Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

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Ocean and Coastal Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman

Comprehensive coastal vulnerability assessment and adaptation for T

Cherating-Pekan coast, Pahang, Malaysia
Fazly Amri Mohda, Khairul Nizam Abdul Mauluda,b,∗, Othman A. Karima, Rawshan Ara Begumc,
Nor Aslinda Awangd, Anizawati Ahmadd, Wan Ahmad Hafiz Wan Mohamed Azharyd,
Mohd Khairul Amri Kamarudine, Mokhtar Jaafarf, Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtara
a
Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre (SUTRA), Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, UKM, Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
b
Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
c
Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environmental and Disaster Management (CWMD), Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
d
Coastal Management & Oceanography Research Centre, National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM), Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment
(NRE), Selangor, Malaysia
e
East Coast Environmental Research Institute (ESERI), Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Gong Badak Campus, 21300, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
f
Geography Program, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Climate change is having a profound impact on most coastal regions around the world. Sea Level Rise (SLR) has
Sea level rise exposed the coastal regions to various threats, such as inundation and erosion, which consequently influence the
Coastal environment coastal environments. The main objective of this study is to assess the coastal vulnerability index (CVI) of the
Coastal vulnerability index Pahang coast. This CVI comprises six variables, i.e. coastal geomorphology, coastal slope, rate of erosion and
Mitigation
accretion, mean significant wave height, mean tidal range and rate of sea level rise. The vulnerability levels for
Adaptation
18 management units along the Cherating-Pekan coast are classified into five vulnerability rankings: very low,
low, moderate, high and very high, based on the rating values of the above mentioned parameters. The findings
indicated that two areas, namely Tjg Payang - Sg Balok and Cheruk Paloh - Kuala Pahang were categorized as
high vulnerability level with 97.22% and 91.67% respectively. Meanwhile, 5.56% and 22.22% of the 87 km
Cherating-Pekan coastline has low and very low vulnerability. Furthermore, the CVI values of 33.33% and
27.78% represent the high and moderate vulnerability category, respectively. Finally, the outcome of this study
provides a comprehensive framework which can be used by researchers, decision makers and relevant autho-
rities to formulate and implement mitigation and adaptation measures in an effort to address the impacts of
climate change on coastal regions.

1. Introduction lived within 100m of the coast, and the population densities in these
areas are about three times higher than the global mean population
Coastal areas are one of the major systems that ensure global sus- density (Nicholls et al., 2007). Hence, in this regard the coastal areas
tainability. Apart from being highly productive ecosystems, these areas and their inhabitants are exposed to higher risk and are more vulner-
typically have a high population density and serve as important in- able to the storm events and flooding caused by a significant rise in sea
dustrial and tourism centres which are supported by transportation levels (Hayrol et al., 2015; Hamzah et al., 2017).
infrastructure and waste disposal systems (Mani Murali et al., 2013; Studies conducted by Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the
Camacho and Rivera, 2014; Fakhruddin and Rahman, 2014; Masria Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2014 shows that
et al., 2014). In 1990, 23% of the world population (1.2 billion people) sea levels are expected to rise from 18 to 66 cm in the 21st century

∗
Corresponding author.Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre (SUTRA), Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600, UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F.A. Mohd), [email protected] (K.N. Abdul Maulud), [email protected] (O.A. Karim),
[email protected] (R.A. Begum), [email protected] (N.A. Awang), [email protected] (A. Ahmad),
wanhafi[email protected] (W.A.H. Wan Mohamed Azhary), [email protected] (M.K.A. Kamarudin), [email protected] (M. Jaafar),
[email protected] (W.H.M. Wan Mohtar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.104948
Received 2 February 2019; Received in revised form 26 August 2019; Accepted 2 September 2019
Available online 16 September 2019
0964-5691/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

(Boak and Turner, 2005; Karymbalis et al., 2012). Thus, the coastal Table 1
erosion and flooding caused by the sea level rise will have an impact on Management units of the Cherating-Pekan coast.
millions of people living in the coastal areas. The damage to existing No Management Unit Section
coastal infrastructure, all of which has an effect on the socio-economic
factors and livelihood of coastal communities (Fakhruddin and 1 C1M1a Tjg. Cherating - Sg. Cherating
2 C1M1b Sg. Cherating - Sg. Ular
Rahman, 2014; Masria et al., 2014; Vousdoukas et al., 2016a,b;
3 C1M1c Sg. Ular - JetiGebeng
Giardino et al., 2018; Tragaki et al., 2018). Vousdoukas et al. (2016a,b) 4 C2M2a JetiGebeng - PelabuhanKuantan
added that in extreme conditions, most hydrodynamic and morphody- 5 C2M2b PelabuhanKuantan -Tjg. Payang
namic processes are accelerated, with the most dramatic impact being 6 C2M2c Tjg. Payang - Sg. Balok
the fact that the water level can exceed the height of natural features or 7 C2M2d Sg. Balok - Sg. Karang
8 C2M2e Sg. Karang - BatuHitam
structural protection.
9 C2M2f BatuHitam - Kg. Beserah
Additionally, the largest structural changes in hydrodynamic con- 10 C2M2g Kg. Beserah - Tjg. Pelindung
ditions and sediment supply are generally due to anthropogenic inter- 11 C2M2h Tjg. Pelindung - Tjg. Tembeling
ventions such as human activities along the shoreline. Luijendijk et al. 12 C2M2i Tjg. Tembeling - Sg. Kuantan
13 C3M3a Sg. Kuantan - Tjg. Lumpur
(2018) mentioned that coastal zones have generally attracted humans
14 C3M3b Tjg. Lumpur - Kg. Kempadang
and human activities due to the abundant facilities, aesthetic value and 15 C3M3c Kg. Kempadang - Sg. Dua
various ecosystem services provided by them. Since Malaysia is a 16 C3M3d Sg. Dua - Sg. Penur
maritime country, in 2010, the National Hydraulic Research Institute of 17 C3M3e Sg. Penur - CherukPaloh
Malaysia (NAHRIM) conducted a study to project the SLR along the 18 C3M3f CherukPaloh - Kuala Pahang
coast of Malaysia. Peninsular Malaysia is projected to experience a sea
level rise of between 0.25 and 0.52 m by the year 2100 (Vousdoukas
(Ariffin et al., 2016; Azid et al., 2015; Wong, 1990; Teh and Voon,
et al., 2016a,b).
1992). The study area is influenced by semidiurnal and mixed tides,
Younus and Harvey (2013) explained that methods and tools for
with two high tides and two low tides within a lunar day (Hammar
evaluating risks and vulnerability to climate change impacts on coastal
Klose and Thieler, 2010). The prevailing wind during the southwest
systems are in the developmental stages. Thus, a comprehensive risk
monsoon season is light and south westerly, and is usually less than 15
and vulnerability assessment is essential to ensure that the right
knots, while the prevailing wind during the northeast monsoon is north-
adaptation response is taken for effective integration into development
easterly or easterly and ranges from 10 to 20 knots, and can occa-
plans (Rygel et al., 2006; Younus and Sharna, 2014). Harvey and
sionally reach 30 knots or higher during periods of strong surges of cold
Nicholls (2008) described how adaptation at the coast plays an im-
air from the north (cold surges) (Azid et al., 2015). The wind during the
portant role in the assessment of vulnerability for making policy deci-
two inter monsoon seasons is light and variable (Wong, 1990).
sions. Adaptation is able to assist society in avoiding the impacts of
Regarding Nugraheni et al. (2018) in her study, the morphology
climate change and manage impacts that are unescapable. Therefore,
type of the study area has major concentration of bauxite deposite. The
coastal vulnerability assessment must incorporate the complex inter-
coverage area of low land and swamp areas in Kuantan is about 40%.
action of physical environmental factors at the coast area which affect
Meanwhile, the low relief and swamps conquer about 40% of the
these coastal processes and, hence, coastal vulnerability to SLR (Bryan
northeast study area. Besides that, Metcalfe (2013) and Nugraheni et al.
et al., 2001).
(2018) explained that most of lowland morphology occupies the area
In 1990, Gornitz was the first person to formulate the concept of
around river, swamps and valley, with altitute of 10m–25m and slope
CVI, focusing on the effects of SLR using six parameters (Sudha et al.,
of < 15%. Therefore, morphology in Kuantan area is closely similar to
2015). During the last few years, there has been an important increase
West Kalimantan, where this area is flat to undulating.
in the number of vulnerability indices for a specific coastal area
(Abuodha and Woodroffe, 2010; Karymbalis et al., 2012; Kaymbalis
et al., 2014). Most of the vulnerability assessments were done by 3. Materials and methods
adapting Gornitz's (1991) formula. The CVI assessment was later ad-
vanced by modifying the parameters depending upon the availability The methodology adopted in the present study is in accordance with
and geographical area. In this approach the ranges, which were used for the procedure set by the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
vulnerability ranking of the involved variables, are those proposed by (Hammar Klose and Thieler, 20100). Seven variables were selected to
(Mohamad et al., 2014; F. A. Mohd et al., 2018a,b) for the east coastal calculate the CVI, and each variable represents a specific characteristic
of Peninsular Malaysia. The objectives of the present study is to assess of coastal vulnerability. Most of the variables are dynamic in nature
the vulnerability of the Cherating-Pekan coast to SLR by using six CVI along the coastal region and vast amounts of data and information have
approach. Therefore, proper planning and protection strategies for the to be gathered from different sources, then processed and analysed. A
Pahang coast must be taken by coastal management and policy makers schematic representation flowchart for the development of the coastal
to sustain the coastal ecosystem and livelihood. vulnerability assessment and adaptation for Pahang coast is outlined in
Fig. 2.
2. Description of the study area Table 2 shows the data used in the vulnerability analysis and their
sources. These variables include both the quantitative and qualitative
The study area stretches almost 87 km along the Cherating-Pekan information about the coast.
coast of Pahang, which is the largest state and is located at the east
coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The coastal region is located between 30 3.1. Determination of coastal vulnerability parameters
28′ 15.39″to 40 10′ 6.8″ latitude and 1030 15′ 48.79″ to 103040′ 3.61″
longitude and faces the South China Sea. The study area was divided The main of vulnerability parameters for the Pahang coast are
into 18 Management Units (MU) along the Cherating-Pekan coasts, as comprises three main variables, namely geological (geomorphology,
shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1. The area is almost entirely exposed to shoreline changes and coastal slope) and physical (SLR, mean sig-
wave attacks from the South China Sea. It experiences the southwest nificant wave height and mean tidal range).
monsoon from May to September and northeast monsoon from No-
vember to March, with two shorter periods of inter-monsoon seasons, 3.1.1. Geological parameters
and receives an annual rainfall of between 1488 and 3071 mm per year 3.1.1.1. Geomorphology. Geomorphological variables play an

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Fig. 1. Map of the study area, from Cherating to Pekan (Kuala Pahang), Pahang.

important role in a vulnerability study and there is a need to monitor elevation points of MUs along the shoreline were converted into
them continuously in detail. Geomorphology is defined as the study of shapefile format then interpolated using the interpolation method
landforms and landscapes, including the description, classification, (Inverse Distance Weightage, IDW) in order to get the coastal slope
origin, development and history of environmental surfaces (Kumar respectively. The result was verified using IFSAR data and Google
et al., 2010; Sankari et al., 2015). In accordance with Gill et al. (2014), Earth. Coastal areas with gentle slope are considered as highly
the coastal vulnerability assessment defines coastal areas as those areas vulnerable areas while coastal areas with steeper slopes are classified
that are in many cases already vulnerable to coastal hazards under as areas of low vulnerability.
present day conditions and are likely to become more vulnerable in the
future as a result of climate change and SLR. For this study,
geomorphologic parameters has been conducted using in-situ 3.1.1.3. Coastal shoreline change. Shoreline is the boundary between
observation along Cherating to Pekan within 1 km zone of shorelines. sea and land and is continuously changing due to accretion, erosion,
Thus, the rank of vulnerability for geomorphological variables is also tidal processes, and changes in topography and sea level (Pramanik
dependent on the varying landforms, since the materials in each et al., 2016; Kumar and Kunte, 2012; Ashraful Islam et al., 2016; IPCC,
landform respond differently to the natural hazards which occur 2001). The changes in shorelines could occur as a result of
along the shoreline. anthropogenic and natural processes. The coastlines for the years
2006 and 2014were digitized with a 2.5m resolution by using SPOT 5
satellite image. The images were processed using the ERDAS Imagine
3.1.1.2. Coastal slope. Coastal slope is an important parameter which
software, which includes geo-referencing and band extraction, while
must be taken into account in estimating the effect of SLR on the study
the ArcGIS software was used to vectorize the shoreline. These digitized
area. Slope is used to describe the measurement of the gradient of a
vector files were used to calculate the rate of shoreline change and their
straight line (Kumar et al., 2010; Sankari et al., 2015). Coastal area,
trend in comparison to the reference baseline. Consequently the
which is characterized by the steepness or flatness of coastal slope, is
shoreline change was observed to understand land accretion and
related to inundation caused by flooding, tsunamis and storm surges
erosion processes. From the coastal vulnerability view, coasts subject
(Thieler and Hammar-Klose, 1997; Kumar et al., 2010). The coastal
to accretion are considered as less vulnerable areas, while those
slope of the Cherating-Pekan coastal area was surveyed from the beach
experiencing coastal erosion are considered to be more vulnerable
profile measurement using Total Station and GPS during low tide. The
due to the loss of private and public properties and important natural
profile started in the dunes (vegetation) at a temporary benchmark and
habitats such as beaches, dunes and marshes (Kumar et al., 2010).
ended at the waterline by using the tachometry method. These

3
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Fig. 2. A schematic flowchart of coastal vulnerability assessment and adaptation in Pahang coast.

3.1.2. Physical parameters areas which are also affected by inundation; these consequently
3.1.2.1. Rate of sea level rise. SLR is an important consequence of increase the vulnerability of the coastal region.
climate change, both for societies and the environment. The changes in
mean sea level are measured by coastal tide gauges and known as 3.1.2.2. Mean significant wave height. Mean significant wave height is
relative sea-level change (Kumar et al., 2010). In the context of coastal the average height of the one-third highest waves during a 12-h period
vulnerability, areas with the highest rates of sea level change are (Kumar et al., 2010; Jana and Hegde, 2016). Wave heights are generally
considered as highly vulnerable coastal areas and vice versa. In this taken into account to determine the degree of vulnerability along the
study, the rate of sea level rise for years 2020 until 2100 was measured coast. Vulnerability studies based on wave height are carried out since
using tide gauges and satellite altimetry. It is able to provide much they are an important step in the hazards warning and management
better coverage and resolution of an area. The official record of mean system [36]. Wave energy may increase as wave height gradually
SLR at the nearest station was used together with the sea level data increases, and this could cause a loss inland area due to erosion and
gathered at the Tanjung Gelang tidal station which faces the South inundation along the shoreline (Mani Murali et al., 2013; Dwarakish
China Sea (Jeofry and Rozainah, 2013; Tiong and Yap, 2003, 2011). et al., 2009; Mohamad et al., 2014; Murali et al., 2013). The visual
The rate of SLR obtained in this study poses a risk to low-lying coastal observation data, namely SSMO wave data, were used to determine the

Table 2
The details of parameters used in the construction of the CVI.
No Types of Data Period/Year Description

th
1 Wave Height 23rd May 2014 to4 June 2014 Data recorded using ADCP device at 3 locations covered for Northern, Centre and
Southern part. This data used for numerical modelling.
2 Wave Direction 23rd May 2014 to4th June 2014 Data recorded using ADCP device at 3 locations covered for Northern, Centre and
Southern. This data used for numerical modelling.
3 Satellite Image (SPOT 5) Spatial resolution 2.5m, 4 2006 & 2014 To identify the shoreline changes and impacted area.
bands (Red, Green, Blue & Infrared)
4 Tidal 1993 to 2016 Tidal data for Northern and Southern part from Department of Survey and Mapping
Malaysia (JUPEM). Used to calculate the mean tidal range and numerical modelling.
5 Coastal Slope 5th to 8th August 2016 & In-situ measurement of Beach Profile using Total Station and GPS. Validation
February 2016 method using DEM data generated by IFSAR data.
6 Geomorphology 2002,2016 & 2017 In-situ observation and DID Report.
7 Rate of SLR (Projected SLR at Pekan, The SLR value obtained by the Inverse Distance Weightage (IDW) method using
Pahang in 2020–2100) Altimeter and Tide gauge data.

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

offshore and nearshore wave characteristics in the area. The data were which indicates that class boundaries tends to place large numbers of
obtained by shipboard observations over a 41 year period from 1949 to similar values in the same class. The values indicate the relative risk of
1989 in the South China Sea. These data are available in the wave the coastal land due to future SLR and related physical changes.
database of the DID, Malaysia (Far et al., 2018). The estimation for
mean significant wave height for the Cherating-Pekan area was 3.4. Vulnerability distribution analysis
extracted from the wave modelling data using MIKE 21 Spectral
Wave module. During the Northeast Monsoon, the South China Sea The CVI ranks for the Cherating-Pekan area were calculated using
recorded 1.5 m up to 2.7 m, with a greater wave height compared to the the percentile values from a statistical formula which are divided into
other seas (F. A. Mohd et al., 2018a,b). Therefore, coastal areas exposed quartile ranges for the five vulnerability categories, as shown in
to high wave heights are considered more vulnerable, while those Formula 2 and Table 4:
exposed to low wave heights are considered less vulnerable.
L + (0.5 × s)
Percentile % =
N (2)
3.1.2.3. Mean tidal range. Mean tidal range is defined as the vertical
difference between the highest high tide and the lowest low tide Where, L = number below the rank, S = number of the same rank, and
(Gornitz et al., 1991; Doukakis, 2005; Kumar and Kunte, 2012; N = Total number of observation.
Pramanik et al., 2016). The tidal range is connected to both The approach composite coastal vulnerability index based on the
inundation and erosion hazards. Although a large tidal range relative risk rating of those parameters, each of the 18 MUs of Pahang
dissipates wave energy, it is also susceptible to cases of permanent coastal was highlighted according to their vulnerability category on the
inundation. Thus, the strong tidal currents might influence coastal map.
behaviour due to the large tidal range. In Peninsular Malaysia, the tides
are mixed on the east coast, with mean tidal ranges less than 2 m. The 3.5. Numerical hydrodynamic modelling
highest astronomical tide recorded at the Tanjung Gelang is 1.8 m
above mean sea level (Fazly et al., 2018). In this research, the predicted Numerical modelling simulations for Pahang coast were carried out
tide data was obtained from the Department of Survey and Mapping based on the projected SLR for the years 2020–2100 using the MIKE 21
Malaysia (JUPEM) for the year 2014 and vulnerability ranks are software, which is consist of Hydrodynamic FM module. Hydrodynamic
assigned based on these data. In terms of vulnerability, coastal areas modelling results produced some simulation parameters such as height
exposed to a high tidal range are classified as highly vulnerable while of the water level, waves and current speeds. The findings of the nu-
the areas exposed to a low tidal range are classified as the least merical modelling is the inundation maps for year 2020 and 2100.
vulnerable (Boruff et al., 2005; Dwarakish et al., 2009). For the recent Integration of satellite imagery, numerical simulations, Malaysian an-
study, coastal areas with a high tidal range are considered to have a nual flood report and field observations was used for the validation
high vulnerability, and those with a low tidal range low vulnerability. assessment. The final output able to be used effectively by coastal
management authorities and decision makers to manage better coastal
zone as well as to ensure efficient adaptation measures to minimize the
3.2. Computation of coastal vulnerability index (CVI)
losses due to potential impact of predicted sea level rise through which
appropriate measures to protect life, property and environment can be
The CVI parameters are based in accordance with the USGS proce-
timely planned.
dure published by Vousdoukas et al. (2016a,b), which outlines the
specific characteristics of coastal vulnerability based on the coastal
4. Results and discussion
fishery conditions of the study area. The 18 management units (MU)
within the Cherating-Pekan coast were assigned a risk rating for each
4.1. Coastal geomorphology
variable, and the CVI was then calculated as the square root of the
results of the ranked variables divided by the total number of variables
The results of the analysis show that the morphology of the Pahang
(Pendleton et al., 2010, 2004) as shown in Formula 1:
coast is quite varied. Tiong and Yap (2011) has shown that the coastal
a ×b×c×d×e×f area of Tanjung Cherating has rocky beaches and sandy coastlines,
CVI = except at the river mouth where there is a formation of a sandbank. A
6 (1)
recent study conducted by Saad et al. (2009) supported the findings of
Where a = geomorphology, b = coastal slope, c = rate of shoreline Gill et al. (2014) that Teluk Cempedak and Tanjung Tembeling have
change, d = rate of SLR, e = Mean Significant wave height and rocky shores, Tanjung Lumpur is muddy and the shores of Kuala Pahang
f = mean tidal range. The composite index of the selected Cherating- are sandy. Saad et al. (2009) also mentioned that the shores of the
Pekan coast was calculated by their weighted averages by combining middle part of the Cherating-Pekan area have muddy fine sand where
the individual parameters (Boruff et al., 2005). In the present vulner- the minimum size is around 5–6 phi; this is especially apparent in
ability analysis, equal weight is assigned to each variable, an approach Tanjung Lumpur. The shores of the southern part of the Cherating-
that is the commonly used in the literature (Boak and Turner, 2005; Pekan area are characterized by larger sand size, especially in Kuala
Pramanik et al., 2016; Dwarakish et al., 2009; Dora et al., 2011; Mohd Pahang, which is located near the estuary of Sungai Kuala Pahang.
Zaini et al., 2015). According to Church and White (2006), sandy coastal areas have a
broad and gentle slope compared to rocky and composite sandy beaches
3.3. Ranking of vulnerability parameters with a relatively steep gradient toward the sea. Only four areas in the
southern part of the Kuantan district are highly susceptible while two
Table 3 presents the vulnerability variables and their rankings, areas, i.e. the Gebeng Jetty in the port area of Kuantan and the area
which are used to calculate the CVI. By referring the USGS metho- from Tanjung Pelindung to Tanjung Tembeling, have low vulnerability.
dology, the 18 MUs in the Cherating-Pekan area were assigned the The remaining eleven areas and one of the MUs in the study area have
vulnerability rankings of each parameter, which were used to gather moderate and low levels of vulnerability.
comprehensive information regarding the vulnerability of the coastal
areas. The selected parameters were divided and ranked into five ca- 4.2. Coastal slope
tegories based on the level of risk, namely very low, low, moderate,
high and very high risks using natural break classification technique The Cherating-Pekan area is characterized by three ranks of coastal

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Table 3
Vulnerability ranking of CVI variables.
Variable used Ranking of Vulnerability

Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Geomorphology Rocky Cliff Composite of sand and rocks Sand Composite of clay and sand Muddy flat area
Slope Coastal (%) > 4.8 4.7–3.6 3.5–2.4 2.3–1.2 < 1.1
Rate of Erosion and Accretion (m/year) > 2.0 (Accretion) 1.9–1.0 (Accretion) 0.9 to −0.9 (Stable) −1.0 to −1.9 (Erosion) < -2.0 (Erosion)
Rate of SLR (m/year) < 0.24 0.25–0.30 0.31–0.40 0.41–0.50 > 0.51
Mean Significant wave height (m) < 0.8 0.9–1.3 1.4–1.8 1.9–2.3 > 2.4
Mean Tidal range (m) < 0.5 0.5–1.0 1.0–1.5 1.5–2.0 > 2.0

Table 4 Kempadang-Sg Dua (C3M3c), Sungai Dua-Sungai Penur (C3M3d) and

Quartile range and category. Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang (C3M3f) experience higher rates of accre-
tion between 1 and 4 m per year. The other two MUs have a relatively
stable shoreline with variations of less than 1m per year.
The results for the study area Tjg. Payang- Sg. Balok and Cheruk
Paloh-Kuala Pahang are classified as having very high vulnerability
while Tjg. Tembeling-Sg. Kuantan and Kg. Kempadang-Sg. Dua are
defined as having low vulnerability respectively. The Sg Cherating-
SgUlar coast is classified as highly vulnerable, ten MUs are classified as
vulnerability: medium, high and very high. The measurement of the moderately vulnerable and four MUs are classified as having very a low
coastal profile show that three areas can be ranked as highly vulner- level of vulnerability.
able, namely Tanjung Cherating-Sungai Cherating, Tanjung Payang-
Sungai Balok and Sg. Penur-Cheruk Paloh, which have a coastal reading
of 1.1%and 1.9%, respectively. Additionally, the slope along the 4.4. Rate of relative sea level rise
Cherating-Pekan coast varies from 2.4% to 3.5%, which indicates
moderate vulnerability in the remaining 14 areas. Wong (1990) added Mean sea level refers to the height of sea with respect to the local
that a positive relationship exists between the grain size and beach benchmark of the coast for a year or a month averaged over a certain
gradient of the east coast beaches, for example steep beaches (> 8°) period of time. The relative SLR is a change in average sea level as
occur mostly along the barrier coast and the material is coarse, and measured by the tide gauge stations (Ami Hassan, 2012). Based on the
gentle beaches (< 4°) occur where the sand is fine and are generally SLR calculation using the satellite altimeter and the record at the Tidal
related to a wide low-tide area. Gauge station, the SLR at Tanjung Gelang for the year 2100 is projected
to be 0.31 m. This is congruous with the results of the studies made by
Jabatan Perancangan Bandar Dan Desa (2016) and Jeofry and Rozainah
4.3. Rate of shoreline change (2013) which show that the SLR at Tanjung Gelang is 0.32 m and
0.31 m, respectively. Therefore, the variation along the Cherating-
The trend of coastal changes shows in Fig. 3 that erosion and ac- Pekan coast is minimal, and the rate of the SLR is lower than the value
cretion occur at 16 of the MUs. Three areas, namely Sg Cherating-Sg provided by the IPCC. This is not surprising, since the study area is
Ular (C1M1b), Pelabuhan Kuantan-Tanjung Payang (C1M2b) and relatively small and the entire 87 km shoreline can be classified in the
Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang (C3M3f), show significant changes of more medium risk category.
than 1m per year. The coastal areas of Tg. Tembeling-Sg. Kuantan
(C2M1i), Tanjung Lumpur-Kampung Kempadang (C3M3b), Kampung

Fig. 3. Rate of erosion and accretion in the MUs.

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Table 5 regard to the rate of SLR. Interestingly, this is contrary to the findings
Tide levels at Tanjung Gelang and Kuala Pahang. made by Jeofry and Rozainah (2013), they asserted that the tidal sta-
Tidal level Tanjung Gelang Kuala Pahang tion at Tanjung Gelang recorded the highest SLR compared to other
stations. This demonstrates that the middle region of Peninsular Ma-
Lowest Astronomical Tides (LAT) 0.00 0.00 laysia is exposed to the highest SLR, whereas the northern part of Pe-
Mean Lowest Water Spring (MLWS) 0.50 0.41
ninsular Malaysia experiences the lowest SLR. The coastal areas of
Mean Lowest Water Neap (MLWN) 1.57 1.49
Mean Sea Level (MSL) 1.92 1.76
Tanjung Payang-Sungai Balok and Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang have
Mean Highest Water Neap (MHWN) 2.28 2.02 CVI values of 18.97 and 16.43 respectively. These regions are in the
Mean Highest Water Spring (MHWS) 3.34 3.11 high vulnerability category with regard to mean tidal range and slope
Highest Astronomical Tides (HAT) 3.84 3.69 coastal, but are moderately vulnerable with regard to mean significant
wave height and rate of SLR.
The Tg. Tembeling-Sg. Kuantan, Tanjung Payang-Sg. Balok, Sungai
4.5. Mean significant wave height
Penur-Cheruk Paloh and Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang coasts are classi-
fied as highly vulnerable due to the almost flat, low-lying surface with
In this study, the mean significant wave height was obtained from
sand and mudflats characteristics of coastal areas. Furthermore, the
the Index of Wave Analysis for coastal areas produced through hydro-
coastline along the Cherating-Pekan area experiences a higher rate of
dynamic modelling of visual ship observation data (SSMO) obtained
erosion, especially in the Sg Cherating-Sg Ular which was classified a
from the DID. The overall results of the mean significant wave height
rank of 4; meanwhile, the Tanjung Payang-Sg Balok, and Cheruk Paloh-
show the mean significant wave height ranges from 1.1 m to 1.8 m. This
Kuala Pahang areas were classified as having vulnerability ranks of 5.
indicates the moderate vulnerability of all MUs. A study conducted by
This is supported by the data provided by Rahman et al. (2005) in an
Wong (1990) shows that the mean wave height in the Pahang coastal
NCES 1985 study which shows that approximately 46.3%, or 125.4 km,
area ranges from 1.77 m to 1.80 m. A recent study by Mohamad et al
of the entire Pahang shoreline has experienced erosion. Tiong and Yap
(2014) proved that the East coast of Peninsular Malaysia is exposed to
(2011) added that most of these low-lying coastal plains are composed
large waves in comparison to the West coast of Peninsular Malaysia,
of a coast ridge plain which is vulnerable to storm surge and bore the
where wave height in the study area ranges from 1.4 to over 4.0 m,
brunt of the impacts of the extreme event which occurred in December
including during the Northeast monsoon.
1999 when sands and tidal water reached up to about 100 m inland.
Rahman et al. (2005) contended that the Pahang delta on the East
4.6. Mean tidal range coast of Peninsular Malaysia is impacted by waves. Thus, differences in
the degree of wave and tidal influence are the main factors influencing
Table 5 presents the details of the tidal level for Tanjung Gelang and the morphology of the delta and the sediment dispersal trend along the
Kuala Pahang. Based on the tidal range in the study area, the difference Kuala Pahang coast (S. S. H. Mohd et al., 2018c). The physical variables
in the tidal range between both tidal gauge stations is due to the cal- of the CVI, such as mean significant wave height and SLR, were given
culations of the spring and neap tide. the same vulnerability value in the study area, which is unlike the re-
The mean tidal range along the Cherating-Pekan coast is 1.7 m. The sults of the geological variables. Moreover, the vulnerability of three
minimum tidal range along the coast of Malaysia is categorized as high. coastal areas, i.e. Jeti Gebeng-Pelabuhan Kuantan, Pelabuhan Kuantan-
In the context of coastal vulnerability, Azid et al. (2015) contended that Tanjung Payang and Sungai Dua-Sungai Penur, are considered to be
coastal areas with larger tidal ranges are categorized as highly vul- very low due to the lower erosion and accretion rates and steep coastal
nerable. Reviews by Azid et al. (2015) and Kumar and Kunte (2012) slope along the shorelines of these areas. The slopes in these areas are
demonstrate that the coastal areas characterized by low tidal ranges are moderately steep due to the presence of exposed rocky cliffs.
classified as having the highest vulnerability level. Similarly, a recent The report of National Coastal Erosion Study published by the Unit
study conducted by Kumar and Kunte (2012) reported that areas with a Perancang Ekonomi (1985) stated that the three coastal areas have in
tidal range greater than 3.5 m are classified as having a low vulner- place erosion mitigation measures, namely breakwater and rock re-
ability. All MUs within the Cherating-Pekan area are classified as being vetment at Kuantan Port, labuan blocks at Taman Gelora and rock re-
highly vulnerable. vetment at Cheruk Paloh. These protective structures are very suitable
for mitigating coastal erosion problems in Malaysia. Hashim and Noor
4.7. Coastal vulnerability of the Cherating-Pekan area (2005) contended that the main function of breakwater, revetment and
geo-tube is to provide protection, hence reducing coastal erosion pro-
The vulnerability classification of coastal areas is based on the blems and wave action behind the structure (Fitri et al., 2019).
elements of sensitivity and the exposure of the coastal areas to six Breakwaters are commonly constructed in areas where jetties and
parameters, including geological and physical parameters. Table 6 il- harbours are present. The existing adaptation done by local community
lustrates the ranks of coastal vulnerability for the 18 management units or tourism operators are groyne protection structure near to the Cher-
(MU) along the Cherating-Pekan coast. Table 7 show the ranking and ating beach.
percentile for six vulnerability parameters. Tiong and Yap (2011) reported that the waves in these area are
The value of CVI for the Cherating-Pekan area ranges from 4.24 to typically generated by monsoon winds by virtue of their directional
18.97 while the percentiles of the calculated CVI range from 2.78% to circulation, which is similar to offshore winds. The study of shoreline
97.22% as shown as on Fig. 4. Hence, the MUs along the Cherating- are more exposed to dominant bigger waves during the northeast
Pekan coastline can be considered as having moderate vulnerability due monsoon, with values exceeding 2.0 m. The findings show that the
to the presence of sand and clay in the area, with the exception of the shorelines of Jeti Gebeng-Pelabuhan Kuantan, Pelabuhan Kuantan-
Tjg. Tembeling-Sg Kuantan, Tjg. Lumpur-Kg. Kempadang and Sg. Dua- Tanjung Payang, Tanjung Pelindung-Tanjung Tembeling and Sg. Dua-
Sg. Penur areas. The geomorphology of these areas consists of a mixture Sg. Penur are less vulnerable than those of Tjg. Cherating-Sg. Cherating,
of clay and sand close to the river mouth. This finding is supported by Tjg. Payang-Sg. Balok and Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang.
Hashim and Noor (2013), they have shown that wave dominated bea-
ches form an accreting coastline which receives sand from the river 4.8. Validation method
mouths in the north and south of Pahang coast. Hence, the sand in these
areas is moderately sorted. Validation methods are only often conducted in vulnerability as-
The studied coastal area also displays a moderate CVI rank with sessments. Ge et al. (2013) in their first study emphasized vulnerability

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Table 6
Vulnerability ranking of 18 MUs in the Cherating-Pekan area.

assessment in order to validate the results. The simulation of SLR pre- As a baseline condition, the findings show 13 locations were im-
diction for 2020 and 2100 was conducted using the numerical model by pacted with coastal inundation. Most of the locations are located near
MIKE 21. Hydrodynamic simulation is the basic model of the MIKE 21 to the river and low-lying area especially at C1M1a, C1M1c, C2M2i,
software package for free surface flows based on flexible mesh method. C3M3D and C3M3f as shown on Table 8. The Malaysia Annual Flood
The inundation area was rely on the numerical solution of the 2D report for year 2016 and 2017 indicates that all the 13 locations ex-
shallow water equations using Depth integrated Reynolds averaged pressly facing flooding problems caused by high tides phenomenon
Navier Stokes (DIRANS) equations. Fig. 5 show the result of inundation (The Department of Irrigation and Drainage, 2017). The largest of in-
area from simulation modelling for year 2017 (baseline measurement) undation area in year 2017 indicate C3M3d area with 12.11 ha. Within
and 2100 (long term assessment). The collection of marine data such as the period of 2017–2100, the changes of inundation area increasing
the tide level, bathymetry, current velocity and direction were used as dramatically almost 1.35 ha–12.11 ha into 9.47 ha–292.38 ha respec-
input, calibration and analysis of hydraulic scenarios around Pahang tively.
coast via MIKE21 numerical model simulation. The output of SLR Furthermore, the results illustrate that about 17%–22% of the
prediction simulation was displayed automized using the MIKE to Cherating to Pekan shoreline is at risk of being inundated in 2020 and
Google Earth tool. The inundation area maps is possible to display the 2100. The simulation modelling shows that four main MUs - Sg.
values from dfsu data files in 2D and saved in KML file format. The Cherating - Sg. Ular (CIM1b), Batu Hitam - Kg. Beserah (C2M2f), Tjg.
overlay tool in ArcGIS software able the surface elevation of SLR pro- Tembeling - Sg. Kuantan (C2M2i) and Cheruk Paloh - Kuala Pahang
jected on 2017 and 2020 to 2100 in KML format overlayed with (C3M3f) are predicted to experience the highest SLR in 2020 and 2100.
shoreline and satellite imagery data, in order to identify areas that will A hydrodynamic modelling incorporating the CVI result has shown the
be inundated. potential negative impacts around the study area especially Tjg.

Table 7
CVI values for 18 MUs in the Cherating-Pekan area.

8
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Fig. 4. Map of CVI for the Cherating-Pekan area.

Cherating - Sg. Cherating (CIM1a), Tjg. Payang - Sg. Balok (C2M2c) and provides insight into the relative potential of coastal damage especially
Cherok Paloh - Kuala Pahang (C3M3f). Furthermore, from total 87 km for four MUs namely Sg. Balok - Sg. Karang (C2M2d) to Kg. Beserah -
shoreline that being studied, 16.7% of the MUs along the shoreline is Tjg. Pelindung (C2M2g) due to future SLR. Fig. 6 indicates that infra-
classified as being very higly risky due to future SLR. The coastal vul- structural features within the 1 km buffer zone from shoreline might be
nerability index (CVI) and simulation of SLR prediction modelling affected due to inundation from SLR.

9
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Fig. 5. Inundation area in years 2017 and 2100.

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F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Table 8
Location of inundation area based on MUs in 2017 and 2100 and level of CVI categories.

4.9. Adaptation to sea level rise in the pahang coastal area revetment should be limited only to certain settlements and ports that
are exposed to high risk of inundation. All currently available protec-
The shorelines of Pahang have immense social, environmental and tion measures should be strengthened and a higher protection standard
economic value, especially for the population living in the area (Azid must be implemented to deal with the current trend in SLR (Fitri et al.,
et al., 2015). The economic development in these areas, however, has 2019).
been adversely affected by erosion events. Hence, adaptation measures The study found that the rate of erosion in three locations, namely
need to be implemented to reduce the adverse impacts of SLR and to Tjg, Cherating to Sg. Cherating, Sg. Cherating to Sg. Ular, and
protect the resources and livelihood of the communities in the coastal Pelabuhan Kuantan to Tjg. Payang, exceeded the rate of accretion.
region (Wong, 2003). Observation and measurement of coastal erosion Essentially, the coastal erosion was caused by a huge wave during
needs to be carried out in order to prevent this problem from worsening Northeast monsoon and human activities such as beach construction at
in the long term. Cherating and port construction activities (Azid et al., 2015). The
Approximately 46.3%, or 125.4 km, of the total Pahang shoreline Cherating coast is one of the most beautiful beaches, with fascinating
has undergone erosion (Unit Perancang Ekonomi, 1985). Wong (1990) landscape and scenery, and is suitable for recreational activities (Azid
reported that monsoon changes are one of the primary causes for et al., 2015). The beach in Cherating is wide and sandy with a general
coastal erosion in Malaysia. Another reason is because the development gradient face of 4.8%. The area is also an important turtle-landing site
and expansion of Kuantan ports along the coasts have also resulted in and serves as a fishing base (Unit Perancang Ekonomi, 1985).
shifts in sediment transport patterns and contributed to the erosion. In The wave pattern and water level along the Northern coast of
Pahang, coastal adaptation measures such as structural and non-struc- Pahang is moderate compared to other MUs. The shoreline appears to
tural measure are practical alternatives for supporting coastal planning; be stable, with a configuration defined by the groyne to the east, as
this includes encouraging and giving responsibilities to relevant agen- shown in Fig. 7. The short groynes cause a local depression in the lit-
cies to proactively mitigate various hazards along the coast that are toral drift along the beach face, but allow the majority of the littoral
caused by climate change. A suitable adaptation measure along a par- drift to pass by uninterrupted. Several chalets and other structures have
ticular coastal area is dependent upon the related response. The adap- littered the length of this beach, with some of them located on the
tation proposed measures are implemented in the coastal zone along beach itself. Some of these chalets were built too close to the sea in an
Cherating–Tanjung Agas, as shown in Table 9. area which, in the past, was exposed to considerable shoreline move-
These findings show that the vulnerable shorelines in the north of ments, as evidenced by the loss of several patches of lands to the sea.
Pahang; for example, Pantai Cherating, Jeti Gebeng, Taman Gelora and The construction of too many chalets directly to the beach is not re-
Kelab Golf di Raja Pahang, were protected from erosion to some extent commended due to the risk of flooding and storm damage.
due to the implementation of shoreline erosion protection measures. The Gebeng Jetty MU is characterized by a new development
William et al. (2016) stated that protection structures constitute a high comprising large industrial units, a new petrochemical storage facility
cost, however, mostly the price paid for hard and soft protection en- and major coastal reclamation. The coastal reclamation done in the
gineering usually balances out through time, while great variability can year 2000 has resulted in a significant alteration of the shoreline, which
occur due to factors such as location, labour costs, current erosion rate is fully protected by revetment. Interference by discharge in the in-
and more. Among the protection measures that are suitable for pro- dustrial area north of the Gebeng Jetty could have some adverse effects
tecting the shores of Pahang from coastal hazards are rock revetment, on drainage, unless the discharge is properly regulated.
breakwater, sandbags, groyne and beach nourishment. Construction of Taman Gelora is the largest recreation area near the north of

11
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

Fig. 6. Predicted inundation area at C2M2f in2100.

Kuantan river mouth and is popular among Kuantan residents. This public access to the beach and a good beach width. The trees and re-
coastal area is undergoing severe erosion, as evidenced by the casuarina vetments along the shoreline of Taman Gelora should be preserved,
trees lining the shore not being in their normal equilibrium. In order to since they play a natural function as a coastal defence, as shown in
preserve the recreational area, there is a need to find a balance between Fig. 8.
constructing rock revetment to protect the coastline and ensuring The Royal Pahang Golf Club MU is characterized by a long stretch of

12
 Table 9
Coastal adaptation measures along the Cherating-Tanjung Agas shoreline, Pahang.
No (MU) Description of the MU Potential Impact as a Result of SLR Adaptation proposed measures Justification for the proposed adaptation
F.A. Mohd, et al.

1 MU1 Flat slope, wide sandy area, with a Mean Significant wave height Impact on chalet/hotel and road Raising and maintenance of existing groyne Due to the major contribution of beach tourism to the national
of 0.55 m. Fine, white sandy beach. Recreation area. Coastal and along the beach economy, beaches must be well-preserved and protected against
mangrove forest at river mouth. erosion.
2 MU2 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.56 m; wide Impact on chalet/hotel Construct beach nourishment Refilling beaches with sand provides an alternative and often
sandy area; fine, white sandy beaches. Scattered residential area. more successful physical approach to reducing risk of SLR. Sandy
beaches are particularly vulnerable to erosion and retreat. The
placement of sandy material along the shore to establish and
maintain the desired beach width is effective for Malaysia.
3 MU3 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.59 m; wide Impact on residential area and fishing Construct new rock revetment along the Structural protection will protect residential area and other
sandy area; coarse, grey sandy beach. Gebeng Jetty and port area. jetty. Serious siltation problem. shoreline infrastructure from erosion and inundation.
4 MU4 Coarse, grey sandy beach. Mean Significant wave height of Rock revetment has been constructed The structural of protection was built by State Authority (The
0.62 m. Port area. Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Malaysia.
5 MU5 Coarse, grey sandy beach. Mean Significant wave height of Breakwater and rock revetment have been The structural of protection was built by State Authority (The
0.57 m. Industrial area. Forest area along the shoreline. constructed Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Malaysia.
6 MU6 Flat slope, with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.53 m. Coarse, Impact on industrial building and road Construct new rock revetment along the Revetment will protect the proper- ties such as residential and
grey sandy beach. High-density residential and industrial areas. shoreline industrial building behind it against erosion. Along the protected
area at both ends; erosion continues and, most likely, becomes
more severe because of the effects of wave diffraction.
7 MU7 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.55 m; wide Impact on residential area and Construct new rock revetment along the Structural protection will protect residential area and other
sandy area; Mixture of fine and coarse, grey sandy beaches. infrastructure shoreline infrastructure from erosion and inundation.
Recreation area. Coconut tree and forest at mouth of river.
8 MU8 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.57 m. Wave – – –
movement parallel to the beach. Coarse, grey sandy beach.
Casuarina along shoreline. Hotel and recreation area.
9 MU9 Flat slope, with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.53 m. Coarse, Low-lying area could be inundated. Concrete wall has been constructed along The concrete wall will maintains a balanced sediment i.e., the

13
muddy, grey sandy beach. Residential area and infrastructure Impact on infrastructure. Serious shoreline supply of sediment to this reach, from natural sources and mostly
along the shoreline. siltation problem. nourishment efforts, equals the loss of sediment directed away
from this region.
10 MU10 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.53 m. Mixture Low-lying area could be inundated. Construct new rock revetment along the Protect inland properties from the direct effects of waves and
of fine and coarse, white sandy beaches. Idle land and scattered shoreline storm tides.
residential area.
11 MU11 Steep slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.50 m. Fine, – – –
white sandy beach. Recreation area. Sparsely populated.
12 MU12 Steep slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.50 m. Fine, – Rock revetment has been constructed at The structural of protection was built by State Authority (The
white sandy beach. Densely populated area with facilities. Kuantan River Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Malaysia.
Recreation area.
13 MU13 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.51 m. Coarse, – – –
muddy, yellowish sandy beach. Residential area and fishing area
along the shoreline. Good infrastructure facilities.
14 MU14 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.57 m. Fine, – – –
yellowish sandy beach. Scattered residential area and fishing
area. Coastal forest along the shoreline. Low development.
15 MU15 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.63 m. Fine, Low-lying area could be inundated. Construct new rock revetment along the Because of agricultural area, the implemented revetment on
yellowish sandy beach. Agricultural area, idle land and low shoreline shoreline is found to be positively related to property value.
development.
16 MU16 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.62 m. Wide Low-lying area could be inundated. Replant mangrove trees The mangrove species that can be planted Rhizophora species
sandy area. Muddy, grey sandy beach. Aquaculture activities. Impact on mangrove and coastal that grows in muddy area around the mouth of the river. The
Shoreline is covered with mangroves forest. vegetation. mangrove planting can be done gradually, step by step, starting
in the more protected areas.
17 MU17 Flat slope with a Mean Significant wave height of 0.63 m. Coarse, Low-lying area could be inundated. Rock revetment has been constructed along the The structural of protection was built by State Authority (The
yellowish and brown sandy beaches. Coastal forest, casuarina Impact on coastal forest along the bank of the river mouth Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Malaysia.
trees, and agricultural area along the shoreline. Low shoreline.
development.
18 MU18
(continued on next page)
Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

The structural of protection was built by State Authority (The

Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) Malaysia.
Justification for the proposed adaptation

Fig. 7. Groyne protection structure on the Cherating beach.

width and height of existing rock revetment on
Breakwater has been constructed, raise the
Adaptation proposed measures

both sides of the river mouth

Impact on house, infrastructure, pond
Potential Impact as a Result of SLR

Fig. 8. Rock revetment at Taman Gelora, Pahang.

and fishing jetty.

near river. Morphology of beach changes constantly due to wave

Aquaculture area in Tanjung Agas, residential area and fishing
Moderate slope, higher rate of erosion, Mean Significant wave
height of 0.62 m. Coarse, yellowish and brown sandy beach.

Fig. 9. Protection structure near the Royal Pahang Golf Club area.

coastline with a highly varied morphology. The main club buildings are
located on the eastern part of the club and the area is protected by
Description of the MU

revetment against active erosion, as shown in Fig. 9. The shoreline is

characterized by deposits of riverine sediments which are reworked by
wave action diffracted around Tg. Tembeling.
The beach in front of the eastern spit consists of fine white sands and
action.
Table 9 (continued)

gentle slope. All permanent defence structures are considered to be in

good condition and effective in performing their general functions of
protecting the shoreline. The coastal erosion along this section of the
(MU)

coast should be monitored, particularly the area around the club house,
which is very close to the shore.
No

The results of site assessment indicate that some coastal sections are

14
F.A. Mohd, et al. Ocean and Coastal Management 182 (2019) 104948

less vulnerable, especially the southern areas of the Kuantan-Kuala structural and non-structural measures in order to reduce climate
Pahang coast, with the exception of the Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang change impacts and coastal vulnerability in the Pahang coast of
coast. This MU was classified as more vulnerable due to its exposure to Malaysia. To reduce community vulnerability and to assist sustainable
higher rates of erosion, which exceed 6 m per year especially to MU 18 adaptation to these natural hazards, local agencies, Pahang government
(Cheruk Paloh-Kuala Pahang); the steep coasts are deemed to be of and the local community need to pay more attention to infrastructure
medium value and are highly populated. The findings of Fazly et al. development and future adaptation planning at the risk area. For in-
(2018) reveal that the cause of erosion might be due to the monsoon stance, Kuantan and Cherating in particular have been very popular
and tides, changes in sea level and various human activities. In addi- recreational spots among the locals rather than serving as a tourist
tion, Lun et al. (2011) showed that every year during Northeast season destination. Most accommodation and facilities are located within 1 km
(mostly November to December), extreme rainfall has caused the Kuala from the sea with direct access to the beach, rather than being sepa-
Pahang River to overflow, which has led to the inundation of the rated from the sea by major roads. Consequently, the output of coastal
lowland and the erosion of nearby areas. vulnerability provides reliable information to other researchers and
To reduce community vulnerability and to assist sustainable adap- relevant authorities responsible for making decisions and formulating
tation to these natural hazards, local agencies, Pahang government and policies, allowing them to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate
the local community need to pay more attention to infrastructure de- change occurring in coastal regions.
velopment and future adaptation planning at the risk area. For instance,
Kuantan and Cherating in particular have been very popular recrea- Acknowledgments
tional spots among the locals rather than serving as a tourist destina-
tion. Most accommodation and facilities are located within 1 km from This study was supported by the Trans Disciplinary Research Grant
the sea with direct access to the beach, rather than being separated Scheme (TRGS/1/2015/UKM/02/5/1) and Research University Grant
from the sea by major roads. (AP-2015-009). The authors are grateful for the satellite data provided
Another aspect of future adaptation planning for Pahang coastal is by the Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change, UKM.
to establish a module and guidance for the restoration and conservation Many Thanks to National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia
efforts of the mangroves area. Fatimah and Zhang (2017) described (NAHRIM) for providing the Numerical Modelling Laboratory and
how the mangrove locations are commonly small along the east coast, support in performing the research objectives.
which faces the South China Sea. The mangroves forest for Pahang
especially only cover the river mouth and extend from 0.5 to 1 km in- Appendix A. Supplementary data
land, especially at Cherating, Kuantan and Penor river. In these areas,
the local community and society groups play an important role in Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
creating awareness among the local communities through activities doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.104948.
such as talks, awareness exhibitions, planting trees and distributing
flyers and kits about the significance of mangrove and other coastal References
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