Title: Ferrous Metals (6.

2)

 Ferrous Metals are iron-based metals and alloys known for their tensile strength and durability.
 They are commonly used in construction, large-scale piping, and industrial containers.
 Key properties of ferrous metals:
Good conductor of electricity.
Recyclable, making them environmentally friendly.
Silver-like color.
 Ferrous metals include steel, cast iron, and alloys of iron with other metals like stainless steel.
 Various types of ferrous metals have been developed over time to meet the specific requirements of different
industries.
 Ongoing progress and enhancements in ferrous metal technology.
 Recent decades have seen the emergence of fresh variations and even categories of ferrous metals.
 Steel is magnetic, which facilitates its separation and recovery from demolished buildings, junked automobiles, and
discarded appliances.

Title: Iron (6.3)

 Iron is a bright white metal that is lustrous, ductile, malleable, and silver-gray in appearance.
 It is the most abundant metal on Earth, with a significant portion of the Earth's core believed to be composed of iron.
 Pure iron is susceptible to rapid corrosion when exposed to humid air and elevated temperatures.
 The use of iron dates back over 5,000 years.
 Iron is ranked as the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust but is not commonly found in its metallic form.
 It typically appears in mineral compounds, called ores, with iron oxides combined with accompanying impurities being
the most common.
 The process of obtaining metallic iron from these ores involves breaking iron-oxygen bonds.
 Smelting Process:
 Impurities in the starting ore, including other oxides, are reduced in the furnace.
 Most of the phosphorous and manganese are absorbed by the melted iron.
 Silicon and sulfur oxides are partially reduced and end up in the final metal.
 Unwanted elements like calcium, magnesium, and aluminum are collected in the slag made from limestone and
mostly removed from the process.

Pig Iron:
 Pig iron is an alloy composed of iron, carbon, manganese, and silicon, with sulfur and phosphorous as impurities.
 It is produced through the smelting process, combining iron ore with high-carbon fuel and reducing agents like coke,
with the addition of limestone as a flux.
 Pig iron serves as a foundational material in steel production, with high iron content and minimal residual elements.
 It is used in various steelmaking furnaces and foundries to create high-quality iron and steel products.
 A portion of liquid pig iron is directly molded into its final shape (cast iron), while the larger portion undergoes further
processing to become steel.
 Most commercially available cast irons are made by using recycled iron and steel materials, along with newly
produced pig iron.

Title: Steel (6.4)

 Steel is a versatile engineering material known for its strength, rigidity, and durability.
 It offers formability, joinability, paintability, and repairability.
 Steel production involves removing elements (carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorous, sulfur) from pig iron and old
steel by exposing them to air or oxygen.

Solidification Concerns:

 Hot liquid metal is placed in ladles for "ladle metallurgy," where it undergoes further treatment to improve its quality.
 This process involves adding different metals, reducing carbon content, and removing gases.
  The metal is heated, mixed, cleaned, and then solidified through a continuous casting process.

Deoxidation and Degasification:

 Oxygen can mix into hot liquid metal during steelmaking, forming metal oxides.
 As the metal cools, these oxides separate, affecting the quality of steel.
 Various processes like vacuum degassing, consumable-electrode remelting, vacuum arc remelting (VAR), and vacuum
induction melting (VIM) help remove gases and impurities.

Types of Steel:

 Plain-Carbon Steel:
 Low-carbon steel (less than 0.20% carbon) is easy to shape and weld.
 Medium-carbon steel (0.20% to 0.50% carbon) balances various traits.
 High-carbon steel (more than 0.50% carbon) is hard but less flexible.

Alloy Steels:

 Alloy steel contains extra elements (molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium, etc.) to enhance its properties.
 Low-alloy steel (less than 8% added elements) and high-alloy steel (more than 8% added elements).
 The strength and hardness of alloy steel are mainly influenced by its carbon content.

AISI-SAE Classification System:

 A four-digit number designates alloy steels based on their chemical composition.

 The first digit represents the steel group, the second digit indicates the main element percentage, and the third and
fourth digits together represent the carbon content.

High-Strength Steels:

 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel (HSLA) includes minor alloying elements to enhance strength, toughness, and response
to heat treatment.
 Micro alloyed steels are low-carbon steels with added elements like niobium, vanadium, titanium, and boron.
 Bake-hardening steel increases yield stress through strain-aging during a paint stoving operation.
 Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS):
AHSS includes various steel types with unique microstructures that provide exceptional strength.
 Examples include dual-phase steels (DP), transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels, complex phase (CP) steels,
martensitic (Mart) steels, and hot-forming (HF) steel.

Free-Machining Steels:

 These are carbon steels modified with additives like sulfur and lead for improved machinability.
 The additives prevent the metal from sticking to tools and improve cutting efficiency.
 Precoated Steel Sheet:
 A layer of coating is added to steel in its flat form, providing consistent thickness and enhanced adhesion.
 The coating is designed to withstand bending and shaping operations.

Steels for Electrical and Magnetic Applications:

 Soft magnetic materials are used in devices like solenoids, transformers, generators, and motors.
 Shapeless metals show potential in improving energy efficiency when used in power transformers instead of silicon
steel.

Maraging Steels:

 Maraging steel is strong as it ages, resistant to breaking, and maintains its size during heating.
 It is suitable for applications requiring both strength and resistance to size changes, such as aerospace and tool
manufacturing.
Steels for High-Temperature Service:

 Plain-carbon steels should not be used at temperatures over 250°C, while conventional alloy steels extend the limit to
around 350°C.

Title: Stainless Steels (6.5)

 Stainless steel is a strong, durable material known for its unique self-repairing properties.
 The material forms a protective layer when exposed to oxygen, making it resistant to oxidation and rust.
 Stainless steel contains a minimum of 10.5% chromium, which is essential for its corrosion resistance.

Formation of the Passivation Layer:

 When stainless steel comes into contact with air, the chromium reacts with oxygen to create a protective layer called
the passivation layer (chromium (III) oxide, Cr2O3).
 This layer acts as a shield, safeguarding the steel from oxidation.
 Even if the surface of stainless steel is scratched, the passivation layer quickly reforms to maintain protection.

Types of Stainless Steels:

1. Ferritic Stainless Steels:

 These alloys contain sufficient chromium and low carbon levels to remain in the ferrite state at temperatures below
solidification.
 They offer good corrosion resistance but tend to have limited flexibility and lower toughness.
 Ferritic stainless steels are easily weldable.

2. Martensitic Stainless Steels:

 These alloys introduce carbon and reduce chromium content to allow transformation into austenite at high
temperatures and ferrite at lower temperatures.
 Carbon dissolves in austenite, and rapid cooling traps it in a body-centered martensitic structure.

3. Austenitic Stainless Steel:

 Nickel helps maintain the austenite structure in stainless steel.
 With sufficient chromium and nickel, stainless steel retains the austenite structure even at extreme temperatures.
 Austenitic stainless steels are more expensive due to their nickel and chromium content.

4. Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steel:

 These alloys are labeled with the letters F or Se and can undergo heat treatment to achieve high tensile and yield
strengths.
 They find applications in industries requiring high strength, corrosion resistance, and moderate toughness.

5. Duplex Stainless Steel:

 Duplex stainless steel contains approximately 18% to 25% chromium, 4% to 7% nickel, and up to 4% molybdenum.
 It features two phases, austenite and ferrite, in roughly equal proportions.

Cast Stainless Steel:

 Cast stainless steel shares characteristics with mechanically shaped versions.

 Casting involves pouring molten metal into a mold, while wrought stainless steel undergoes shaping in a steel mill,
followed by further processing.
Sensitization:

 Sensitization can occur when temperature rises, leading to the development of chromium carbides along grain
boundaries.
 This results in reduced chromium content in specific areas, making them susceptible to intergranular corrosion.

Sigma Phase:

 Stainless steels with high chromium content can become brittle over extended periods at high temperatures due to
the formation of a fragile compound called the sigma phase, which covers grain boundaries.

Title: Tool Steels (6.6)

 Tool Steels are iron-based alloys known for their high toughness, yield strength, and wear resistance.
 Proper heat treatment and the addition of specific elements during manufacturing enhance their properties.
 Tool steels are essential in applications requiring tools that can withstand shock, elastic deformation, and erosion.

AISI Classification System:

 Tool steels use the AISI Classification System, which categorizes them into seven basic families.
 Each family is defined by an AISI letter and a significant feature.
 Seven Basic Families of Tool Steels (AISI Classification):
 W-Series (Water-Hardening Tool Steels)
 O-Series (Oil-Hardening Tool Steels)
 A-Series (Air-Hardening Tool Steels)
 D-Series (High Carbon-High Chromium Tool Steels)
 H-Series (Chromium Hot-Work Tool Steels)
 T-Series (Tungsten High-Speed Tool Steels)
 M-Series (Molybdenum High-Speed Tool Steels)

Key Features of Tool Steels:

 Elevated toughness: The capacity to absorb shock or impact.

 Yield strength: The ability to withstand elastic deformation.
 Wear resistance: The capacity to endure erosion between the tool steel and the material in contact.
 Important Note:
 The specific tool steel selected depends on the intended application, as different tool steels offer varying
combinations of these properties to meet specific requirements.

W-Grade Tool Steels:

 Strength and Hardness: W-grade steels are known for their strength and hardness.
 Hardenability: In their natural state, W-grade tool steels have low inherent hardenability, meaning they require a
quenching process to achieve high hardness.
 Brittleness: They can become very brittle when treated to attain higher levels of hardness, which makes them less
suitable for applications exposed to impact.

Cold-Work Tool Steels:

 Cold-work tool steels are primarily used for larger parts that require hardening or distortion to a minimum.
 These steels are considered highly important due to their versatility and wide range of tool applications.
 They exhibit high abrasion and wear resistance, toughness, and impact resistance.
 Subdivided into oil-hardening (O-grade) and air-hardening (A-grade) grades with the addition of alloy for enhanced
hardenability.
 High-chromium tool steels (D-grade) are air-hardened, containing 10%-18% chromium for wear resistance. Not
suitable for prolonged exposure to high temperatures due to a lack of alloy content.
Shock-Resisting Tool Steels (S-Grade):

 S-grade steels are used for impact applications and are known for their high toughness.
 Alloys, including silicon, chromium, and tungsten, provide moderate abrasion resistance, hardenability, and hot-work
capabilities.
 Primarily used to manufacture forming tools.

High-Speed Tool Steels:

 High-speed tool steels are used for cutting tools and applications requiring strength and hardness at temperatures
above 760°C.
 Two common members in this group are T-grade and M-grade steels.
 T-grade (Tungsten high-speed tool steels) are known for their balanced properties of shock and abrasion resistance,
with T1 being a popular alloy.
 M-grade (Molybdenum high-speed steels) are produced to attain high-speed properties, with M1 being popular for
drill bits.

Special-Purpose Tool Steels:

 Plastic Mold Steels (P-grade): Modified for zinc die casting and plastic injection molding dies. They withstand heavy
pressure and abrasive actions of molding powders.
 Low-Alloy Special-Purpose Tool Steels (L-grade): Specially designed for specific applications.
 Carbon-Tungsten (F-grade): Water-hardening steels with superior wear resistance compared to basic carbon tool
steels.

6.7 Cast Irons

Family of Cast Iron:

 Cast iron is a family of metals between alloys of iron, having over 2.0% carbon and silicon ranging between 0.5% to
3.0%. Its properties vary based on chemical composition, cooling rate, and the use of inoculants.
 Basic types of cast iron include gray, white, malleable, ductile or nodular, austempered ductile, compacted graphite,
and high-alloy.

Types of Cast Iron:

 Gray Cast Iron:

 Characterized by a graphitic microstructure, appearing gray.
 Offers compressive strength, machinability, wear resistance, and sound/vibration damping properties.
 Used in applications not requiring high strength or shock resistance.

White Cast Iron:

 Contains iron compounds called cementite, resulting in high hardness and brittleness.
 Heat treatment can transform it into malleable cast iron with improved ductility.

Malleable Cast Iron:

 Offers higher ductility than gray cast iron.

 Easily shaped for unique products.

Ductile Iron (Nodular Cast Iron):

 Alloyed to promote graphite formation and change the morphology of the graphite.
 Magnesium is added as a nodulizer.
 Provides improved properties over malleable cast iron.

Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI):

  Undergoes a special austempering heat treatment for enhanced properties.
 Provides high strength-to-weight ratio.

High-Alloy Cast Irons:

 Contains over 4% alloy content.

 Suitable for applications with temperatures between 650°C and 875°C.
 Offers enhanced corrosion resistance and/or elevated temperature service.

6.8 Cast Steel

 Cast steel is a ferrous casting alloy with less than 2.0% carbon.
 It provides enhanced stiffness, toughness, ductility, good weldability, and machinability compared to cast irons.
 Suitable for applications requiring flexibility and thermal/electrical conductivity.

6.9 The Role of Processing on Cast Irons

 Properties of cast irons and cast steels can be modified to meet specific mechanical properties and intended service
applications.
 ASTM designation numbers are used to specify these materials.

Chapter 7 - Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys

 Non-ferrous metals and alloys are not based on iron and offer properties like low weight, high conductivity, corrosion
resistance, and non-magnetism.

7.2 Copper and Copper Alloys

 Copper is a reddish-gold ductile metal with excellent electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Used in electrical, plumbing, and various industrial applications.
 Commercially pure copper (ETP) and copper-based alloys are commonly employed in various industries.

7.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys

 Aluminum is a lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal with high thermal conductivity.

 Used in a wide range of applications, particularly in aerospace and automotive industries.
 Aluminum alloys offer improved strength and processability.
 Silvery-white, soft, malleable

7.4 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

 Magnesium is a lightweight metal used as an alloying agent to improve aluminum's properties.

 Used in aerospace and automotive construction but is weaker than aluminum alloys and less corrosion-resistant.
 Silvery-white lightweight metal, easily ignites in air (used in fireworks).

7.5 Zinc and Zinc Alloys

 Zinc is used in galvanizing other metals, like iron, to prevent rusting.

 It's highly resistant to corrosion and is used in outdoor applications.
 Silvery-white metal with blue tinge

7.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

 Titanium is strong, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant (used in boats and structures for oceans).
 Ideal for aerospace and medical applications like implants and prosthetics.
 Titanium alloys – used in spacecraft as it can withstand high temperatures while not being dense.

7.7 Nickel-based Alloys

 Nickel is a versatile metal known for its corrosion resistance and strength.
  Used in various applications, including kitchen appliances and boat turbines.

7.8 Superalloys, Refractory Metals, and Other Materials for High-Temperature Service

 Superalloys, refractory metals, and materials like tungsten, tantalum, rhenium, molybdenum, and niobium provide
high-temperature resistance for applications like jet engines.

7.9 Lead and Tin and Their Alloys

 Lead is added to copper alloys for pressure-tightness and machinability.

 Lead-free alternatives like bismuth and selenium are used due to health and environmental concerns.

7.10 Some Lesser-Known Metals and Alloys

 Beryllium, hafnium, thorium, zirconium, and rare earth metals serve specific purposes in nuclear applications,
structural materials, and more.

7.11 Metallic Glasses

 Metallic glasses are amorphous metals that have a disordered atomic-scale structure with unique mechanical
properties, making them suitable for high-stress components and other applications.
 Bulk Metallic Glass (BMG)

7.12 Graphite

 Graphite is a non-metal material, mineral derivative of carbon, with exceptional properties like thermal and electrical
conductivity, resistance to corrosion, and the ability to become stronger at higher temperatures.
 Graphene – most reactive, ultra high tensile strength, and lightweight (not used commercially)

7.13 Materials for Specific Applications

 Materials for specific applications should resist ionizing radiation, extreme temperatures, and micrometeorite impacts
for space applications.
 Titanium remains popular for medical purposes, while smart materials such as sensors are used to control machinery
and processes.

7.14 High Entropy Alloys

 High entropy alloys consist of five or more constituent elements and offer properties like low weight, high strength,
and corrosion resistance.