FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

AND TOXICOLOGY
PREPARED BY: SHARRA MEI R. MAHINAY, RCRIM., CCS
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
Is the branch of chemistry, which deals with the
application of chemical principles in the solution
of problems that arise in connection with the
administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in
the elucidation of legal problems. It is used in
courts of law.
A forensic chemist is one who practices forensic
chemistry.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
1.It includes the chemical side of criminal
investigation.
2.It includes the analysis of any material, the quality of
which may give rise to legal proceeding.
3.It is not limited to purely chemical questions
involved in legal proceedings.
4.It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences
notably legal medicine, ballistics, questioned
documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.
ROLES OF THE FORENSIC CHEMIST IN THE
SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
a.Determining whether or not a place/ location
is a clandestine laboratory.
b.Examination of marked bills/ suspects during
entrapment (extortion case)
c.Taking paraffin test.
PRIMARY REASON WHICH MAY CONTRIBUTE
TO THE DISASTER OF EVIDENCE
1.Improper packing of specimen.
2.Failure of identification of specimen.
3.Improper precaution used in transmitting
the specimen.
GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
1.Go slowly
2.Be thorough
3.Take note and consult others
4.Use imagination
5.Avoid complicated theories
 BLOOD AND
BLOOD STAINS
 THE CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD

BLOOD- has been called the circulating

tissue of the body. It is referred to as highly
complex mixture of cells, enzymes,
proteins, and inorganic substances.
Normally, pH is 7.35- 7.45.
COMPOSITIONS OF BLOOD
1.(45% ) formed elements or the solid
materials consisting chiefly of cells
namely:
a.Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes) around 4 -
5 millions of red cell per cc of blood.
b.White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
c.Blood Platelets (thrombocytes)
2. (55%) plasma- the fluid or liquid portion of
blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
a.Water- 90%
b.Solid- 10% (largely protein in nature and
consists of albumen, several globulins and
fibrinogen)
PLASMA- The yellowish fluid of blood in which
numerous blood corpuscles are suspended.
Astro-yellow liquid formed when blood to which
oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is
allowed to strand.
SERUM- a straw-yellow liquid formed when
clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime
and the clot contracts.
THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
 THE EXAMINATION OF BLOOD
4 TESTS FOR BLOOD
1. PRELIMINARY TEST
Determine whether the stain contains blood or another
substance. Determines whether visible stains do or do
not contain blood.
a. Benzidine test or Benzidine Color Test
b. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle- Meyer Test)
c. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Dya’s/ Schonbein’s Test)
d. Leucomalachite Green Test
e. Luminol Test
2. CONFIRMATORY TEST
Test that positively identifies blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST
PRELIMINARY OR GROSS EXAMINATION OF THE STAIN:
1. Determine the material, make, color of the article stained.
2. Note which surface has been stained and the color of
stain. Recent blood stains are dark-red.
3. Study the direction of the origin of the blood stain. The
spot of blood is usually tapering towards the direction of the
source. A fall will give a splash appearance.
4. For small and discolored stains, the use of a lens or ultra-
violet light may be useful.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS:
1.Solubility test: Recent blood shed is soluble
in saline solution and imparts a bright red
color. Stains which have been exposed to air
become dry; hemoglobin is transformed to
meth-hemoglobin or hematin. If the stain has
been kept in damp places for a long time;
hemoglobin is transformed to hematin.
2. Heat test: Solution of the blood stain when heated will
impart a muddy precipitate.
3. Luminescence test: Stains on dark fabric mixed with mud,
paint, etc. emit bluish-white luminescence in a dark room
when sprayed with one of the two solutions:
CHEMICAL EXAMINATIONS:

1.Benzidine test: A piece of white filter paper is pressed

firmly on the suspected stain. Benzidine reagent is
dropped on the paper, then followed by drops of active
hydrogen peroxide. A positive result will show blue
color.
3. Guaiacum test (Van Deen's Dyas' or Schombein's
Test): To a white filter paper pressed and rubbed on
the surface of the stain, the solution of the alcoholic
tincture of guaiacum is added and then hydrogen
peroxide or ozonic ether is applied by drops. If blood
is present, a blue color is imparted by the mixture. It
is not conclusive like the benzidine test because
potato skin, iron rust, cheese, blue and indigo may
give a positive reaction to the test. The guaiacum
test is positive up to 1:5,000 dilution.
4. Phenolphthalein test (Kastle-Meyer Test): A drop of the
Kastle-Meyer's reagent is dropped on a white filter paper
with the stain and left for at least ten seconds. A positive
result will show a pink color after the addition of hydrogen
peroxide. This test is not conclusive but sensitive up to
1:80,000,000 dilution. This test proves only the presence of
peroxidase.
Kastle-Meyer's reagent:
5. Leucomalachite Green test: This test which was
recommended by Adler in 1904 is quite useful, but
it is not so sensitive as the benzidine test. It
depends upon the fact that leucomalachite green is
oxidized to malachite green with a bluish-green or
peacock-blue color by hydrogen peroxide solution.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS: Saline extract of the
stain is examined under the microscope. Note the
presence of red blood cells, leucocytes, epithelial
cells and microorganisms. The presence of red blood
cells will conclusively show that the stain is blood.
By microscopic examination, we can differentiate
the origin or the part of the body it came from.
Menstrual blood will show abundance of vaginal
epithelial cells and Doederlein's bacilli.
MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS:
1. Hemochromogen crystal or Takayama test: A fragment
of the suspected material is placed on a slide glass and
a drop of hemochromogen reagent is added. A cover
glass is placed on top and heated gradually for a time,
then examined under the microscope. Crystals varying
from salmon color to dark brown and pink and which
are irregular rhomboids or in clusters, may be seen.
This test is positive to any substance containing
hemoglobin
2. Teichmann's blood crystals or Hemin crystals
test: On the microscopic slide is placed fragments
of the stain and a drop of water with trace of
sodium chloride added. Add glacial acetic acid and
evaporate to dryness under a cover slip. Dark
brown rhombic prisms of chloride of hematin are
formed. This is considered as the best of the
micro-chemical test.
SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATIONS:
This examination depends on the principle that
blood pigments have the power to absorb light
of certain wave length and produce certain
characteristic absorption bands on the
spectrum. By means of the spectroscope we
can determine the presence of the following
substances:
 BIOLOGIC EXAMINATIONS:

1.Precipitin test:
This test is to determine whether the
blood is of human origin or not.
Principle of the test:
By injecting an animal, usually, a rabbit, with
defibrinated blood of unrelated animal, an anti-serum
is produced in the blood of the animal injected. The
serum of this animal injected is capable specifically of
precipitating the serum of the unrelated animal
whose blood serum has been injected. However,
closely related animals may also give the same
response.
The following common substances, if present in the
extract, will precipitate the anti-serum and thus
produce the semblance of a positive reaction:
a. Soap. This is of special importance in washed
stains.
b. Rancid oil is found sometimes in pillow cases and
head dresses. The soluble fraction of the oil prevents
frothing yet the extract gives a sharp and quick
reaction.
Two errors are introduced, namely:
(1) False positive reaction from the rancid oil itself.
(2) Failure of foam test and danger of group reaction
— monkey blood in high concentration will act like
human blood.
c. Alum. This is used as a household remedy in gargles and
mouth washes and may stain any article.

d. Tannin and allied substances derived from vegetable

tissue. The stain of saliva of the betel chewer not only looks
like bloodstain but by virtue of the tannin present in most of
the constituents of the prepared betel it also acts on the
antisera. Stains on leather and plant tissue should be
removed by applying moist filter paper to the surface
(leather contains tannin).
Substances responsible for a false negative reaction:
a. Mineral acids
b. Corrosive sublimate
c. Chloride of lime
d. Sulfate of copper and iron
e. Bisulphide of carbon and sodium
f. Nitrate of silver
g. Thymol
h. Permanganate of potassium
Value of the precipitin test:
If positive result is obtained, we can tell in a more or less
conclusive way that the blood stain is of human origin;
although anthropoid ape may give the same result.
The same test and technique may be made to determine
whether muscles, secretions, bones and other body fluids are
of human origin or not.
Certain materials like alcohol, formaldehyde, corrosive
sublimate, lysol, creoline, carbolic acid, acids and alkalies
destroy the property of blood to react with precipitin.
 2.Blood grouping:
Principle of the test:
All human beings have their blood belonging to any of the four
principal blood groups. A normal suspension of human red
blood cells when mixed with its own serum or serum of a
similar group will make the red blood cells suspension remain
even. But if suspended in the serum of another group, the red
blood cells clump with one another and this is called
agglutination. The red blood cells contain agglutinogens and
the serum contains agglutinins.
Procedure of the test:
Two methods may be utilized and both
should be employed in the examination:
a. Detection of agglutinins (antibodies)
b. Detection of agglutinogens (antigen)
Value of the test:
It may solve disputed parentage (paternity or
maternity). A positive result is not conclusive
that the one in question is the offspring, but
a negative result is conclusive that he is not
the child of the alleged parents.
Age of the Blood Stains:
When blood is exposed to the atmosphere or some
other influences, its hemoglobin is converted to
meth-hemoglobin or hematin. The color is changed
from red to reddish-brown. The presence of acid
accelerates the formation of hematin. These changes
take place in warm weather within 24 hours. Blood of
one week old and that of six weeks may not present a
difference in physical and chemical properties
Differential Characteristics of Blood from
Different Sources:
1.Arterial Blood:
a. Bright scarlet in color.
b. Leaves the blood vessel with pressure.
c. High oxygen contents.
 2. Venous Blood:
a. Dark red in color.
b. Does not spill far from the wound.
c. Low oxygen content.

3. Menstrual Blood:
a. Does not clot.
b. Acidic in reaction owing to mixture with vaginal mucous.
c. On microscopic examination, there are vaginal epithelial
cells.
d. Contains large number of Deoderlein's bacillus.
4.Man's or Woman's Blood:
There is no method differentiating a man's blood from a
woman's blood. Probably, the presence of sex hormone in
female blood may be a point of differentiation.

5. Child's Blood:
a. At birth, it is thin and soft compared with that of adult.
b. Red blood cells are nucleated and exhibit greater fragility.
c. Red blood cells count more than in adult.
IDENTIFICATION OF
HAIR AND FIBERS
How the Hair and Fibers Change Color:
1. Addition of a substance that will coat the outer surface of
the hair so as to impart a different color.
Example: Salts of bismuth, lead, silver and pyrogallic acid.

2. Addition of substances which bleach or change the natural

color of the fiber or hair.
Example: Hydrogen peroxide, chlorine and diluted nitric
acid.
Characteristics of the Different Kinds of Fibers:
1.Cotton Fibers:
Flattened, twisted fibers with thickened edges.
Irregularly granulated cuticle. No transverse
markings. Fibers show spiral twist. Fibers swell in a
solution of copper sulphate and sodium carbonate
dissolved in ammonia. It is insoluble in strong
sodium hydroxide but soluble in strong sulfuric acid
and partially dissolved in hot strong hydrochloric
acid.
2. Silk Fibers:
Manufactured silk is almost structureless,
microscopically.
Fibers stain is brown with iodine and sulfuric
acid and yellow with picric acid.
They dissolve slowly in a mixture of copper
sulphate, sodium carbonate and ammonia.
3. Hemp Fibers:
Fibers show transverse lines and consist of cellulose.
Large oval cavities are seen in transverse sections.
The end is usually blunt, and there is often a tuft of
hair at the knots.
Stains are bluish-red with phloroglucin, and yellow
with both aniline sulphate and weak solution of
potassium iodide saturated in iodine with sulfuric
acid.
4. Abaca Fibers:
Fibers are smooth without transverse or longitudinal markings. The
cavities are large and uniform. The walls are lignified. The tips are fine
points.

5. Jute Fibers:
Fibers are quite smooth without either longitudinal or transverse
markings.
The fibers have typical large cavities which are not uniform but vary
with the degree of contraction of the walls of the fibers which are
lignified.
The ends are blunt.
Parts of the Hair:
1. Cuticle — The outer layer of the hair.
2. Cortex or middle layer — Consists of
longitudinal fibers bearing the pigment.
3. Medulla or core — Contains air bubbles and
some pigments.
 TWO KINDS OF ROOTS
A.LIVING- often found in hair in full growth
B.DRY- dead roots
Differences Between Hair Forcibly Extracted and
Naturally Shed Hair:
If a hair-root has been extracted forcibly, the bulb is
irregular in form due to rupture of the sheath and
shows an undulating surface, together with
excrescences of different shapes and sizes. A naturally
shed bulb has a rounded extremity, a smooth surface,
and most probably show signs of atrophic or fatty
degeneration, especially in an elderly person
Other Points in the Identification of Hair:
1.Characteristics of the hair:
Hair on body surfaces is fine while those
from the beard, mustache and scalp are very
thick.
Hair from the eyebrows and lashes is tapering
gradually to fine points.
2. Length of the hair:
Hair from the scalp grows 2.5 cms. a month.
Beard hair grows at the rate of 0.4 millimeter a
day.
3. Color of the hair:
The color of the hair may be black, blonde or
brunette.
Hair from older persons may be white or gray.
The hair may be artificially colored by bismuth, lead
or silver salts.
It may be bleached by addition of hydrogen
peroxide, chlorine or diluted hydrochloric or nitric
acid.
4. Does the Hair Belong to a Male or a Female?
In many instances it is quite impossible to state the
sex from the hair, but certain points may be worthy
of mention:
Hair on the scalp of male are shorter, thicker and
more wiry than that of female's.
Eyebrow hair of a male is generally long and more
wiry than that of a female's.
Estimations of Age Based on the Hair:
This is quite difficult and the examiner hesitates in
giving his opinion. However, there are some points of
distinction:
Hair of children are fine, short, deficient of pigments
and, as a rule, devoid of medulla. At the adolescent
age, hair may appear at the pubis. Hair on the scalp
becomes long, wiry, and thick. In the case of older
persons, the color is usually white or gray, with marked
absorption of pigments and degenerative changes.
EXAMINATION FOR SEMINAL
FLUID AND SPERMATOZOA
The semen is the viscid, albuminous fluid with faint grayish-yellow
color, having the characteristic fishy odor, and containing
spermatozoa, epithelial cells, lecithin bodies and other substances.

Spermatozoon is a living organism, normally present in the seminal

fluid consisting of a head, neck and tail. It is from 50 to 55 microns
in length. The head is ovoid and flattened when viewed in front
and pear shape when viewed on the profile. The head is about 5
microns in length while the neck is very short. The tail is the
longest part of the spermatozoon and consists of a long slender
filament with tapering end. The ciliary movement of the tail is
responsible for the forward movement of the spermatozoon.
The following specimens may be examined for seminal
fluid and spermatozoa:
1. Wearing apparel of the victim and of the alleged
accused.
2. Vaginal smear from the victim.
3. Stains on the body of the victim and of the accused.
4. Stains found at the site of the commission of the
offense.
PROCEDURE:
1. Gross Examinations:
a. Inspection by means of the naked eye or with the
use of the hand lens:
The stain is grayish-white to faint yellow in color. In
fabrics, the area occupied is slightly depressed. It
usually has a maplike contour with silvery
appearance of the surface. It is hardened with shiny
borders.
b.Inspection by means of Ultraviolet light:
This method is resorted to in order to make
visible, small seminal stains or patches.
Determine the side of the clothing where the
stains are located. Under ultraviolet radiation,
the seminal discharge shows bluish
fluorescence.
2.Micro-Chemical Examinations:
Moisten a portion of the stained fabric with
very diluted hydrochloric acid solution (one
drop in 50 cc. of water) and let the soaking
stay for 1/2 to 5 hours depending upon the
age of the stain. Allow the liquid portion to
dry on the slide.
Perform any of the following:
a. Florence Test:
Place a cover slip over the dried stain on the slide glass.
Allow a drop of Florence solution to run under the slip.
Place the preparation under the microscope and if semen
is present, a group of crystals appears similar in color and
in shape as the hemin, but larger in size. The crystals are
dark brown, in clusters, rosettes, crossing over the
microscopic field.
Value of the Test:
This test is produced by the action of iodine on
choline, a natural base found in many cells. It is not
a specific test for spermatic fluid. The test is not a
proof of seminal fluid but only of the presence of
some vegetable or animal substance. A positive
result is merely a presumptive evidence of seminal
fluid; a negative result means, in all probability, it is
not that of the seminal fluid.
B. Barberio's Test:
To the spermatic stain on the slide glass, a
saturated solution (alcoholic or aqueous) of
picric acid is added. The preparation is placed
under the microscope and needleshape crystals
with yellow color is produced. Some allege that
this test is specific for spermatic fluid. The
reaction probably depends-on the presence of
spermatic secretion.
C. Acid Phosphatase test: The semen produces a
very high acid phosphatase activity as compared
with other body fluids (saliva, perspiration, urine,
etc.) and common vegetable and fruit juice stains.
The method of estimating the activity of a stain on
clothings or other materials is to extract with
distilled water and perform the acid phosphatase
determination on the filtered extract
3. Microscopic Examinations:
a. A dried spermatic fluid stain on the slide is stained with
hematoxylin or methylene blue and counter-stained with
eosin. Examined under the microscope, under high power
and under oil immersion, spermatozoa and bacterial
infection can be seen. The presence of a complete
spermatozoon will undoubtedly infer the presence of
seminal fluid, although semen may be present without
spermatozoa, such as in cases of aspermia (semen without
spermatozoa) or oligospermia (semen with few
spermatozoa).
b. Dr. Hankin's Method: The fabric with
seminal stain is boiled with tannin solution
before dissolving in a solution of potassium
cyanide so as to render the spermatozoa
capable of removal. The fabric is then placed
on a slide, teased with carbol-fuchsin. This is
examined with a medium power lens
4. Biological Examinations:
a. Precipitin Test (Biological test of Farnum):
This is a test to determine whether the semen is of human
origin or not. A rabbit is immunized with human semen for four
to six weeks. After a time the blood is drawn and the blood
serum is taken and its potency made at different dilutions
This is used for the test of unknown semen in the same way as
blood precipitin is done.
The presence of a white ring at the point of contact between
unknown semen extract and the anti-human semen serum
shows that the unknown is of human origin.
b. Seminal Grouping: Specific agglutinable substances A and B
are present in the semen, like that of the blood. Seminal
grouping is similar to that of the blood. The test is of value for
elimination. A positive result does not definitely imply that the
person is the owner of the semen in question. A negative
result will totally exclude the alleged accuse as the possible
owner of the semen.
The mere presence of spermatozoa on the stain shows the
presence of spermatic fluid, but the absence of spermatozoa
does not prove that the stain is not seminal.
How long after sexual intercourse can spermatozoa
be found in the vaginal canal? Authorities differ in
their opinions in this respect:
1.". . . but, there is every reason to believe that the life
of the effective sperm in the maternal passage is
very short, probably less than thirty hours" (Taylor's
Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence by
K. Simpson, 12th ed.. Vol 2, p. 32).
2. "There has been a great number of observations this
latter point, and the evidence points to a comparatively
short life of the sperm in the female tract and the period
appears shorter with the number of observations. It is a
present belief that the life of the sperm in the vagina is a
matter of hours and its total life in the female tract is a
matter of two or three days at most" (Forensic Medicine by
S. Smith, 10th ed., p. 311).
3. ". . . that spermatozoa may survive less than two
hours in the vagina, but tfiey live as long as forty-
three hours both in the cervix and uterus where the
secretion are more favorable" (Medical
Jurisprudence & Toxicology by J. Glaister, 12th ed.,
p. 325).

4. "Spermatozoa may remain motile in the vagina up

to 17 days" (A Synopsis of Forensic Medicine &
Toxicology by C. Thomas, 2nd ed., p. 97).
5. "Fertilization of the ovum does not necessarily
occur immediately after coitus, as it is known that
spermatozoa can remain alive in the upper recesses
of the vagina for more than two weeks" (Coy\ p.
246).

6. "Some observers have reported finding

spermatozoa in the vagina after seven hours while
others have reported finding them as long as 48
hours after intercourse" (Homicide Investigation by
L. Snyder, 1st ed., p. 327).
Identification of Some
Dangerous Drugs
1.Gross and Microscopic: Inasmuch as marijuana is
smoked as leaf fragments, its identification may be
used on the botanical features, grossly and
microscopically by trained experts. A complete leaf may
be identified by the characteristic irregular shape.
Microscopically, identification depends largely on
observation of short hair on the upper side of the leaf
known as cystolith and the presence of longer
nonglandular hair on the opposite side.
2. Micro-crystalline Test: A drop of chemical
reagent is added to a small quantity of the
drug on a microscopic slide. After a short
time, a chemical reaction ensues producing a
crystalline precipitate. It is the size and shape
of the crystal under the microscopic
examination that is characteristic of the drug.
HEROINE AND COCAINE
3.Color Test:

a.Opium and its derivative together with

amphetamine:
(1)Marquis test — (2% formaldehyde in sulfuric acid)
— Turns purple in the presence of heroin and
morphine as well as most opium derivatives. The
test will also produce an orange-brown color when
mixed with amphetamine and methamphetamine.
b. Barbiturates:
(1) Dillie Koppanyi test — (1% cobalt acetate
in methanol is first added to the suspected
material followed by 5% isoprophylamine in
methanol). A violet-blue color is produced.
This is a valuable screening test for
barbiturates.
c.Marijuana:
(1)Duquenois-Levine test — Solution A is a
mixture of 2% vanillin and 1% acetaldehyde in
ethyl alcohol; solution B is concentrated
hydrochloric acid; and solutions A,B and C are
added respectively to the suspected material. A
positive result is shown by purple color in the
chloroform layer.
d.LSD:
(1) Van Urk test (1% p-
dimethylaminobenzaldehyde and 10%
concentrated hydrochloric acid in ethyl alcohol).
This reagent turns blue-purple in the presence of
LSD. However, owing to the extremely small
quantities of LSD in illicit preparations, this test is
difficult to conduct under field conditions.
e.Cocaine:

(1)Cobalt Thiocynate test — (2% cobalt thiocyanate

in water). This reagent produces a blue flaky
precipitate in the presence of cocaine. The test is
not reliable as many other drugs and diluents
respond in the same manner.
4. Chromatography:
a. Thin layer chromatography.
b. Gas chromatography.
In both methods the drug is separated from the
diluent while providing for its identification.
ALCOHOLISM
Ethyl alcohol (C 2 H 5 O H , Ethanol, grain
alcohol) is a colorless transparent, volatile
liquid with aromatic odor and with boiling
point at 78°C. Like any other types of alcohol, it
is formed out of the fermentation of various
carbohydrates in grains, fruits or flowers, and
from other materials subjected to and isolated
by distillation.
A drunkard is a person who habitually takes or uses
any intoxicating alcoholic liquor and while under
the influence of such, or in consequence of the
effect thereof, is either dangerous to himself and to
others, or is a cause of harm or serious annoyance
to his family or his affair, or ordinary proper
conduct.
A habitual drunkard is one who excessively
uses intoxicating drink. Habit should be
actual and confirmed, but it is not necessary
that it be continuous or of daily occurrence.
It lessens individual resistance to evil thought
and undermines will power, making its victim
a potential evil doer.
Classification of Commercially Available Alcoholic
Beverages:
1.Wine — A product of natural alcoholic fermentation
with wide variety of sugary materials including fruit
juices and contains not less than 7% but not more
than 17% of alcohol by volume. In fermented
beverages the alcohol content is expressed in
volume percent.
2. Distilled Liquor — Distilled liquors are alcoholic beverages
produced from distillate of wines, distilled from grains or
starch solution or distillate from aromatic substances. In
distilled beverages the alcohol contents are expressed in
proofs. "Proof" is approximately twice the percentage of
alcohol by volume.
The sole purpose of the distillation process is to increase
the concentration of alcohol in the finished product. This
is necessary because fermentation ceases when the
alcohol concentration is approximately 12% to 14% by
volume.
3. Malt Liquors — Alcoholic beverages brewed from
malt or from a mixture of malt and malt substitute,
like rye, and may contain other cereal grains and
starchy saccharine matters. A characteristic bitter
flavor is imparted by the addition of hops. The
amount of alcohol need not be stated in the label.
 Symptomatic Changes Following Ingestion of
Alcoholic Beverages:
1.Stage of Excitement — This develops a few minutes
after the initial dose of alcoholic drink has been
absorbed and has reached the central nervous
system. It is characterized by a feeling of wellbeing
and slight excitation. The actions, speech and
emotion are less strained. Self-confidence
develops, as well as blunting of self-criticism, self-
consciousness and self-control.
2. Stage of Incoordination or Confusion — As the
effects of alcohol become more pronounced, the
nervous control of the body gradually diminishes.
There is blunting of all perceptive mechanism.
Muscular coordination is lost. The irritating effects of
alcohol, like nausea and vomiting, confusion, cardiac
and respiratory symptoms appear.
3. Stage of Narcosis or Coma — The person
passes into a deep sleep and may only
respond to strong stimuli. Pupils are dilated,
breathing is slow and stertorous, pupils are
dilated and reflexes, abolished. Death may
ensue from paralysis of the cardiac or
respiratory center.
Degree of Intoxication:
1. Slight Inebriation — There is flushing of the
face, with exaggerated mood, but a person is
able to control his behavior. He shows no signs
of mental impairment, incoordination of
movement and difficulty of speech.
2. Moderate Inebriation — Person is talkative,
argumentative and over-confident. There is slight
impairment of mental faculties, difficulty of
articulation, and loss of coordination to finer
movements. The face is flushed with eyeballs
congested. He is reckless and shows motor
incoordination. He may be certified as being "under
the influence of alcohol".
3. Drunk — The mind is confused, behavior is irregular
and movement is uncontrolled. The speech is thick
and uncoordinated. Behavior is uncontrollable.

4. Very Drunk, "Dead drunk" — The mind is confused

and disoriented. There is difficulty in speech and
marked motor incoordination and often walking is
impossible.
5. Coma — The subject is stuporous or
comatose. Sometimes it is difficult to
differentiate this condition with others having
coma.
Diagnostic Points of Drunkenness:
1. Alcoholic smell of the breath or of the
vomitus.
2. Dry furred tongue or with excessive salivation.
3. Irregular behavior.
4. Congestion of the conjunctivae.
5. Hesitancy or thickness of speech with
impaired articulation.
6. Tremor or error of coordination and
orientation.
7. Examination of the blood and the urine
shows the presence of alcohol.
8. History of having taken alcoholic beverages
Physical Tests to Determine Drunkenness:
1. Romberg's test — Let the subject stand
straight with heels together and with closed
eyes for at least one minute. If he is not drunk,
he will not sway to the front or to the sides,
but if he is drunk the body will not be stable in
the absence of any existing disease.
2. Let the subject stand straight with one foot
ahead of the other so that the toes of one foot
touch the heel of the other. This will remove the
brace to prevent side sway. If drunk, there is more
likelihood that the subject will sway sidewise and
fall. The test is repeated after the subject is free
from the effect of alcohol and make a comparison
of stability.
3. Let the subject sit comfortably in a desk and
get samples of his handwriting. Compare these
writings, with those taken when he is free from
the effects of alcohol.
4. Let the subject bend down and pick up a small
object from the floor. If he stumbles, then his
nervous system is not stable and that he may be
drunk.
5. Let the subject walk straight forward to a
comer of a room and rapidly turn around
without stopping. Tell him to walk back. You will
notice that the subject may have uncertainty of
steps, side steps, or he staggers while making
the turn and in walking.
Relation of the Blood Alcohol Level to the Degree of
Intoxication:
1. Persons with blood alcohol below 0.05% are not
considered intoxicated.
2. The majority of persons (80-90%) with blood alcohol
levels between 0.1% and 0.15% will have their faculties
so impaired as to render them unfit to drive motor cars
with reasonable safety.
3. The majority of young people who are not habitual
drinkers will be intoxicated to the extent of staggering
when the blood level is about 0.15%.
4. The majority of all persons (80-90%) including
habitual drinkers will be intoxicated to the extent of
staggering when the blood alcohol level is
approximately 0.2%.
5. The majority of persons will be in a coma when the
blood alcohol level is approximately 0.5%
The American Medical Association and the National
Safety Council of the United States recommended the
following presumptive limits of intoxication:
1. Persons who have 0.05% alcohol or less in their blood
are presumed to be uninfluenced by an alcohol.
2. Persons who have 0.05% to 0.10% alcohol in the
blood are considered to possibly be under the influence
of alcohol.
3. Blood alcohol level of 0.10% to 0.15% or more gives
rise to the presumption that the person is drunk.
1.Analysis of Blood:
Analysis of the blood is probably the most
widely accepted way to determine the
concentration of alcohol in the body. It is a
direct method of estimation although the
subject may refuse blood extraction for such
analysis.
2. Analysis of the Breath:
The concentration of alcohol in the blood can be
determined indirectly by making a quantitative
determination of alcohol in the respired air. The basis of
the analysis is that there is a constant ratio between the
concentration of alcohol in the blood stream and in the
alveolar air.
3. Analysis of the Urine:
Urine as a specimen for alcohol
determination has not gained widespread
use because of variability in the different
periods of alcohol intake.
4. Analysis of Body Tissue:
This method is applicable in death cases.
Examination of the brain for its alcohol content
is a reliable diagnostic procedure. Other bloody
organs like the liver, spleen, kidney may also be
examined for alcohol contents.
5. Analysis of Saliva, Perspiration and
Spinal Fluid:
Although it may be done, examination of
these fluids is seldom done
Objectives of Alcohol Examination:
1. For Screening — This is done to determine whether
alcohol is present in the sample. The sample may be
blood, urine, saliva, vitreous humor, stomach content or
respired air (alveolar air). The instrument and the
procedures must be simple for an ordinary layman or a
police officer to perform the job. The apparatus must be
portable so that the result will be available in the shortest
possible time. The apparatus may be placed in a mobile
laboratory for the purpose of screening drivers of motor
vehicles.
2.For Evidentiary Purpose — If in the screening
process the sample had a positive result, the next
procedure to be applied is the determination of the
quantity of alcohol. The report is to be submitted in
connection with such examination to be used as an
evidence as to the presence and actual amount of
alcohol in the submitted specimen. The procedure
requires the use of precision instrument and should
be performed in a regular chemical laboratory.
POISONOUS
SUBSTANCES
The Forensic Chemistry Division of the National Bureau
of Investigation, Department of Justice made the
following classification based on the Chemical
Standpoint:
A.Gaseous Poisons (Poisons Present in the Gaseous
State): Carbon dioxide; Carbon monoxide;
Hydrocarbons; Hydrogen sulfide; Sulfur dioxide; the
Oxides of nitrogen (Nitrous oxide, Nitric acid and
Nitrogen dioxide); war gases.
B. Inorganic Poisons:
1. Corrosives (Poisons characterized principally by an intense
and destructive action — a few organic corrosives are
included in this group for the sake of completeness):
a. Acid; Mineral and Organic: Sulfuric acid; Hydrochloric acid;
Nitric acid; Oxalic acid; Acetic acid.
b. Alkaline Corrosives: Potassium hydroxide; Sodium hydroxide;
Calcium oxide; Ammonium hydroxide.
c. Halogens: Chlorine; Bromine; Iodine; Fluorine
d. Corrosive Metallic Salts: Silver; Zinc.
e. Organic Corrosives: Phenol; Pyrogallol; Formaldehyde.
2. Metallic Poisons and Salts:
(These chemicals are protoplasmic irritants, but their
chief action is the deleterious effect produced after
absorption into the system.)
a. Heavy Metals: Phosphorus; Antimony; Arsenic; Bismuth;
Mercury; Lead; Radioactive substances; Thallium; Gold;
Osmium; Platinum; Nickel; Chromium; Tin; Vanadium.
b. Inorganic Salts: Alum; Alkaline earths; Magnesium sulfate;
Lithium salts; Potassium salts; Boric acid and borax;
Tellurium; Sodium silicate.
C. Organic Poisons:
1. Volatile Poisons (Volatile liquids or easily sublimated
solids many of which are irritants; their chief action
occurs after absorption)

2. Alkaloidal Poisons: (These substances are toxic

principles of plants which have a characteristic action on
some parts of the central nervous system; they are a
well-defined group)
D. Miscellaneous Poisons: (Associated with botulism; food
poisoning; mushroom poisoning; snake venom poisoning
1. Food Poisoning: Toxic substances in the food; Abnormal
hypersensitivity to normal constituents of food.
2. Poisonous Plants.
3. Poisonous Animals and Their Poisons: Arachnids;
Centipedes; Insects; Caterpillars; Vertebrates.
4. Biological Products.
 IRRESPIRABLE GASES
CARBON MONOXIDE (CARBONIC OXIDE GAS, CO
"SILENTKILLER "):
Carbon monoxide is formed from the incomplete
combustion of carbon fuel. The fatal carbon monoxide
poisoning usually involves burning of wood, oil, coal,
kerosene and charcoal used in heating or cooking, or
gasoline engines in cars.
Qualitative Test for Carbon Monoxide in the Blood:
1. Kunkel’s Test — The suspected blood, diluted with
4 volume of water is mixed with three times its
volume of 1% tannic acid solution and shaken well. If
carbon monoxide is present, a crimson-red coagulum
which retains its color for several months will develop.
Normal blood forms a coagulum, which is, at first red,
and becomes brown in the course of one to two hours
and then gray up to 24 to 48 hours.
2. Potassium Ferrocyanide Test — 15 cc. of
blood is mixed with equal amounts of 20%
potassium ferrocyanide solution and 2 cc. of
dilute acetic acid and shaken gently. A bright red
coagulum will be formed if the blood contains a
carbon monoxide, while a dark brown coagulum
will be formed if the blood is normal.
3. Examination Through a Spectroscope — The
characteristic bands of car boxy hemoglobin will
be shown.
4. Gas Chromatograph.
5. Infra-red Analysis.
CARBON DIOXIDE (C02 , CARBONIC ACID GAS):
Carbon dioxide is the gas blown out of the lungs during
respiration, product of complete combustion of carbon
containing compounds, and the end result of fermentation
and decomposition of organic matters.
It is a colorless, heavy gas often mixed with carbon monoxide
and hydrogen sulfide and is often found in drainage pipes,
deep wells, sewage tanks and other places where
decomposing organic matters are present. Some refrigerants
and dry ice is composed of carbon dioxide.
Tests for the Presence of Carbon Dioxide:
1. Barium nitrate gives a white precipitate of
barium carbonate with carbonic acid.
2. Silver nitrate gives a white precipitate of silver
carbonate when carbonic acid is added.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE (SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, H2S):
Hydrogen sulfide is formed during a decomposition process of
organic substances containing sulphur. It is found in large
quantities in a sewer, septic tanks, drainage pipes, and deep
wells. It may be a by-product in some industries, like tannery,
rayon factories, petroleum refineries, sulfur dye work, etc.
It is a colorless, transparent gas, sweetish taste and emiting an
odor similar to a rotten egg. The gas is soluble in water to form
carbonic acid and it burns in the air with a pale blue flame.
Detection:
1. The offensive odor may be recognized even
if the dilute gas is one part in 10,000 part of air.
2. A piece of filter paper moistened with lead
acetate will turn black if it was brought in
contact with the stomach or other organs
containing the gas.
HYDROGEN CYANIDE: Hydrogen cyanide is one of the
most toxic and rapid acting gases. It is formed by addition
of acid to potassium or sodium salt of cyanide. It is
naturally found in leaves of cherry-laurel, in bitter
almond, in kernels of common cherry, plum, peaches, in
ordinary bamboo shoots, and in certain oil seed and
beans. These plants contain a crystalline glucoside known
as amygdalin which, in the presence of water and natural
enzyme, called emulsin, is readily decomposed into
hydrocyanic acid, glucose and benzaldehyde.
SULFUR DIOXIDE:
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas, which is heavier than
air and with pungent odor.
It is employed as a disinfectant, as a bleaching agent,
a powerful reducing agent, and found usually in
eruption of volcanoes.
The gas produces irritation of the respiratory passage,
thus causes sneezing, coughing, spasm of the glottis
and suffocation.
The following are the primary reasons which may
contribute to the disaster of evidence/specimen, except:

a. Improper packing of specimen

b. Failure of identification of specimen

c. Proper precautions are used in transmitting the

specimen

d. Lack of precautions to prevent tampering of the

specimen
This test is used to determine whether the stain
contains blood or another substance. This also
determines whether visible stains do or do not contain
blood. It is used to demonstrate the presence of blood.

a. benzidine test

b. precipitin test

c. confirmatory test

d. preliminary test
Below are the possible locations of nitrates when black
powder and smokeless powder explode, except:

a. residue of the barrel of the gun.

b. in or around the wound

c. on the clothes of the witness far from the vicinity

d. on the exposed surface of the hand of the person

firing the gun
This test is used to determine the presence of
nitrates, or whether a person has fired a gun or not.

a. paraffin test

b. wax test

c. ignition test

d. van urk test

This is a test that determines whether fiber is mineral,
animal or vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame at
one end and the following are noted: manner of burning,
odor of fumes and appearance of burnt end.

a. paraffin test

b. wax test

c. ignition test

d. van urk test

The scope of forensic chemistry includes the following,
except:

a. it includes the legal side of criminal investigation

b. it includes the analysis of any material, the quality of which

may give rise to legal proceeding

c. it is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in

legal proceedings

d. it has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably

legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents,
dactyloscopy, and photography.
Below are the roles of the forensic chemist in the
scientific criminal investigation, except:

a. Determining whether or not a place/ location is a

clandestine laboratory.

b. Examination of marked bills/ suspects during

entrapment (extortion case)

c. Taking paraffin test.

d. Filing the case in court.

Substances or agents that produces vomiting.

a. Antidotes

b. Emetics

c. Volatile poisons

d. Laxatives
Which of the following is not included in the proper way
of collecting and preserving hair as evidence?

a. Don’t mix it with known samples

b. Don’t mix hair found in different places

c. Secure the hair samples to a piece of paper by using

scotch tape

d. It should be placed in a folded paper or in a white

mailing envelop
A poisonous substance isolated from the
skin of poisonous frogs.

a. chloroform

b. toluene

c. cantharides

d. bufotoxin
Which of the following sets of chromosomes
belong to a woman?

a. XXY

b. XX

c. XY

d. XYY
The following are the factors to be considered in the
interpretation of the Paraffin Test result. Which is not
included?

a. time of reaction

b. number of pink specks

c. location of specks

d. none of the above

All of the following are accurate tests for the
presence of alcohol in the human body, except one:

a. Saliva Test

b. Harger Breath Test

c. Fecal Test

d. Blood Test
A method of choice for the detection of occult (usually not
noticeable to the naked eye) blood at a crime scene that
was cleaned up or escaped detection for extended
periods of time.

a. barbero’s test

b. benzidine test

c. moulage

d. luminol test
Can a person be found positive for nitrates even if
he did not actually fire a gun?

a. yes

b. no

c. true

d. false
_________________of entrance wounds can occur when
firm material is pressed against the skin, such as when a
victim is shot through a wooden, glass, or metal door
while pressing against it to prevent entry of an assailant.

a. stippling

b. shoring

c. burning

d. peppering
It is a state of ill-health resulting from food which has
some abnormal or noxious content.

a. toxic

b. smoking

c. food poisoning

d. liquid poisoning
A science that deals with the composition, structure
and properties of substances and with the
transformations that they undergo.

a. forensic chemistry

b. science

c. chemistry

d. forensic science
A condition in which the temperature of a human
being or mammal is above normal.

a. frostbite

b. gangrene

c. pyrexia

d. dementia
Lead and mercury are examples of:

a. metallic poison

b. chemical poison

c. corrosive poison

d. None of the above

END OF LECTURE.