite faces
of the cube as shown in Figure. Magnetic field is directed vertical downward in the plane of the paper :
What effect will occur at the surface of the cube ?
p-Type Germanium
Top

Front

Applied Voltage

(A) The top surface of cube will become negatively charged

(B) The front surface of the cube will become positively charged
(C) The front surface of the cube will become negatively charged
(D) Both top and front surface of cube will become positively charged
Q.6 A full wave rectifier circuit along with the output is shown in the following diagram. The
contribution(s) from the diode (1) is (are):
V

t
0 1 Output

A B C D
t
0

(A) C (B) A,C (C) B,D (D) A, B, C, D

Q.7 In the given figure potential difference between A and B is :

10 K A

30 V 10 K 10 K

(A) 0 (B) 5 volt (C) 10 volt (D) 15 volt

Q.8 In figure the current supplied by the battery is–
20

10

2V

(A) 0.1 A (B) 0.2 A (C) 0.3 A (D) 0.4 A

Q.9 In a p-n junction–
(A) new holes and conduction electrons are produced continuously throughout the material
(B) new holes and conduction electrons are produced continuously throughout the material except in the
depletion region
(C) holes and conduction electrons recombine continuously throughout the material
(D) holes and conduction electrons recombine continuously throughout the material except in the
depletion region
Q.10 Which of the following represent correctly the truth table in of the configuration

– –
A AB
A

– – –
B – – Y=AB+AB
B AB

A B Y
A B Y A B Y A B Y
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
(A) (B) 1 0 1 (C) (D)
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Q.11 The combination of the gates shown in the fig. produces

(A) OR gate (B) AND gate (C) NOR gate (D) XOR gate
Q.12 The expression y in the following circuit is

A y1
B
y2
C y
D

(A) ABCD (B) B + ACD (C) AB + CD (D) A + B + C + D

Q.13 What is the output of the combination of the gates shown in the fig.

A y

(A) A  A. B (B) ( A.B)  ( A . B ) (C) ( A  B).( A.B) (D) ( A  B) ( A  B )

Q.14 In circuit in following fig. the value of Y is 0 G1

(A) 0
A
G2 y
(B) 1 B

(C) Fluctuates between 0 and 1 1 G3

(D) Indeterminate as the circuit can’t be realised

Q.15 In a given circuit as shown the two input waveform A and B are applied simultaneously. The resultant waveform Y
is

Y
B

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.16 What is the output of the combination of the gates shown in the fig. below

(A) A + A.B A y

(B) ( A  B) A  B
(C) ( A.B)  ( A . B )
B
(D) ( A  B).( A.B)

Q.17 The combination of gates shown below produces

A G1
(A)AND gate
(B) XOR gate G3 G4 Y

(C) NOR gate

B G2
(D) NAND gate

Q.18 The circuit shown in fig. is used to realise a logic gate. The gate is

5V

(A) OR y
X
(B) NOT
(C) AND
(D) None of the above
Q.19 The shows two NAND gates followed by a NOR gate. The system is equivalent to the following logic gate

A X

(A) OR Z
B
(B) AND
(C) NAND
C Y
(D) None of these
Q.20 The Boolean expression for the output f of the combination of logic gates shown in fig. is
A
B
(A) A. B  A . B f

(B) A.. B  A . B
(C) A  B.. A  B
(D) A+B
Q.21 Figure gives a system of logic gates. From the study of truth table it can be found that to produce a high output (1)
at R, we must have
x
P
(A) X = 0, Y = 1
y R
(B) X = 1, Y = 1
(C) X = 1, Y = 0 O

(D) X = 0, Y = 0
ANSWER KEY
Q.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Ans. B A A A B B C A A,D B A D A A A A D B B D D
 EXERSICE-3
Q.1 If temperature increases, conductivity of semiconductor will be - [AIEEE-2002]
(A) increases (B) decreases (C) remain unchanged (D) none of these
Q.2 At 0K, silicon behave as – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) super conductor (B) conductor (C) Insulator (D) none of these
Q.3 The energy band gap is maximum in – [AIEEE-2002]
(A) Metals (B) Superconductors (C) Insulators (D) Semiconductors
Q.4 The part of a transistor which is most heavily doped to produce large number of majority carriers is –
[AIEEE-2002]
(A) Emitter (B) Base (C) Collector (D) Can be any of the above three
Q.5 In the middle of the depletion layer of a reverse-biased p-n junction, the – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) Potential is maximum (B) Electric field is maximum
(C) Potential is zero (D) Electric field is zero
Q.6 The difference in the variation of resistance with temperature in a metal and a semiconductor arises essentially
due to the difference in the – [AIEEE-2003]
(A) Variation of the number of charge carriers with temperature
(B) Type of bonding
(C) Variation of scattering mechanism with temperature
(D) Crystal structure
Q.7 A strip of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room temperature of 80 K. The resistance of –
[AIEEE-2003]
(A) copper strip increases and that of germanium decreases
(B) copper strip decreases and that of germanium increases
(C) each of these increases
(D) each of these decreases
Q.8 When npn transistor is used as an amplifier – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) electrons move from collector base
(B) holes move from emitter to base
(C) electrons move from base to collector
(D) holes move from base to emitter
Q.9 A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room temperature of 77 K, the resistance of –
(A) copper increases and germanium [AIEEE-2004]
(B) each of them decreases
(C) each of these increases
(D) copper decreases and germanium increases
Q.10 The manifestation of band structure in solids is due to – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) Bohr’s correspondence principle
(B) Pauli’s exclusion principle
(C) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
(D) Boltzmann’s law
Q.11 When p–n junction diode is forward biased, then – [AIEEE-2004]
(A) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced
(B) the depletion region is widened and barrier height is reduced
(C) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height is increased
(D) both the depletion region and barrier height are increased
Q.12 The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases when electromagnetic radiation of wavelength shorter
than 2480 nm is incident on it. The band gap in (eV) for the semiconductor is [AIEEE-2005]
(A) 1.1 eV (B) 2.5 eV (C) 0.5 eV (D) 0.7 eV
Q.13 In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains frequency, the fundamental frequency in the ripple would
be [AIEEE-2005]
(A) 50 Hz (B) 25 Hz (C) 100 Hz (D) 70.7 Hz
Q.14 In a common base amplifier the phase difference between the input signal voltage and output voltage is
[AIEEE-2005]
 
(A) (B)  (C) 0 (D)
4 2
Q.15 If the ratio of the concentration of electrons to that of holes in a semiconductor is 7/5 and the ratio of currents is
7/4, then what is the ratio of their drift velocities – [AIEEE 2006]

5 4 5 4
(A) (B) (C) (D)
4 7 8 5

Q.16 A solid which is not transparent to visible light and whose conductivity increases with temperature is formed
by – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) Vander Waals binding (B) Metallic binding (C) Ionic binding (D) Covalent binding

Q.17 In a common base mode of a transistor, the collector current is 5.488 mA for an emitter current of 5.60 mA. The
value of the base current amplification () will be – [AIEEE 2006]
(A) 51 (B) 48 (C) 49 (D) 50
Q.18 If the lattics constant of this semiconductor is decreased, then which of the following is correct –[AIEEE 2006]

(A) Ec and Ev decrease, but Eg increases (B) All Ec, Eg, Ev decrease
(C) All Ec, Eg, Ev increase (D) Ec and Ev increase, but Eg decreases
Q.19 In the following, which one of the diodes is reverse biased – [AIEEE 2006]

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.20 The circuit has two oppositely connected ideal diodes in parallel. What is the current flowing in the circuit ?
(A) 2.31 A [AIEEE 2006]
(B) 1.33 A
(C) 1.71 A
(D) 2.00 A
Q.21 If in a p-n junction diode, a square input signal of 10V is applied as shown Then the output signal across
RL will be [AIEEE 2007]

5V  
RL

-5V  

10V  
  +5V
(A) (B) (C) (D)  
-5V
  -10V

Q.22 Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. At room temperature which one of the
following statements is most appropriate ? [AIEEE 2007]
(A) The number of free conduction electrons is significant in C but small in Si and Ge
(B) The number of free conduction electrons is negligibly small in all the three
(C) The number of free electrons for conduction is significant in all the three
(D) The number of free electrons for conduction is significant only in Si and Ge but small in C

Q.23 A working transistor with its three legs marked P, Q and R is tested using a multimeter. No conduction
is found between P and Q. By connecting the common (negative) terminal of the multimeter to R and the
other (positive) terminal to P or Q, some resistance is seen on the multimeter. Which of following is true
for the transistor ? [AIEEE 2008]

(A) It is a pnp transistor with R as collector (B) It is a pnp transistor with R as emitter

(C) It is an npn transistor with R as collector (D) It is an npn transistor with R as base

Q.24 In the circuit below, A and B represent two inputs and C represents the output. [AIEEE 2008]

The circuit represents

(A) AND gate (B) NAND gate (C) OR gate (D) NOR gate
Q.25 An p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can act as a rectifier. An alternating current source (V) is connected in the
circuit.

The current (I) in the resistor R can be shown by : [AIEEE - 2009]

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.26 The logic circuit shown below has the input waveforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown. Pick out the corret output waveform.
[AIEEE - 2009]

Output is -

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.27 The cominbation of gates shown below yields. [AIEEE - 2010]

Y
B

(A) NAND gate (B) OR gate (C) NOT gate (D) XOR gate
Q.28 Truth table for system of four NAND gates as shown in figure is. [AIEEE 2012]

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

ANSWER KEY
Q.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. A C C A B A B C D B A C C C A D C D B D
Q.No. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Ans. D D D C C A B D
 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
TOPIC

1. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2. ANTENNA

3. MESSAGE SIGNALS

4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

5. AN IMPORTANT STEP IN COMMUNICATIONS MODULATION AND IT’S NEED

6. AMPLITUDE MODULATION

7. FREQUENCY MODULATION

8. COMPARISON OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND FREQUENCY MODULATION

9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

10. EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

11. BEHAVIOUR OF ATMOSPHERE TOWARDS ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

12. RADIOWAVES

13. TRANSMISSION MEDIUM OR COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

14. SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

15. SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

16. IMPORTANT TERMS FOR SKY WAVE

17. RELATION BETWEEN COVERAGE DISTANCE AND HEIGHT OF TRANSMITTING ANTENNA

18. EXERCISE - 1

19. EXERCISE - 2

20. EXERCISE - 3

All Rights Reserved with RAO IIT ACADEMY

 PHYSICS

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A communication system is the set-up used in the transmission of information from one place to another. The
present day communication system are electrical, electronic or optical in nature.
In principle, a communication system consists of the following three parts :
(i) Transmitter
(ii) Communication Channel
(iii) Receiver
A schematic model of an electrical communication system is shown in Figure 1.

(i) A transmitter : transmits the information after modifying it to a form suitable for transmission. The key
to communication system is to obtain an electrical signal (voltage or current), which contains the information.
For example, a microphone converts speech signals into electrical signals. Similarly, piezoelectric sensors
convert pressure variations into electrical signals. Light signals are converted into electrical signals by
photo detectors. The devices like microphone, piezoelectric sensors and photo detectors, which convert
a physical quantity (called information, here) into electrical signal are known as Transducers. Such an
electrical signal contains the information to be transmitted.
We define a signal as a single valued function of time (that conveys the information). This function has
a unique value at every instant of time.
Most of the speech or information signals cannot be transmitted directly over long distances. These
signals have to be loaded or superimposed on a high frequency wave, which acts as the carrier wave. This
process is known as modulation. The signal so obtained is called modulated signal/wave. The power of
the signal is boosted signal using a suitable amplifire. The modulated signal is then radiated into space
with the help of an antenna called transmitting antenna. The arrangement is shown in Fig.2

TRANS
MITTING
ANTENNA
MICRO
PHONE
MODULATOR AMPLIFIER

Figure 2

(ii) Communication Channel : The communication channel carries the modulated wave from the transmitter
to the receiver. In ordinary conversation, the air through which sound travels from the speaker to the
listener serves as the communication channel. In case of telephony and telegraphy, communication
channel is the transmission lines, which connect the transmitter and the receiver. In radio communication
(or wireless communication), the free space through which the modulated signal travels serves as the
communication channel.

(iii) The receiver ; In the radio communication or wireless communication, the receiver consists of :
(a) a pick up antenna to pick the signal,
(b) a demodulator, to separate the low frequency audio signal from the modulated signal,
 (c) an amplifier, to boost up suitably the audio signal, and
(d) the transducer, like loud speaker to convert the audio signal (in the form of electrical pulses) into sound
waves.
The receiver part of the communication system is shown schematically in Fig.3

DEMODULATOR AMPLIFIER
LOUD
Figure 3 SPEAKER

2. ANTENNA
An antenna plays a vital role in a communication system. It is used in both, the transmission and reception
of radio frequency signals.
Infact, an antenna is a structure that is capable of radiating electromagnetic waves or receiving them, as the
case may be. Basically, an antenna is generally a metallic object, often a wire or collection of wires, used
to convert high frequency current into electromagnetic waves and vice-versa. Thus, a transmitting antenna
converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves, whereas a receiving antenna converts electromagnetic
waves into electrical energy. Apart from their different function, transmitting and receiving antennas behave
idenically i.e. their behaviour is reciprocal.
When a transmitting antenna is held vertically, the electromagnetic waves produced are polarized vertically.
A Hertz antenna is a straight conductor of length equal to half the wavelength of radio signals to be transmitted
or received i.e. l = /2.
A Marconi antenna is a straight conductor of length equal to a quarter of the wavelength of radio signals to
be transmitted or received i.e. l = /4. It is held vertically with its lower end touching the ground. The ground
provides a reflection of the voltage and current distributions set up in the antenna. The electromagnetic waves
emitted from (Marconi) antenna ground system are the same as those emitted from Hertz antenna, which is
not grounded.
The design of an antenna depends on frequency of carrier wave and directivity of the beam etc. Two common
types of antenna are :
(i) Dipole antenna, shown in Fig.4 is used in transmission of radio waves. It is omni directional.

Figure 4
(ii) Dish type antenna, shown in Fig.5 is a directional antenna.
 Such an antenna has a parabolic reflector with an active element, called the dipole or horn feed at focus
of the reflector. The dish type antenna can transmit waves in a particular direction. Also, it can receive
only those waves which are directed towards it. For transmission, the signal is fed to the active element,
which directs it on to the reflector. The signal is then transmitted in the form of a parallel beam as shown
in Fig.5. For reception, the waves directed towards the dish are reflected on to the active element, which
converts them into electrical signals. The dish type antennas are commonly used in radar and satellite
communication.

LE
IPO
D

Figure 5
3. MESSAGE SIGNALS
Message signals are electrical signals generated from the original information to be transmitted, using an
appropriate transducer. A message signal is a single valued function of time that conveys the information. This
function has a unique value at every instant of time. These signals are of two type :
(i) Analog signals (ii) Digital signals

(i) Analog signals. An analog signal is that in which current or voltage value varies continuously with time.
In the simplest form of an analog signal, amplitude of the signal varies sinusoidally with time. It is
represented by the equation
E = E0 sin (t + )
2
where E0 is max. value of voltage, called the amplitude, T is time period and  = is angular frequency
T
of the signal. In fig.6,  represents the phase angle. Such signals can have all sorts of values at different
instants, but these values shall remain within the range of a maximum value (+ E0) and a minimum value
( – E0).
Y
Time period
(T)
2p
Ampitude w=
T
O
X

Y¢ time
Figure 6
 Examples of analog signals are speech, music, sound produced by a vibrating tuning fork, variations in light
intensity etc. These are converted into current/voltage variations using suitable transducers. The information
bearing signals are called base band signals.

(ii) Digital signals. A digital signal is a discontinuous function of time, in contrast to an analog signal, wherein
current or voltage value varies continuously with time.
Such a signal is usually in the form of pulses. Each pulse has two levels of current or voltage, represented
by 0 and 1. Zero (0) of a digital signal refers to open circuit and (1) of a digital signal refers to closed
circuit. Zero (0) is also referred to as 'No' or space and (1) is referred to as 'Yes' or mark. Both 0 and
1 are called bits.
A typical digital signal is shown in Fig.7.
The significant characteristics of a digital signal are : Pulse amplitude ; Pulse Duration or Pulse Width
and Pulse Position, representing the time of rise and time of fall of the pulse amplitude, as shown in Fig.7.

PULSE
DURATION
1 1 1
PULSE
PULSE PULSE AMPLITUDE
RISE FALL
0 0 0 0
Figure 7

Examples of digital messages are :

(i) letters printed in this book
(ii) listing of any data,
(iii) output of a digital computer,
(iv) Electronic transmission of a document at a distant place via telephone line i.e. FAX etc.
An analog signal can be converted suitably into a digital signal and vice-versa.
Note. As stated above, a digital signal is represented by binary digits 0 and 1 called bits.
A group of bits is called a binary word or a byte. A byte made of 2 bits can give four code combinations :
00, 01, 10 ; 11.

4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

There is no unique way of classifying communication systems. However, for the sake of convenience, we can
classify them broadly on the basis of -
(i) nature of information source,
(ii) mode of transmission,
(iii) type of transmission channel used,
(iv) type of modulation employed, as detailed below :
(a) Based on nature of information source
(i) Speech transmission as in radio
(ii) Picture as well as speech transmission as in television
(iii) Facsimile transmission, as in FAX
(iv) Data transmission as in computers

(b) Based on mode of transmission

(i) Analog communication, where the modulating signal is analog. The carrier wave may be sinusoidal or in
the form of pulses. For example, in telegraphy, telephony, radio network, radar, television network, teleprinting,
telex etc.
 (ii) Digital communicatoin, where the modulating signal is digital in nature. For example, Fax, mobile phone
network, e-mail, teleconferencing, telemetry, communication satellites and global positioning system are
all digital communication systems.

(c) Based on transmission channel

(i) Line communication
1. Two wire transmission line
2. Co-axial cable transmission
3. Optical fibre cable communication
(ii) Space communication

(d) Based on the type of modulation

(i) For sinusoidal continuous carrier waves, the types of modulation are :
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation
(ii) For pulsed carrier waves, the modes of modulation are :
1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
2. Pulse Time Modulation (PTM). It includes
– Pulse Position Modulation (PPM),
– Pulse Width modulation (PWM),
– Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM)
3. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

5. AN IMPORTANT STEP IN COMMUNICATIONS MODULATION AND IT’S NEED

Suppose we wish to transmit an electrical signal in the audio frequency (AF) range (20 Hz to 20 kHz) over
a long distance. We cannot do it, as such because of the following reasons :

1. Size of the antenna or aerial. An antenna or aerial is needed both for transmission and reception. Each
antenna should have a size comparable to the wavelength of the signal, (atleast /4 in size), so that time
variation of the signal is properly sensed by the antenna.
c 3  10 8
For an audio frequency signal of frequency  = 15 kHz, the wavelength,  = = = 20000 m. The
 15  10 3
 20000
length of the antenna = = = 5000 metre. To set up an antenna of vertical height 5000 metre is
4 4
practically impossible. Therefore, we need to use high frequencies for transmission.
2. Effective Power radiated by antenna. Theoretical studies reveal that power P radiated from a linear antenna
of length l is

1
P 
l2
As high powers are needed for good transmission, l should be small i.e. antenna length should be small,
for which wavelength  should be small or frequency  should be high.
3. Mixing up of signals from different transmitters. Suppose many people are talking at the same time. We
just cannot make out who is talking what. Similarly, when many transmitters are transmitting baseband
information signals simultaneously, they get mixed up and there is no way to distinguish between them.
The possible solution is, communication at high frequencies and allotting a band of frequencies to each
user. This is what is being done for different radio and T.V. broadcast stations.
All the three reasons explained above suggest that there is a need for transmissions at high frequencies.
This is achieved by a process, called modulation, where in we superimpose the audio frequency baseband
 message or information signals (called the modulating signals) on a high frequency wave (called, the
carrier wave). The resultant wave is called the modulated wave, which is transmitted.
In the process of modulation, some specific characteristic of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with
the information or message signal. The carrier wave may be
(i) Continuous (sinusoidal) wave, or
(ii) Pulse, which is discontinuous
A continuous sinusoidal carrier wave can be expressed as E = E0 sin (t + ).
Three distinct characteristics of such a wave are : amplitude (E 0), angular frequency () and phase angle
(). Any one of these three characteristics can be varied in accordance with the modulating baseband (AF)
signal, giving rise to the respective Amplitude Modulation ; Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation.

Notes. Phase modulation is not of much practical importance. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to the
study of amplitude and frequency modulations only.
Again, the significant characteristics of a pulse are : Pulse Amplitude, Pulse Duration or Pulse Width and
Pulse Position (representing the time of rise or fall of the pulse amplitude). Any one of these characteristics
can be varied in accordance with the modulating baseband (AF) signal, giving rise to the respective, Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM) or Pulse Widhth Modulation (PWM) and Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM).

Ex. Show that the minimum length of antenna required to transmit a radio signal of frequency 10 MHz is 7.5 m.
Sol. Here, f = 10 MHz = 107 Hz
c 3  108  30
  = ƒ = = 30 m, Minimum length of antenna = = = 7.5 m
107 4 4

6. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
When a modulating AF wave is superimposed on a high frequency carrier wave in a manner that the frequency
of modulated wave is same as that of the carrier wave, but its amplitude is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the audio frequency modulating voltage, the process is called amplitude modulation (AM).
Let the instantaneous carrier voltage (ec) and modulating voltage (em) be represented by
ec = Ec sin c t ....(1)
em = Em sin m t ....(2)
Thus, in amplitude modulation, amplitude A of modulated wave is made proportional to the instantaneous
modulating voltage e m

i.e. A = Ec + k em ....(3) where k is a constant of proportionality.

In amplitude modulation, the proportionality canstant k is made equal to unity. Therefore, max. positive
amplitude of AM wave is given by
A = Ec + em = Ec + Em sin m t ....(4)
It is called top envelope
The maximum negative amplitude of AM wave is given by
– A = – Ec – em
= – (Ec + Em sin m t) ....(5) This is called bottom envelope
The modulated wave extends between these two limiting envelopes, and its frequency is equal to the unmodulated
carrier frequency. Fig.8(a) shows the variation of voltage of carrier wave with time. Fig.8(b) shows one cycle
of modulating sine wave and Fig.8(c) shows amplitude modulated wave for this cycle.
As is clear from Fig.8(c)

E max  Emin
Em =
2
and Ec = Emax – Em
 E max  Emin
= Emax –
2

E max  Emin
Ec = ....(6)
2

ec

O
t

Fig.8(a) CARRIER WAVE

eM

O
t

Fig.8(b) MODULATING SIGNAL

(Ec + Em sin m t) top envelope

Em
Ec
A Em Emax

Emin
O
t

–(Ec + Em sin m t) bottom envelope

Fig.8(c) AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE

In amplitude modulation, the degree of modulation is cefined by a term, called modulation index or modulation
factor or depth of modulation represented by ma. It is equal to the ratio of amplitude of modulating signal to
the amplitude of carrier wave i.e.

E m Emax  E min
ma = E = E ....(7)
c max  Emin

Obviously, modulation index (ma) is a number lying between 0 and 1. Often, ma is expressed in percentage
and is called the percentage modulatoion. Importance of moduation index is that it determines the quality
of the transmitted signal. When modulation index is small, veriation in carrier amplitude will be small. Therefore,
audio signal being transmitted will be weak. As the modulataion index increases, the audio signal on reception
becomes clearer.
Ex. An audio signal of amplitude one half the carrier amplitude is used in amplitude modulation. Calculate the
modulation index ?
Sol. Here, Em = 0.5 Ec
 Emax = Ec + Em = Ec + 0.5 Ec = 1.5 Ec
Emin = Ec – Em = Ec – 0.5 Ec = 0.5 Ec

Emax  E min 1.5E c  0.5E c Ec

Ma = E  E = 1.5E  0.5E = 2.0E = 0.5
max min c c c

6.1 Frequency Spectrum of AM wave

A detailed study of amplitude modulation reveals that the amplitude modulated wave consists of three discrete
frequencies, as shown in Fig.9. Of these, the central frequency is the the carrier frequency (fc), which has
the highest amplitude. The other two frequencies are placed symmetrically about it. Both these frequencies
have equal amplitudes-which never exceeds half the carrier amplitude. These frequencies are called side band
frequencies i.e. fSB = fc ± fm

 Frequency of lower side band is fLSB = fc – fm ....(8)

and frequency of upper side band is fUSB = fc + fm ....(9)

Band width of amplitude modulated wave is = fUSB – fLSB

= (fc + fm) – (fc – fm) = 2fm ....(10)

Band width = twice the frequency of the modulating signal

6.2 Power and Current Relations in AM wave

E c2
Average power/cycle in the unmodulated carrier wave is Pc = ....(11)
2R

where R is resistance (of antenna) in which power is dissipated.

 m2 
It can be shown that total power/cycle in the modulated wave is Pt = Pc 1  a  ....(12)
 2 
 

Pt m a2
 Pc = 1 + But Pt = I 2t R and Pc = I c2 R
2

I 2t  m2  It
 = 1  a  or = ma2 ....(13)
I c2  2  Ic 1
  2
7. FREQUENCY MODULATION
When a modulating AF wave is superimposed on a high frequency carrier wave in such a way that the
amplitude of modulated wave is same as that of the carrier wave, but its frequency is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage, the process is called frequency modulation (FM).
Let the instantaneous carrier voltage (ec) and modulating voltage (em) be represented by
ec = Ec sin c t ....(15) em = Em sin mt ....(16)
Fig.10(a) represents the variation of carrier voltage with time, and Fig.10(b) represents the variation of modulating
AF voltage with time.

ec

O
t

Fig.10(a) CARRIER WAVE

eM

O
t

Fig.10(b) MODULATING SIGNAL

O
t

Fig.10(c) FM Wave (exaggerated)

+f
fc

O
t

–f
Fig.10(d) Frequency vs time in FM wave
In frequency modulation, the amount by which carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value (fc = c/
2) is called the deviation. This deviation is made proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating
voltage. The rate at which the frequency variation takes place is equal to the modulating frequency. Fig.10(c)
represents an exaggerated view of frequency modulated wave. Fig.10(d) shows the frequency variation with
time in the FM wave. This is identical to the variation of the modulating voltage with time, Fig.10(b). Note that
(i) All signals having same amplitude will change the carrier frequency by the same amount, whatever be their
frequencies
(ii) All modulating signals of same frequency, say 1 kHz, will change the carrier frequency at the same rate
of 1000 times, per second-whatever be their individual amplitudes
(iii) The amplitude of the frequency modulated wave remains constant at all times, being equal to the amplitude
of the carrier wave
If ƒ is frequency of FM wave at any instant t and ƒc is constant frequency of the carrier wave, then
deviation (in frequency),  = (ƒ – ƒc) ....(17)
By definition of frequency modulation,
 em
or   E m sin m t
 = k Em sin m t ....(18)
where k is a constant of proportionality, Using (17), we get
 = ƒ – ƒc = k Em sin m t
or ƒ = ƒc + k Em sin m t ....(19)
The deviation will be maximum, when
(sin m t)max = ± 1
 From (19), ƒmax = ƒc ± k Em ....(20)
or dmax = ƒmax – ƒc = ± k Em ....(21)
The modulation index (mƒ) of a frequency modulated wave is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency i.e.

max  k Em
mƒ = = ....(22)
ƒm ƒm

Clearly, modulating index increases, as modulating frequency (ƒm) decreases. mƒ has no units, it being the
ratio of two frequencies.
The instantaneous amplitude of frequency modulated wave is given by
A = A0 sin 
where  is the function of carrier angular frequency (c) and modulating angular frequency (m). Infact,

  
 =  c t  ƒ sin m t  ....(23)
 m 

The frequency spectrum of FM wave is far more complex than the frequency spectrum of AM wave. Infact,
(i) The output of an FM wave consists of carrier frequency (ƒc) and almost an infinite number of side bands,
whose frequencies are (ƒc ± ƒm), (ƒc ± 2ƒm), (ƒc ± 3ƒm),... and so on. The sidebands are thus separated
from the carrier by ƒm, 2ƒm, 3ƒm ....etc i.e. they have a recurrence frequency of ƒm.
(ii) The number of sidebands depends on the modulation index (mƒ). The number of sidebands increases, when
frequency deviation () is increased, keeping (ƒm) constant. Similarly, number of sidebands decreases,
when frequency of modulating signal (ƒm) is increased keeping frequency deviation constant
(iii) The sidebands are disposed symmetrically about the carrier. Further, sidebands at equal distances from
the carrier have equal amplitudes.
(iv) As the distance of sidebands from carrier frequency increases, their amplitude decreases. Therefore,
number of significant sideband pairs is limited
 (v) In frequency modulated wave, the information (audio signal) is contained in the sidebands only. Since the
sidebands are separated from each other by the frequency of the modulating signal (ƒ m), therefore,
Band width = 2n × (ƒm) ....(24)
where n is the number of the particular sideband pair.
Ex. As audio signal of 2.8 kHz modulates a carrier of frequency 84 MHz and produces a frequency deviation
of 56 kHz. Calculate
(i) frequency modulation index
(ii) frequency range of FM wave
Sol. Here, ƒm = 2.8 kHz, ƒc = 84 MHz ;  = 56 kHz

 56
(i) Frequency modulation index = mƒ = ƒ = = 20
m 2 .8

(ii) Frequency range of FM wave = ƒc ± ƒm = (84 ± 2.8 × 10–3) MHz = 84.0028 MHz and 83.9972 MHz

8. COMPARISON OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND FREQUENCY MODULATION

Following are some of the advantages of frequency modulation over the amplitude modulation :
(i) FM transmission is far more efficient compared to AM transmission. This is because amplitude of FM wave
is constant, whatever be the modulation index. Therefore, transmitted power is constant. Amplifiers used
in FM transmission handle constant power and are more efficient. Further, all the power transmitted in FM
is useful, whereas in AM transmission, most of the power goes waste in the transmitted carrier, which
contains no useful information.
(ii) FM reception is almost immune to noise as compared to AM reception. This is because noise is a form
of amplitude variation in transmitted signal. Therefore, by using amplitude limiters in the FM receivers, we
can almost eliminate noise. Noise can also be reduced by increasing the frequency deviation in FM wave.
This feature is not available in the AM wave.
Further, FM broadcasts operate in VHF and UHF frequency ranges—where the noise is much less than
in MF and HF ranges for AM broadcasts.
(iii) With the use of space wave in FM broadcasts, radius of operation is limited to slightly more than the
line of sight transmission. This reduces the chances of adjacent channel interference.
The chances of interference reduce further by standard frequency allocations by the International Radio
Consultative Committee (IRCC). This provides a guard band between commercial FM stations.
Some of the disadvantages of frequency modulation are :
(i) The channel width required in FM transmission is almost 10 times as large as that needed in AM
transmission. Therefore, much wider frequency channel is required in FM transmission
(ii) The equipment used in FM transmission and reception is far more complex than the equipment used in
AM transmission and reception
(iii) As FM reception is limited to 'line of sight', the area of reception of FM is much smaller than that for AM
Range of frequencies allotted for commercial FM radio and T.V. broadcasts is given in Table 10.1 :
TABLE 10.1
Nature of Broadcast Frequency Band

FM radio 88–108 MHz

VHF T.V 47–230 MHz
UHF T.V 470–960 MHz

9. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there is a sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic field
vectors at right angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of propagation of waves. In
 
electromagnetic waves, both the field vectors ( E and B ) vary with time and space and have the same
frequency and same phase. In Fig.11, the electric field vector ( E ) and magnetic field vector ( B ) are vibrating
along Y and Z directions and propagation of electromagnetic wave is shown in X-direction.

According to Maxwell the electromagnetic waves are of transverse in nature and they can pass through vacuum
with the speed of light ( = 3 × 108 ms–1).The velocity of eletromagnetic wave in a medium is given by

1
 =
 0 r 0r

where, 0, r = absolute permeability of space and relative permeability of medium,

0, r = absolute permittivity of space and relative permittivity of medium
The velocity of electromagnetic waves of different frequency in vacuum is same but in a medium is different.
It is more for red light and less for violet light.
Examples of electromagnetic waves are radiowaves, microwaves, infrared rays, light waves, ultraviolet rays,
X-rays and -rays.
The electromagnetic waves were first produced by Hertz in 1888 with the help of Hertz oscillator, which were
of wavelength 6 m. In 1895, an Indian Physicist Jagdish Chander Bose produced electromagnetic waves of
wavelength 5 mm to 25 mm. In 1896, Marconi was first to establish a wireless communication across the
English channel, a distance of about 50 km.
In electromagnetic waves, the energy is shared equally between electric field vector and magnetic field vector.
The total average energy associated with electric field is equal to the total average energy associated with
magnetic field, given by

1 1 B 02
Ua = 0 E02 = .
2 2 0

It has been found that the velocity (c) of electromagnetic wave in free
space is equal to the ratio of amplitude of electric field vector (E0) and
magnetic field vector (B0) i.e. c = E0/B0.
It was found that the accelerated charge or oscilating charge is a source
of electromagnetic waves. A simple experimental arrangement shown in
Fig.12 is used to transmit electromagnetic waves produced by L–C
circuit, using half wave antenna. When L–C circuit produces oscillations,
the charge oscillates on capacitor. Due to which the two ends of the
antenna become alternatively positive and negative. As a result of it, the
electric field vector is always parallel to the plane of antenna, while the
magnetic field vector is at right anlge to it. Since the electric field vector
is oriented in one particular direction with respect to the surface of earth,
hence there is polarisation of electromagnetic wave.
 If the plane of electric field is oriented horizontally in respect to the earth, the electromagnetic wave is said
to be horizontally polarised. On the other hand, if the plane of electric field vector is oriented vertically the
electromagnetic wave is said to be vertically polarised.
When the antenna is vertical w.r.t. earth, the electric field vector is vertically oriented w.r.t. earth, therefore,
the electromagnetic wave is vertically polarised. When the antenna is held parallel to horizontal, the
electromagnetic wave would be horizontally polarised. It means the polarisation of electromagnetic wave
is mainly the function of the antenna orientation.
Our earth's atmosphere helps in the propagation of electromagnetic waves from one place to other place on
the surface of earth. To understand the various modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves, we shall study
about earth's atomosphere.

10. EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is called earth's atmosphere. The earth atmosphre mainly
consists of nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21% and with a little portion of argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour,
hydrocarbons, sulphur compounds and dust particles. The density of the atmospheric air goes on decreasing
as we go up. The electrical conductivity of the atmosphre has no sharp boundary. It has been divided into
various regions as given below.
(i) Troposphere. It extends upto a height of 12 km. The atmospheric air in this region has maximum density
which varies from 1 kg/m3 at the surface of earth to 0.1 kg/m3 at the top of this layer. The electrical
conductivity of this region is least as compared to other regions of earth's atmosphre.
(ii) Stratosphere. It extends from 12 km to 50 km from the surface of earth. The density of air of this region
varies from 0.1 kg/m3 to 10–3 kg/m3. There is an ozone layer in this region in between 30 km to 50 km
from the surface of earth, which absorbs a large portion of ultraviolet radiations radiated by sun or
coming from outer space.
(iii) Mesosphere. It extends from 50 km to 80 km from the surface of earth. The density of air in this layer
varies from 10–3 kg/m3 to 10–5 kg/m3. The temperature of this region falls from 280 K to 180 K with height.
(iv) Ionosphere. It extends from 80 km to 400 km from the surface of the earth. The density of this region
varies from 10–5 kg/m3 to 10–10 kg/m3. In this region temperature increases with height from 180 K to
700 K, that is why, it is called thermosphere. Ionosphere is the outermost part of the earth's atmosphere.
It is composed of ionised matter (i.e. electrons and positive ions) which plays an important role in space
communication.
There are four main layers in earth's atmosphere having high density of electrons and positive ions,
produced due to ionisation by the high energy particles coming from sun, stars or cosmos. These layers
play their effective role in space communication. These layers are D, E, F1 and F2. Fig.13.
 (a) D-layer is at a virtual height of 80 km from surface of earth and having electron density  109 m–3. The
extent of ionisation of D layer depends upon the altitude of sun. This layer disappears at night. This layer
reflects very low frequency (VLF) and low frequency (LF) electromagnetic waves but absorbs medium
frequency (MF) and high frequency (HF) electromagnetic waves to a certain degree.
(b) E-layer is at a virtual height of 110 km, from the surface of earth, having electron density  1011 m–3. The
critical frequency* of this layer is about 4 MHz. This layer helps to MF surface-wave propagation a little
but reflects some high frequency waves in day time. This layer exist at night.
(c) F1-layer is at a virtual height of 180 km from the surface of earth, having electron density  5 × 1011 m–3.
The critical frequency for this layer is 5 MHz. It reflects some of the high frequency waves but most of
the high frequency waves pass through it and they get reflected from layer F2. This layer merges in F2
layer at night.
(d) F2-layer is at a vertical height of about 300 km in day time and about 350 km in night time. The electron
density of this layer is  8 × 1011 m–3. The critical frequency of this layer is 8 MHz in day time and 6
MHz in night time. It reflects back the electromagnetic waves of frequency upto 30 MHz but cannot reflect
back the electromagnetic waves of frequency 40 MHz or more.
Thus earth's atmosphere helps in the propagation of electromagnetic waves from one place to another place,
upto 30 MHz frequency.

11. BEHAVIOUR OF ATMOSPHERE TOWARDS ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The behaviour of atmosphere is different for electromagnetic waves of different frequencies. The atmosphere
is transparent to electromagnetic waves of visible region of wavelength range 4000 Å to 8000 Å, as we can see
the sun and the stars through it clearly. The electromagnetic waves belonging to infrared region of wavelength
range 8 × 10–7 m to 3 × 10–5 m are not allowed to pass through atmosphere rather they get reflected by
atmosphere. The ozone layer of earth's atmosphere blocks the electromagnetic waves of ultraviolet region of
wavelength range 6 Å to 4000 Å.
The behaviour of earth's atmosphere towards electromagnetic waves of wavelength 10–3 m and higher is of
special interest in space communication. The lower part of atmosphere is more or less transparent to
electromagnet waves of wavelength 20 m and higher used in radiocommunication but the top most layer, the
ionosphere does not allow these waves to penetrate but reflects, above 40 MHz, the ionosphere bends any
incident electromagnetic wave but dies not reflect it back towards earths.

12. RADIOWAVES
The radiowaves are the electro-magnetic waves of frequency ranging from few kilo hertz to nearly few hundred
mega hertz (i.e. 3 kHz to about 300 GHz, where 1 GHz = 109 Hz). These waves are used in the field of radio
communication. With reference to the frequency range and wavelength range the radiowaves have been divided
into following categories ; See Table 12-1.

13.TRANSMISSION MEDIUM OR COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

The transmission medium or communication channel is a link through which information/message signal
may propagate from the source to the destination, without any noise or distorsion. It is a sort of electronic
roadways along which signals travel.
Broadly, transmission media have been divided into two types :
(i). Guided Transmission Medium
(ii) Unguided Transmission Medium
(i) Guided Transmission Medium. It is that communication medium or channel which is used in signal
communication, for point to point contact between the transmitter and receiver. For example, parallel wire
lines, twisted pair and co-axial cable are guided transmission media. Optical fibres are other examples
of guided transmission medium. Guided transmission medium is used in line communication.
(ii) Unguided Transmission Medium. It is that communication medium which is used, where there is no
point to point contact between the transmitter and receiver. Free space is an example of unguided
transmission medium. It is used in space communication and satellite communication.
The characteristics and quality of transmission medium depend upon
 (a) nature of transmission medium, (b) nature of signal
Thus, basically there are two types of communications (1) Space communication (2) Line communication.

14. SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

It is that mode of propagation in which the radiowaves emitted from the transmitting antenna reach the
receiving antenna through space. These radiowaves are called space waves. The space waves are the radiowaves
of frequency range from 54 MHz to 4.2 GHz. The space waves travel in straight line from transmitting antenna
to receiving antenna. Therefore, the space waves are used for the line of sight communication as well as
for the satellite communication. The space wave propagation is used for television broadcast, microwave
link and satellite communication.
If the frequency of the radiowaves is greater than 54 MHz ; then the waves can not travel along the surface
of earth as they get absorbed by the earth. Hence, their propagation cannot be like ground wave propagation.
Morcover, these waves cannot be reflected by ionosphere, hence their propagation cannot be like sky wave
propagation.
The communication through space wave between transmitter and receiver is limited to line of sight path. The
line of sight communication is limited by (i) the line of sight distance and (ii) the curvature of the earth. The
space waves following the line of sight propagation get blocked at some point by the curvature of the earth
as illustrated in Fig.14. Here, dT is called the radio horizon of the transmitting atenna, dM is called the
maximum line of sight distance between the two antennas.

dM
dT

EARTH SURFACE

Figure 14

The line of sight distance is that distance between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna at which they
can see each other. It is also called range of communication (dM). The range of space wave communication
can be increased by increasing the heights of transmitting antenna and receiving antenna.

15. SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

It is a mode of wave propogation in which the radiowaves emitted from the transmitter antenna reach the
receiving antenna after reflection by the ionosphere.
In sky wave propagation, the radiowaves of frequency range from generally 1710 kHz to 54 MHz are used.
This mode of propagation is used by short wave broadcast service.
Ionosphere is the uppermost layer of earth's atmosphere extending from a height of 65 km to about 400 km,
above the surface of earth. The density of atmosphere decreases with height. The ultraviolet radiations and
other high energy radiations coming from sun on entering ionosphere of earth's atmosphere, are largely
absorbed by the molecules of that layer of atmosphere. Due to it, the molecules get ionised. The degree of
ionisation varies with the height. At great height, the solar radiations intensity is high but the density of earth's
atmosphere is low, hence there are few air molecules to be ionised. On the other hand, close to the earth,
the density of earth's atomosphere is high but the radiation intensity is low. Due to it, the ionisation is low.
However, at some intermediate heights, there occurs maximum ionisation of earth atmospheric molecules,
resulting ionised layers of maximum electrons and ions which are formed at different heights. Due to it, we
get various ionised layers ; D, E, F 1 and F2 having different number density of electrons and ions at different
height as discussed in Art. Fig.13. Each ionised ionospheric layer acts as a reflector for a certain range of
radiowaves (between 1.71 MHz to 54 MHz). The electromagnetic waves of frequencies greater than 54 MHz
penetrate the ionosphere and escape. The Fig.15 shows the mode of the sky wave propagation.
 here
Ionosp

sky
waves
O R1 R2
R3

Figure 15

16. IMPORTANT TERMS FOR SKY WAVE

PROPAGATION
(a) Plasma frequency and critical frequency. Plasma frequency is an important parameter in
radiocommunication via the ionosphere. The plasma frequency  is related to the electron density N
(in m–3) of a layer of ionosphere by a relation  = 9 N
The plasma frequency at the peak of a layer is called critical frequency (c).
Critical frequency c. It is that highest frequency of radio wave, which when sent straight (i.e. normally)
towards the layer of ionosphere gets reflected from ionosphere and returns to the earth. If the frequency
of the radiowave is more than critical frequency, it will not be reflected by ionosphere. The critical
frequency of a sky wave for reflection from a layer of atmosphere is given by
c = 9(Nmax)1/2, where Nmax is the maximum number density of electron/m3. The number density per cubic
metre of electrons for D, E, F1 and F2 layers are 109, 1011, 5 × 1011 and 8 × 1011 respectively.
(b) Maximum usable frequency (MUF). It is that highest frequency of radio waves which when sent
at some angle towards the ionosphere, gets reflected from that and returns to the earth.

c
Quantitatively, MUF = = c sec i
cos i
where i is the angle between normal and the direction of incidence of waves. The frequency normally used
for ionosphere transmission is known as optimum working frequency (OWF), which is taken to be 15%
of MUF.
(c) Skip distance. It is the smallest distance between the transmitting antenna and the point R where the
sky wave of a fixed frequency, but not more than critical frequency is first received after reflection from
ionosphere. In Fig.15, OR1 = skip distance. If the angle of incidence of sky wave on the layer of ionosphere
is large, then after reflection they will be reaching the earth at longer distance from the transmitting
antenna. It means, the larger is the angle of incidence of sky wave, the greater is the value of skip distance
on the surface of earth. This shows that the transmission path of sky waves is limited by the skip
distance. The skip distance is given by the relation

2
  max 
Dskip = 2h   1

 c 

where h is the height of reflecting layer of atmosphere, max is the maximum frequency of electromagnetic
waves and c is the critical frequency for that layer of ionosphere.
Note. Skip zone in radio communication is that range where there is no reception of either ground wave of
sky wave.
(d) Fading. It is the variation in the strength of a signal at a receiver due to interference of waves. Fading
is more at high frequencies. Fading causes an error in data transmission and retrieval.
 The signals received due to sky wave propagation are subjected to fading in which the strength of the
signal varies with time. It is so because, at the receiver, a large number of waves reach, following different
number of paths.
(e) Refractive index  of a layer in sky wave propagation is given by

81.45 N
 = 1
2
where N is the number density of electrons/m3 of the layer of atmosphere under study and  is the frequency
of electromagnetic wave in Hz).
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the layer of atmosphere under study is given by

81.45 N
r = 1 –
2
17. RELATION BETWEEN COVERAGE DISTANCE AND HEIGHT OF TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
Suppose PQ is a T.V. transmitting angenna of height h located at P on the surface of earth. Due to finite
curvature of earth, the T.V. signal transmitted from Q cannot be received beyond the tangent points T and S
on earth (Fig.16). The effective reception range of the T.V. broadcast is essential the region from S to T on
earth which is covered by the line of sight during T.V. transmission.
Let SP = TP = d (distance to the horizon). This distance is limited by the curvature of earth. Therefore, the
T.V. signals will be received on earth in a circle of radius d.
Here, R = radius of earth = OS = OT = OP ; PQ = h
and OQ = OP + PQ = R + h
In right angled triangle QPS
SQ2 = SP2 + PQ2 + d2 + h2
In right angled triangle OSQ
OQ2 = OS2 + SQ2 or (R + h)2 = R2 + (d2 + h2)

or R2 + 2hR + h2 = R2 + d2 + h2 or 2 h R = d2 or d = 2h R

For T.V. signals, area covered =  d2 =  2 R h

Population covered = population density × area covered

d d
S T
90º 90º
R
R R

EARTH
O
 EXERCISE-1
Q.1 A digital signal –
(A) is less reliable than analog signal (B) is more reliable than analog signal
(C) is equally reliable as the analog signal (D) none of the above
Q.2 Modern communication systems use –
(A) analog circuits (B) digital circuits
(C) combination of analog and digital circuits (D) none of the above
Q.3 The audio signal –
(A) can be sent directly over the air for large distance
(B) cannot be sent directly over the air for large distance
(C) possess very high frequency
(D) none of the above
Q.4 The process of changing some characteristic of a carrier wave in accordance with the intensity of the
signal is called –
(A) amplification (B) rectification (C) modulation (D) none of these
Q.5 If a carrier wave of 1000 kHz is used to carry the signal, the length of transmitting antenna will be equal
to –
(A) 3 m (B) 30 m (C) 300 m (D) 3000 m
Q.6 The types of modulation which are possible, are –
(A) one only (B) two only (C) three only (D) none of these
Q.7 In amplitude modulation –
(A) only the amplitude is changed but frequency remains same
(B) both the amplitude and frequency change equally
(C) both the amplitude and frequency change unequally
(D) none the these
Q.8 Modulation factor determines –
(A) only the strength of the transmitted signal (B) only the quality of the transmitted signal
(C) both the strength and quality of the signal (D) none of the above
Q.9 Degree of modulation –
(A) can take any value (B) should be less than 100%
(C) should exceed 100% (D) none of these
Q.10 If the maximum and minimum voltage of an AM wave are V max. and Vmin. respectively then modulation
factor –

Vmax . Vmin . Vmax .  Vmin . Vmax .  Vmin .

(A) m = (B) m = (C) m = (D) m =
Vmax .  Vmin . Vmax .  Vmin . Vmax .  Vmin . Vmax .  Vmin .

Q.11 The AM wave contains three frequencies, viz.:

fc fc  fs fc – fs
(A) , , (B) 2 fc 2( fc + fs), 2(fc – fs) (C) fc, ( fc + fs), (fc – fs) (D) fc, fc, fc
2 2 2
Q.12 In AM wave, carrier power is given by –

2E c2 E2 E2 Ec2
(A) Pc = (B) Pc = c (C) Pc = c (D) Pc =
R R 2R 2R
Q.13 Fraction of total power carried by side bands is given by –
Ps Ps 1 Ps 2  m2 Ps m2
(A) P = m2 (B) P = 2 (C) P = (D) PT =
T T m T m2 2  m2
Q.14 Which of the following is/are the limitations of amplitude modulation?
(A) Clear reception (B) High efficiency (C) Small operating range (D) Good audio quality
Q.15 What is the frequency above which radiation of electrical energy is parctical ?
(A) 0.2 kHz (B) 2kHz (C) 20 kHz (D) 20kHz
Q.16 What type of modulation is employed in India for radio transmission ?
(A) Pulse modulation (B) Frequency modulation
(C) Amplitude modulation (D) None of these
Q.17 For a carrier frequency of 100 kHz and a modulating frequency of 5 kHz what is the width of AM
transmission -
(A) 5 kHz (B) 10 kHz (C) 20 kHz (D) 200 KHz
Q.18 Which one of the following subsystems is used for satellite's orbit position and altitude ?
(A) Thrust subsystem (B) Power subsystem (C) Antenna subsystem (D) Stabilization subsystem
Q.19 Intelsat satellite works as a:
(A) transmitter (B) repeater (C) absorber (D) none of these
Q.20 Intelsat satellite is used for :
(A) radio communication (B) intercontinental communication
(C) radar communication (D) none of the above
Q.21 A geo-synchronous satellite is :
(A) located at a height of 35,860 km to ensure global coverage
(B)appears staionary over the earth's magnetic pole
(C) not really staionary at all, but orbits the earth within 24 hrs
(D) motionless in space (except for its spin)
Q.22 The frequency band used for rader relay-systems and television -
(A) UHF (B) VLF (C) VHF (D) EHF
Q.23 Fading applies to :
(A) troposcatter propagation (B) ionospheric propagation
(C) Faraday rotation (D) atmospheric storms
Q.24 When microwave signals follow the curvature of earth, this is known as :
(A) window (B) the Faraday effect (C) ionospheric reflection (D) ducting
Q.25 In which of the region of earth's atmosphere temperature decreases with height ?
(A) Ionosphere (B) Stratosphere (C) Troposphere (D) Mesosphere

ANSWER KEY

Q .N o . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A ns . B B B C C C A C B D C C D
Q .N o . 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
A ns . C C C B A B B C A A D C
 EXERCISE-2
Q.1 Polarization in electromagnetic wave is caused by -
(A) reflection (B) refraction
(C) transverse nature of e.m. waves (D) longitudinal nature of e.m. waves
Q.2 The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a dielectric medium (r = 4) is -
(A) 3 × 108 metre/second (B) 1.5 × 108 metre/second
(C) 6 × 108 metre/second (D) 7.5 × 107 metre/second
Q.3 An 'antenna' is -
(A) inductive (B) capacitative
(C) resistive above its resonance frequency (D) none of the above
Q.4 The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission line is given by -

(A) Z0 = LC (B) Z0 = L / C (C) Z0 = C / L (D) Z0 = LC

Q.5 The Q of a resonant transmission line is -

 R L L
(A) Q = (B) Q = (C) Q = (D) Q =
LR L R R
Q.6 The distance between consecutive maxima and minima is given by -
(A)  / 2 (B) 2  (C)  (D)  / 4
Q.7 Through which mode of propagation, the radiowaves can be sent from one place to another -
(A) Ground wave propagation (B) Sky wave propagation
(C) Space wave propagation (D) All of them
Q.8 The frequencies of electromagnetic waves employed in space communication vary over a range of -
(A) 104 Hz to 107 Hz (B) 104 Hz to 1011 Hz (C) 1 Hz to 104 Hz (D) 1 Hz to 1011 Hz
Q.9 The wavelength of electromagnetic waves employed for space communication lie in the range of -
(A) 1 mm to 30 m (B) 1 mm to 300 m (C) 1 mm to 3 km (D) 1 mm to 30 km
Q.10 The radiowaves of frequency 300 MHz to 3000 MHz belongs to -
(A) High frequency band (B) Very high frequency band
(C) Ultra high frequency band (D) Super high frequency band
Q.11 The maximum range of ground or surface wave propagation depends on -
(A) the frequency of the radiowaves only (B) power of the transmitter only
(C) both of them (D) none of them
Q.12 In which frequencies range space waves are normally propagated -
(A) HF (B) VHF (C) UHF (D) SHF
Q.13 For television broadcasting, the frequency employed is normally -
(A) 30 – 300 M Hz (B) 30 – 300 G Hz (C) 30 – 300 K Hz (D) 30 – 300 Hz
Q.14 The sound waves after being converted into electrical waves are not transmitted as such because -
(A) they travel with the speed of sound
(B) the frequency is not constant
(C) they are heavily absorbed by the atmosphere
(D) the height of antenna has to be increased several times
Q.15 The process of superimposing signal frequency (i.e. audio wave) on the carrier wave is known as -
(A) transmission (B) reception (C) modulation (D) detection
Q.16 In an amplitude modulated wave for audio-frequency of 500 cycles/second, the appropriate carrier frequency
will be -
(A) 50 cycles/sec (B) 100 cycles/sec (C) 500 cycles/sec (D) 50,000 cycles/sec
Q.17 The T.V. transmission tower in Delhi has a height of 240 m. The distance up to which the broadcast can
be received, (taking the radius of earth to be 6.4 × 106 m) is -
(A) 100 km (B) 60 km (C) 55 km (D) 50 km
Q.18 Radio waves of constant amplitude can be generated with -
(A) Filter (B) Rectifier (C) FET (D) Oscillator

Q.19 Range of frequencies allotted for commercial FM radio broadcast is -

(A) 88 to 108 MHz (B) 88 to 108 kHz (C) 8 to 88 MHz (D) 88 to 108 GHz
Q.20 Intelset satellite works as a -
(A) transmitter (B) receiver (C) absorber (D) repeater
Q.21 The space waves which are affected seriously by atmospheric conditions are -
(A) MF (B) HF (C) VHF (D) UHF
Q.22 A sky wave with a frequency 55 MHz is incident on D-region of earth's atmosphere at 45°. The angle of
refraction is (electron density for D-region is 400 electron/c.c.) -
(A) 60° (B) 45° (C) 30° (D) 15°
Q.23 A T.V. tower has a height 150 m. What is the population density around the T.V. tower if the total
population covered is 50 lakh ?
(Radius of earth = 6.4 × 106 m)
(A) 82.6 km–2 (B) 800.6 km–2 (C) 828.6 km–2 (D) 876.6 km–2
Q.24 Calculate the phase velocity of electromagnetic wave having electron density and frequency for D layer,
N = 400 electron/cc,  = 300 kHz -
(A) 3 ×108 m/s (B) 3.75 × 108 m/s (C) 6.8 × 108 m/s (D) 1.1 × 109 m/s
Q.25 Which of the following is not transducer ?
(A) Loudspeaker (B) Amplifier (C) Microphone (D) All of these

A N SW E R

Que s. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. C D A B C D D B D C C C A C C D C D A D
Que s. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. D B C B B
 EXERCISE-3
Statement Type Question

Q.1 Statement I : Surface wave and sky wave can not be observed on moon.
Statement II : Atmosphere of variable refractive index is require for propagation of surface & sky wave.
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is not the correct explanation of Statement-1.
(C) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
(D) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false.
Passage Based Questions (Q.No- 2 To 4) [AIEEE- 2009]
Both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) are used for radio broadcasting. The
amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied or modulated in accordance with the variations in
the amplitude of the audio signals that are to be transmitted, in the process of amplitude modulation. In
frequency modulation the amplitude of the carrier remains constant but its frequency is varied in accordance
with the audio signal. Reception with AM signals is in general affected by interference of various kinds and
elaborate equipment is required for FM broadcast.
Q.2 In India, the radio signals are braodcast using -
(A) AM signals only
(B) AM signals and FM. signals all over the country
(C) AM signals at most of the stations and FM. signals at a few selected stations
(D) FM signals only
Q.3 The range of a transmitter is -
(A) less for low frequencies
(B) same for all frequencies
(C) less for high frequencies
(D) None of these
Q.4 A radio frequency carrier wave can be modulated using a -
(A) diode (B) triode (C) diode or a triode (D) none of the abvoe
Q.5 If a source of power 4 kW produces 1020 photons/sec, the radiation belong to a part of the spectrum
called- [AIEEE- 2010]
(A) X–rays (B) ultraviolet rays (C) microwaves (D) g–rays

Q.6 This question has Statement – 1 and Statement – 2. Of the four choices given after the state
ments, choose the one that best describes the two statements. [AIEEE- 2011]
Statement-1 : Sky wave signals are used for long distance radio communication. These signals are in
general, less stable than ground wave signals.
Statement-2 : The state of ionosphere varies from hour to hour, day to day and season to season.

Q.7 A radar has a power of 1 kW and is operating at a frequency of 10 GHz. It is located on a mountain top of height
500 m. The maximum distance upto which it can detect object located on the surface of the earth (Radius of
earth = 6.4 × 106 m) is- [AIEEE 2012]
(A) 16 km (B) 40 km (C) 64 km (D) 80 km

ANSWER KEY
Ques. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. A C C B A A D