Nervous System

The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. Every thought,
action, and emotion reflects its activity. Its signaling device, or means of communicating with body
cells, is electrical impulses, which are rapid and specific and cause almost immediate responses.

Function of Urinary System

1. Monitoring changes
Much like a sentry, it uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring both
inside and outside the body; these changes are called stimuli, and the gathered information is called
sensory input.
2. Interpretation of sensory input
It processes and interprets the sensory input and decides what should be done at each moment, a
process called integration.
3. Effects responses
It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output.
4. Mental activity
The brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness, thinking, and memory.
5. Homeostasis
This function depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect, interpret, and respond to
changes in the internal and external conditions. It can help stimulate or inhibit the activities of
other systems to help maintain a constant internal environment.

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 Anatomy of the Nervous System
The nervous system does not work alone to regulate and maintain body homeostasis; the endocrine
system is a second important regulating system.

Organization of the Nervous System

We only have one nervous system, but, because of its complexity, it is difficult to consider all of its
parts at the same time; so, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its structures (structural
classification) or in terms of its activities (functional classification).

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 Structural Classification
The structural classification, which includes all of the nervous system organs, has two subdivisions- the
central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, The PNS, the part of the nervous system
which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as outside the CNS, consists mainly of the
the integrating and command centers of the nerves that extend from the brain and
nervous system spinal cord.

Central and Peripheral Nervous System

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 Functional Classification
The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures.

Sensory division

The sensory, or afferent division, consists of nerves (composed of nerve fibers) that convey
impulses to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located in various parts of the
body.

Somatic sensory fibers

Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic
sensory fibers.

Visceral sensory fibers

Those that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral sensory fibers.

Motor division

The motor, or efferent division carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles and
glands; the motor division has two subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic
nervous system.
Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary; this subdivision,
commonly called involuntary nervous system, has two parts: the sympathetic and parasympathetic,
which typically bring about opposite effects.

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 Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function
Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of cells- supporting
cells and neurons.

Supporting cells
Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together” as neuroglia, literally mean “nerve glue”.

Neuroglia
Neuroglia include many types of cells that generally support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons;
in addition, each of the different types of neuroglia, also simply called either glia or glial cells,has
special functions.

Astrocytes
These are abundant, star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of the neural tissue; astrocytes
form a living barrier between the capillaries and neurons and play a role in making exchanges
between the two so they could help protect neurons from harmful substances that might be in the
blood.

Microglia
These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria.

Ependymal cells
Ependymal cells are glial cells that line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord; the
beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and forms
a protective cushion around the CNS.

Oligodendrocytes
These are glia that wrap their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.

Schwann cells
Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are found in the PNS.

Satellite cells
Satellite cells act as protective, cushioning cells
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 Neurons
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one
part of the body to another.

Cell body
The cell body is the metabolic center of the
neuron; it has a transparent nucleus with a
conspicuous nucleolus; the rough ER, called
Nissl substance, and neurofibrils are
particularly abundant in the cell body.

Processes
The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to 3 to 4 feet; dendrons convey
incoming messages toward the cell body, while axons generate nerve impulses and typically conduct them
away from the cell body.
Axon hillock
Neurons may have hundreds of the branching dendrites, depending on the neuron type, but each neuron
has only one axon, which arises from a conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock.
Axon terminals
These terminals contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or membranous sacs that contain neurotransmitters.
Synaptic cleft
Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap called synaptic cleft.
Myelin sheaths
Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material called myelin, which has a waxy
appearance; myelin protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses.
Nodes of Ranvier
Because the myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells, it has gaps, or indentations,
called nodes of Ranvier.

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 Classifications
Neurons may be classified either according to how they function or according to their structure.

Functional classification
Functional classification groups neurons according to the direction the nerve impulse is traveling
relative to the CNS; on this basis, there are sensory, motor, and association neurons.

Sensory neurons
Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS are sensory, or afferent, neurons;
sensory neurons keep us informed about what is happening both inside and outside the body.

Motor neurons
Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands are motor, or
efferent, neurons.

Interneurons
The third category of neurons is known as the interneurons, or association neurons; they connect the
motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways.

Structural classification
Structural classification is based on the number of processes extending from the cell body.

Multipolar neuron
Types of Neurons
If there are several processes, the neuron is
a multipolar neuron; because all motor and
association neurons are multipolar, this is
the most common structural type.

Bipolar neurons
Neurons with two processes- an axon and
a dendrite- are called bipolar neurons;
these are rare in adults, found only in
some special sense organs, where they act
in sensory processing as receptor cells.

Unipolar neurons
Unipolar neurons have a single process emerging from the cell’s body, however, it is very short and
divides almost immediately into proximal (central) and distal (peripheral) processes.

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 Central Nervous System
During embryonic development, the CNS first appears as a simple tube, the neural tube, which extends
down the dorsal median plan of the developing embryo’s body.
Brain
Because the brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body, it is commonly
discussed in terms of its four major regions – cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and
cerebellum.

Cerebral Hemispheres
The paired cerebral hemispheres, collectively called cerebrum, are the most superior part of the brain,
and together are a good deal larger than the other three brain regions combined.

Gyri
The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of tissue called gyri,
separated by shallow grooves called sulci.
Fissures
Less numerous are the deeper grooves of tissue called fissures, which separate large regions of the
brain; the cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure, the longitudinal fissure.
Lobes
Other fissures or sulci divide each hemisphere into a number of lobes, named for the cranial bones
that lie over them.

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Regions of cerebral hemisphere
Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic regions: a superficial cortex of gray matter, an internal white
matter, and the basal nuclei.
Cerebral cortex
Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, as well as consciousness, interpretation of sensation,
and voluntary movement are all functions of neurons of the cerebral cortex.
Parietal lobe
The primary somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus;
impulses traveling from the body’s sensory receptors are localized and interpreted in this area.
Occipital lobe
The visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe.
Temporal lobe
The auditory area is in the temporal lobe bordering the lateral sulcus, and the olfactory area
is found deep inside the temporal lobe.
Frontal lobe
The primary motor area, which allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles, is anterior
to the central sulcus in the front lobe.
Pyramidal tract
The axons of these motor neurons form the major voluntary motor tract- the corticospinal or
pyramidal tract, which descends to the cord.
Broca’s area
A specialized cortical area that is very involved in our ability to speak, Broca’s area, is found at the
base of the precentral gyrus (the gyrus anterior to the central sulcus).
Speech area
The speech area is located at the junction of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes; the speech
area allows one to sound out words.
Cerebral white matter
The deeper cerebral white matter is compose of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, and within
the cortex.
Corpus callosum
One very large fiber tract, the corpus callosum, connect the cerbral hemispheres; such fiber
tracts are called commisures.

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Fiber tracts
Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere, and projection fiber tracts connect the
cerebrum with lower CNS centers.
Basal nuclei

There are several islands of gray matter, called the basal nuclei, or basal ganglia, buried deep within
the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres; it helps regulate the voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the primary motor cortex.

Diencephalon
The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
Thalamus
The thalamus, which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a relay station for sensory
impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an important autonomic nervous
system center because it plays a role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and
metabolism; it is also the center for many drives and emotions, and as such, it is an important part
of the so-called limbic system or “emotional-visceral brain”; the hypothalamus also regulates the
pituitary gland and produces two hormones of its own.
Mammillary bodies
The mammillary bodies, reflex centers involved in olfaction (the sense of smell), bulge from the
floor of the hypothalamus posterior to the pituitary gland.
Epithalamus
The epithalamus forms the roof of the third ventricle; important parts of the epithalamus are the
pineal body (part of the endocrine system) and the choroid plexus of the third ventricle, which
forms the cerebrospinal fluid.

Brain Stem
The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches long.
Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
Midbrain
The midbrain extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly; it is composed of two
bulging fiber tracts, the cerebral peduncles, which convey descending and ascending impulses.

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 Corpora quadrigemina
Dorsally located are four rounded protrusions called the corpora quadrigemina because they
remind some anatomist of two pairs of twins; these bulging nuclei are reflex centers involved
in vision and hearing.
Pons
The pons is a rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain, and this area of the brain
stem is mostly fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei involved in the control of
breathing.
Medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem; it contains nuclei that regulate
vital visceral activities; it contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing,
swallowing, and vomiting among others.

Reticular formation
Extending the entire length of the brain stem is a diffuse mass of gray matter, the reticular
formation; the neurons of the reticular formation are involved in motor control of the visceral
organs; a special group of reticular formation neurons, the reticular activating system (RAS), plays a
role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles.

Cerebellum
The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum.
Like the cerebrum. the cerebellum has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface; it also has an outer
cortex made up of gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
The cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and
equilibrium.
Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear, the eye, the
proprioceptors of the skeletal muscles and tendons, and many other areas.

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 Protection of the Central Nervous System
Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the slightest
pressure, so nature has tried to protect the brain and the spinal cord by enclosing them within bone (the
skull and vertebral column), membranes (the meninges), and a watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid).

Meninges
The three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS structures are the meninges

Dura mater
The outermost layer, the leathery dura
mater, is a double layered membrane where it
surrounds the brain; one of its layer is
attached to the inner surface of the skull,
forming the periosteum (periosteal layer); the
other, called the meningeal layer, forms the
outermost covering of the brain and continues
as the dura mater of the spinal cord.

Falx cerebri
In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward to form a fold that attaches the brain to the
cranial cavity, and one of these folds is the falx cerebri.

Tentorium cerebelli
The tentorium cereberi separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum.
Arachnoid mater
The middle layer is the weblike arachnoid mater; its threadlike extensions span the subarachnoid space
to attach it to the innermost membrane.
Pia mater
The delicate pia mater, the innermost meningeal layer, clings tightly to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord, following every fold.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood plasma, from which it forms.
The CSF contains less protein and more vitamin C, and glucose.
CSF is continually formed from blood by the choroid plexuses; choroid plexuses are clusters of capillaries
hanging from the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles.
The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous tissue
from blows and other trauma.
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CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal pressure and volume (150 ml-about half a
cup) are maintained.
The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a procedure called lumbar or spinal tap;because the
withdrawal of fluid for testing decreases CSF fluid pressure, the patient must remain in a horizontal
position (lying down) for 6 to 12 hours after the procedure to prevent an agonizingly painful “spinal
headache”.

The Blood-Brain Barrier

No other body organ is so absolutely dependent on a constant internal environment as is the brain, and
so the blood-brain barrier is there to protect it.
The neurons are kept separated from bloodborne substances by the so-called blood-brain barrier,
composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body.
Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily through the
walls of these capillaries.
Metabolic wastes, such as toxins, urea, proteins, and most drugs are prevented from entering the brain
tissue.
The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble
molecules that diffuse easily through all plasma membranes.

Spinal Cord
The cylindrical spinal cord is a glistening white continuation
of the brain stem.
The spinal cord is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to
and from the brain, and it is a major reflex center (spinal
reflexes are completed at this level).
Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord extends
from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second
lumbar vertebra, where it ends just below the ribs.
Meninges
Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and protected by the meninges; meningeal coverings do
not end at the second lumbar vertebra but instead extend well beyond the end of the spinal cord in
the vertebral canal.
Spinal nerves
In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and exit from the vertebral column to serve
the body area close by.
Cauda equina
The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral canal is called cauda equina because
it looks so much like a horse’s tail.
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 Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or a letter H in cross section.

Projections
The two posterior projections are the dorsal, or posterior, horns; the two anterior projections are the
ventral, or anterior, horns.
Central canal
The gray matter surrounds the central canal of the cord, which contains CSF.
Dorsal root ganglion
The cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose fibers enter the cord by the dorsal root, are found in an
enlarged area called dorsal root ganglion; if the dorsal root or its ganglion is damaged, sensation
from the body area served will be lost.

Dorsal horns
The dorsal horns contain interneurons.
Ventral horns
The ventral horns of gray matter contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic nervous system,
which send their axons out the ventral root of the cord.
Spinal nerves
The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the spinal nerves.

White Matter of the Spinal Cord

White matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fiber tracts- some running to higher
centers, some traveling from the brain to the cord, and some conducting impulses from one side of
the spinal cord to the other.
Because of the irregular shape of the gray matter, the white matter on each side of the cord is
divided into three regions- the dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns; each of the columns contains a
number of fiber tracts made up of axon with the same destination and function.

Sensory tracts
Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain are sensory, or afferent, tracts.
Motor tracts
Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal muscles are motor, or efferent, tracts.

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 Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and scattered groups of neuronal cell bodies
(ganglia) found outside the CNS.

Structure of a Nerve
A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS.

Endoneurium Mixed nerves

Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate Nerves carrying both sensory and
connective tissue sheath, an endoneurium. motor fibers are called mixed nerves.

Perimeurium Sensory nerves

Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser Nerves that carry impulses toward the CNS
connective tissue wrapping, the perineurium, to only are called sensory, or afferent, nerves.
form fiber bundles, or fascicles.
Motor nerves
Epineurium
Those that carry only motor fibers are
Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a
motor, or efferent, nerves.
tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to form the
cordlike nerve.
Cranial Nerves
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and the neck.

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Olfactory
Fibers arise from the olfactory receptors in the nasal mucosa and synapse with the olfactory bulbs; its
function is purely sensory, and it carries impulses for the sense of smell.
Optic
Fibers arise from the retina of the eye and form the optic nerve; its function is purely sensory, and
carries impulses for vision.

Oculomotor
Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to four of the six muscles (superior,
inferior, and medial rectus, and inferior oblique) that direct the eyeball; to the eyelid; and to the
internal eye muscles controlling lens shape and pupil size.
Trochlear
Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers for one external eye muscle ( superior
oblique).
Trigeminal
Fibers emerge from the pons and form three divisions that run to the face; it conducts sensory
impulses from the skin of the face and mucosa of the nose and mouth; also contains motor fibers
that activate the chewing muscles.

Abducens
Fibers leave the pons and run to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscle, which
rolls the eye laterally.

Facial
Fibers leave the pons and run to the face; it activates the muscles of facial expression and the
lacrimal and salivary glands; carries sensory impulses from the taste buds of the anterior tongue.

Vestibulocochlear
fibers run from the equilibrium and hearing receptors of the inner ear to the brain stem; its function
is purely sensory; vestibular branch transmits impulses for the sense of balance, and cochlear branch
transmits impulses for the sense of hearing.

Glossopharyngeal
Fibers emerge from the medulla and run to the throat; it supplies motor fibers to the pharynx
(throat) that promote swallowing and saliva production; it carries sensory impulses from the taste
buds of the posterior tongue and from pressure receptors of the carotid artery.

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 Vagus
Fibers emerge from the medulla and descend into the thorax and abdominal cavity; the fibers carry
sensory impulses from and motor impulses to the pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera;
most motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers that promote digestive activity and help regulate heart
activity.
Accessory
Fiber arise from the medulla and superior spinal cord and travel to muscles of the neck and back;
mostly motor fiber that activate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

Hypoglossal
Fibers run from the medulla to the tongue; motor fibers control tongue movements;; sensory fibers
carry impulses from the tongue.

Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of
the spinal cord.

Rami
Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami, making
each spinal nerve only about 1/2 inch long; the rami contains both sensory and motor fibers.
Dorsal rami
The smaller dorsal rami serve the skin and muscles of the posterior body trunk.
Ventral rami
The ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 through T12 form the intercostal nerves, which supply the
muscles between the ribs and the skin and muscles of the anterior and lateral trunk.
Cervical plexus
The cervical plexus originates from the C1-C5, and phrenic nerve is an important nerve; it serves
the diaphragm, and skin and muscles of the shoulder and neck.
Brachial plexus
The axillary nerve serve the deltoid muscles and skin of the shoulder, muscles, and skin of superior
thorax; the radial nerve serves the triceps and extensor muscles of the forearm, and the skin of the
posterior upper limb; the median nerve serves the flexor muscles and skin of the forearm and some
muscles of the hand; the musculocutaneous nerve serves the flexor muscles of arm and the skin of the
lateral forearm; and the ulnar nerve serves some flexor muscles of forearm; wrist and many hand
muscles, and the skin of the hand.

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Lumbar plexus
The femoral nerve serves the lower abdomen, anterior and medial thigh muscles, and the skin of
the anteromedial leg and thigh; the obturator nerve serves the adductor muscles of the medial
thigh and small hip muscles, and the skin of the medial thigh and hip joint.
Sacral plexus
The sciatic nerve (largest nerve in the body) serves the lower trunk and posterior surface of the thigh,
and it splits into the common fibular and tibial nerves; the common fibular nerve serves the lateral
aspect of the leg and foot, while the tibial nerve serves the posterior aspect of leg and foot; the
superior and inferior gluteal nerves serve the gluteal muscles of the hip.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body activities
automatically.
It is composed of a specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and
glands.
At every moment, signals flood from the visceral organs into the CNS, and the automatic nerves make
adjustments as necessary to best support body activities.
The ANS has two arms: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

The parasympathetic division allows us to “unwind” and conserve energy.

Preganglionic neurons
The preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division are located in brain nuclei of several cranial
nerves- III, VII, IX, and X (the vagus being the most important of these) and in the S2 through S4 levels
of the spinal cord.
Craniosacral division
The parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral division; the neurons of the cranial region
send their axons out in cranial nerves to serve the head and neck organs.
Pelvic splanchnic nerves
In the sacral region, the preganglionic axons leave the spinal cord and form the pelvic splanchnic
nerves, also called the pelvic nerves, which travel to the pelvic cavity.

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 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during extreme situations, and is also called the
thoracolumbar division because its preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the spinal cord
from T1 through L2.

Ramus communicans
The preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root, enter the spinal nerve, and then pass
through a ramus communicans, or small communicating branch, to enter a sympathetic chain ganglion.

Sympathetic chain
The sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies along the vertebral column on each side.

Splanchnic nerves.
After it reaches the ganglion, the axon may synapse with the second neuron in the sympathetic chain
at the same or a different level, or the axon may through the ganglion without synapsing and form
part of the splanchnic nerves.
Collateral ganglion
The splanchnic nerves travel to the viscera to synapse with the ganglionic neuron, found in a collateral
ganglion anterior to the vertebral column.

Physiology of the Nervous System

Nerve Impulse
Neurons have two major functional properties: irritability, the ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it into a nerve impulse, and conductivity, the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons,
muscles, or glands.

Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane

The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, neuron is polarized, which means that there are fewer
positive ions sitting on the inner face of the neuron’s plasma membrane than there are on its outer
surface; as long as the inside remains more negative than the outside, the neuron will stay inactive.

Action potential initiation and generation

Most neuron in the body are excited by neurotransmitters released by other neurons; regardless what
the stimulus is, the result is always the same- the permeability properties of the cell’s plasma membrane
change for a very brief period.

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Repolarization
Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane permeability changes again, restoring the
negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface;
repolarization occurs in the same direction as depolarization.

Communication of Neurons at Synapses

Arrival The action potential arrives at the axon terminal.

Fusion The vesicle fuses with plasma membrane.

Release Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft.

Binding Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on receiving neuron’s end.

Opening The ion channel opens

Closing Once the neurotransmitter is broken down and released, the ion
channel close.

Autonomic Functioning
Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions.

When both divisions serve the same organ, they cause antagonistic
Antagonistic effect
effects, mainly because their post ganglionic axons release different
transmitters.
Cholinergic fibers The parasympathetic fibers called cholinergic fibers, release
acetylcholine.

Adrenergic fibers The sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic fibers,

release norepinephrine.

Preganglionic axons
The preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine.

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 Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division is often referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system.
the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; dilates
the bronchioles of the lungs; and brings about many other effects that help the individual cope with the
stressor.
The effects of sympathetic nervous system activation continue for several minutes until its hormones
are destroyed by the liver.
Its function is to provide the best conditions for responding to some threat, whether the best response
is to run, to see better, or to think more clearly.
Signs of sympathetic nervous system activities

pounding heart; rapid, deep breathing; cold, sweaty skin; a prickly scalp, and dilated pupils are sure
signs sympathetic nervous system activities.

Parasympathetic Division
The parasympathetic division is most active when the body is at rest and not threatened in any way.
This division, sometimes called the “resting-and-digesting” system, is chiefly concerned with promoting
normal digestion, with elimination of feces and urine, and with conserving body energy, particularly by
decreasing demands on the cardiovascular system.

Relaxed state
Blood pressure and heart and respiratory rates rate being regulated at normal levels, the digestive
tract is actively digesting food, and the skin is warm (indicating that there is no need to divert blood
to skeletal muscles or vital organs.
Optical state
The eye pupils are constricted to protect the retinas from excessive damaging light, and the lenses
of the eye are “set” for close vision.

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