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ELK508E COMPUTER RELAYING

FOR POWER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2: RELAY ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 2.2: RELAY HARDWARE

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COMPUTER RELAY HARDWARE

Computer relay harware can be devided into four units:

-Isolation & analog scaling unit: Provides isolation
between relay computer and power system, and scale down
voltage and current signals to a level which can be
accepted by the relay computer. VTs, CTs
-Data acquisition unit: Provides A/D conversion and other
process related to A/D Coversion. Ant-ailzing filter, S/H
circuit, Multiplexer, ADC.
-Microprocesor unit: consist of compute engine and
communication processors, memories, I/O units, peripheral
devices,etc.
Power supply unit:
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Isolation and Analog COMPUTER RELAY HARDWARE

scaling Unit
Data acqusition unit
Communication
Unit

Cumm
Processor

Microprocessor unit

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Isolation & analog scaling unit

The analog signals must be converted to voltage signals suitable for conversion to
digital form. This is done by the Analog to Digital Converter (ADC). Usually the input
to an ADC is restricted to a full scale value of ±10 volts. The current and voltage
signals obtained from current and voltage transformer secondary windings must be
scaled down accordingly.

The current inputs must be

converted to voltages–for example
by resistive shunts. As the normal
current transformer secondary
currents may be as high as hundreds
of amperes, shunts of resistance of a
few milliohms are needed to produce
the desired voltage for the ADCs.

The normal voltage at the secondary of a voltage transformer is 67 volts rms

for a phase to neutral connection. It can be reduced to the desired level by a
resistive potential divider sized to provide adequate source impedance to
drive the following stages of filters and amplifiers of data acquisition system.
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Data acquisition unit: The scaled down voltage and current

signals are filtered, then discritized and converted into digital
form via ‘Data Acquisition system’.
Anti-alising filter: Signals coming from capacitor voltage
transformers and current transformers can contain, in addition to the
50Hz component, frequencies of tens of kHz under power system fault
and switching event.
Since the sampling frequency is fixed by the relay hardware, it is
necessary to ensure that the sampling theorem is obeyed by band-
limiting all continuous signals entering the relay prior to sampling.
This is achieved by the use of an analogue filter which is designed to
remove any frequencies existing on the input signal which are greater
than half the sampling frequency; such filters are referred to as anti-
aliasing filters.
Samling theorem:The sample rate must be greater than or equal to
two times the highest frequency component in the input signal.
The cut off frequency of filter defines this frequency.
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Sampling Frequency Fs ≥ Cut-off frequency of the anti-alising filter Fc

When this rule is violated, unwanted or undesirable
signals appear in the frequency band of interest. This
is called "aliasing.
For example, to digitize a 1kHz signal, a minimum
sampling frequency of 2kHz is required.

No aliasing

Aliasing has
occurred

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An anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter that

accomplishes this. How does one select the right filter?

The key parameters that need observation are the

amount of attenuation (or ripple) in the passband, the
desired filter roll off in the stopband, the steepness in
the transition region and the phase relationship of the
different frequencies as they pass through the filter
Ideal filter

Fc
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Four basic filter types

The Butterworth filter has
the flattest passband
region, meaning it has the
least attenuation over the
desired frequency range.

The Bessel filter has a more gradual roll-off but its key
advantage is that it has a linear phase response,
meaning each frequency component is delayed by an
equal amount of time as it passes through the filter.

The Chebyshev filter has a steeper roll off but more

ripple in the passband.

The Elliptic filter has the steepest roll off

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An anti-aliasing filter

In most applications of computer relaying, two-stage RC filters

are found to provide an acceptable compromise between
sharpness of the cut-off characteristic in the stop band, and the
time delay in their step input response.
A second order Butterworth, Chebyshev, or maximally flat
(Bessel) filter may be used to satisfy computer relaying
requirements. However, these filters have a significant overshoot
in their step input response.
Two-stage RC filters are quite popular because of their simplicity,
passive components, and a reasonable frequency response.
They suffer from the disadvantage that they produce a rounded
characteristic at the beginning of the stop band.

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The transfer function of a two-stage RC filter is given by:

R1, C1, R2, C2 being the components of two stages. These components
must be adjusted to provide the necessary attenuation at a desired cut-
off frequency fc.

The frequency response and step wave response of this filter

are shown following figures
The relay gain and phase shift are obtained by taking the magnitude and
phase angle of H(ω):

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If we consider that all four components used in the passive

circuit may vary by small amounts, the variations in the gain
and phase shift are given by:

Taking the partial derivatives at the selected nominal values

of R1, R2, C1 and C2 we get:

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Often it is the relative deviation in the phase angle φ/φ at 50

Hz due to changes in resistor and capacitor values which is
of greatest concern, since this is greater in magnitude than
the relative deviation in gain G/G.
The gain magnitude and phase angle of an active filter are
more sensitive to variations in component values as
compared to those of a passive filter.
Problems
1.1 A 500 kV transmission line has a normal load current of 1000
amperes primary, and a maximum symmetrical fault current of 30 000
amperes. Determine the CT and CVT ratios and ohmic values of shunts
and potential dividers in their respective secondary circuits. Assume that a
full DCoffset may occur in the fault current, and allow for a dynamic
overvoltage of 20%. Determine the smallest load current that the input
system can read if the ADC used is a 12 bit converter.

Relay input voltage level for analog giriş= 67V phase to ground
Relay input current for analog giriş = 5A or 1A.
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Example

RC ladder realization.

Frequency response

Step wave input response

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Data acquisition unit

S/H circuit: After filtering the continuous-time signals are
converted into the discrete-time signal using S/H amplifiers,
since before A/D conversion:
- the sampling instant must be preserved
- the signals must be held steadt-state.

Multiplexer:
It is a programmable switch to
Trends in the ADC development and
connect each analog channel to ADC
their reduced costs seem to point to
in turn which converts the sampled
the use of individual ADCs for each
values (discrete-time signals) into
signal to be the preferred system.
equivalent digital numbers.
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Data acquisition unit

A/D Conversion: The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) converts an analog
voltage level to its digital representation. The principal feature of an ADC is
its word length expressed in bits. Ultimately this affects the ability of the
ADC to represent the analog signal with a sufficiently detailed digital
representation.

Consider an ADC with 12 bit word length, using a two’s complement notation:
0111 1111 1111 (7FFH, -2048), will be the largest positive number that can
be represented by a 12 bit ADC.
1000 0000 0000 (800H, 2048), will be the largest negative number that
can be represented by a 12 bit ADC.

if the word length of the ADC is N bits, and the maximum input voltage for the
ADC is V volts, the quantization error/ level q is given by

Considering that the analog input signal may range

between ±10 volts, it is clear that each bit of the 12 bit
ADC Word represents 10/2048 volts, or 4.883 millivolts.
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Main Memory
The Random Access Memory (RAM) holds the input sample
data as they are brought in and processed. It may also be
used to buffer data for later storage in a more permanent
medium. In addition, RAM is needed as a scratch pad to be
used during relay algorithm execution.

The Read Only Memory (ROM) or Programmable Read Only

Memory (PROM) is used to store the programs permanently.
In some cases the programs may execute directly from the
ROM, if its read time is short enough.
If this is not the case, the programs must be copied from the
ROM into the RAM during an initialization stage, and then the
real-time execution would take place from the RAM.

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Main Memory
The Erasable PROM (EPROM) is needed for storing certain
parameters (such as the relay settings) which may be changed from
time to time, but once set must remain fixed, even if the power
supply to the computer is interrupted. Either a core type memory or
an on-board battery backed RAM may be suitable for this function.
E²PROM: Electrically erasable PROM. Unlike an EPROM, this
device does not need exposure to ultra-violet light in order to erase
memory contents. Individual locations within the memory may be
electrically erased and reprogrammed with the chip in situ. Can be
used for storing relay settings.
Flash memory: Similar idea, but different technology, to E²PROM,
i.e. memory may be electrically erased and programmed without
resiting chip. Flash memory is available in larger memory size per
chip than E²-PROM making it an attractive option to relay
manufacturers for program memory store.
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Microprocessor

The highest level of programmable logic devices are known as

computers. Initially computers were realised from discrete collections
of logic circuits. As silicon integration became more and more dense, it
became possible to integrate all the required logic devices for a
computer onto one piece of silicon; these devices became known
as microprocessors.
Typically, numeric relays use 12 or 14 bit ADCs. Prior to the
introduction of 16 bit microprocessors, 8 bit microprocessors were
standard, but not ideally suited to processing 12 or 14 bit values. Thus,
the advent of 16 bit microprocessors was instrumental in the progress
of numeric relays. One of the first 16 bit processors on the market was
the Intel 8086 which was launched in 1978. The 8086 series is one of
the most successful family of processors ever produced due to its
widespread use in IBM PCs (usually as the 80286, 80386 or 80486).
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A significant step forward was made by the launch, in 1983, of the

Texas Instruments TMS320 range of 16 bit digital signal processors.
The TMS320 differs from conventional 16 bit microprocessors by
having a hardware multiplier integrated directly onto its chip.

The architecture of the TMS320 range was especially designed for

digital signal processing (DSP), for example it is possible to perform a
multiplication and an addition, a common operation in DSP as will
be shown later, in one instruction cycle.
Early versions of the TMS320 had an instruction cycle of 200ns but
this rapidly decreased to lOOns. Over the past 30 years, there has
been a steady growth in the performance of digital signal processors
and they are now available from several manufacturers.

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RELAY SOFTWARE

Operation Software
-Data Acquisition Software
-Human Machine Interface Software
-Communication Sortware

Application Softwre: Related to metering, continuous

monitoring, protection, operation control, self checking, Data
recording etc.

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Memory Classification

Onetime programmable

Electronically Erasable
PROM
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IEDs Based Computer networks for Substation Automation

HMIS

Upper Layer
Modbus TCP/IP
Sub-station Operation Center
Host N

MODBUS RTU/IEC61850

Middle Layer
IED1 IED2 IED 3 …… IEDn

CT/VT CT/VT CT/VT CT/VT

Lower
Layer
Switch Switch Switch Switch
Power System Environment
Copyright 2015 Usta
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THANKS to
COMPUTER RELAYING FOR POWER Digital protection and signalling
SYSTEMS
MP Moore
Arun G. Phadke
James S. Thorp

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