Millets As Potential Nutri Cereals - A Review of Nutrient Composition, Phytochemical Profile and Techno Functionality

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021, 56, 3703–3718 3703
Review
Millets as potential nutri-cereals: a review of nutrient
composition, phytochemical profile and techno-functionality
Rajan Sharma,1 Savita Sharma,1* B.N. Dar2* & Baljit Singh1

1 Department of Food Science & Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141001, India
2 Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science & Technology, 1-University Avenue Awantipora, Srinagar, Kashmir,
192122, India
(Received 11 November 2020; Accepted in revised form 18 March 2021)
Summary Millets are sustainable drought-resistant crops capable of surviving a wide range of climatic conditions.
They are small-seeded grains rich in proteins, minerals and bioactive compounds inducing several health
benefits and provide protection against chronic and degenerative modern lifestyle disorders. Hypogly-
caemic profile and bioactive composition are the key elements for the popularity of millets as functional
ingredients for the development of novel food products of commercial importance. Despite numerous
health benefits and agro-economic potential, millets have lost their popularity due to coarse nature and
are underutilised in developed countries. Food scientists and nutritionists are characterising and valorising
millets to enhance their use for food applications. The present article reviews research investigations about
nutritional composition (macro- and micro-nutrients), biologically active components (phenolic acid, fla-
vonoids, phytosterols and related antioxidant potential) and techno-functionality of millets. Pharmacolog-
ical impact and their utilisation in value-added products have also been included.
Keywords Antioxidants, functional properties, millets, minerals, nutri-cereals, phytosterols, rheology.
proso millet (Penicum miliaceum), barnyard millet

Introduction
(Echinochloa utilis), kodo millet (Paspalum setaceum)
Increasing population and water scarcity around the and little millet (Panicum sumatrense) that are a poten-
globe have attracted interest in drought-tolerant crops tial source of food, feed and fodder in different nations
having agrarian sustainability and nutritive composi- (Saleh et al., 2013; Shahidi & Chandrasekara, 2013).
tion. Earmarked funding and interest in research pro- These crops hold agrarian importance due to their
jects for increased production and valorisation of these lower water demand for growth and other biological
grains are being increased in many parts of the world processes in comparison with other major cereal crops
(Saleh et al., 2013; Chandra et al., 2016). Sustainable (Winch, 2006). They have also been referred to as ‘ce-
crop alternatives may be necessitated to meet food reals of the future’ owing to their sustainability and
requirement and to improve the economic status of the environmental impact (Sharma & Gujral, 2019a).
farmers. Millets have been proposed to be a part of Millets are an excellent source of macro- and micro-
staple diet owing to their biological and techno-func- nutrients, and their mineral profile and essential amino
tional characteristics (Saleh et al., 2013). Interestingly, acid composition are superior to other major cereals
they have been documented as first cereals consumed such as wheat and rice (Mal et al., 2010; Singh et al.,
during the early phases of human civilisation several 2012). Due to richness in phytonutrients and biologi-
thousand years ago evident from the production of cally active components such as dietary fibre, phenolic
noodles from millet flours about 4000 years ago in acids, flavonoids and phytosterols, regular intake of
Northern China (Lu et al., 2005). Millets are small- millets has been associated with reduced risk of many
seeded warm season cereal grains comprising of seven degenerative diseases. Millets also possess other health
types as pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), foxtail mil- benefits including antioxidative, anti-ulcerative, hypo-
let (Setaria italic), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), glycaemic and anti-inflammatory properties in addition
to cholesterol-lowering potential (Shobana & Malleshi,
*Correspondent: E-mails: [email protected] (BND) and
2007; Schoenlechner et al., 2013; Sharma & Gujral,
[email protected] (SS) 2019a). Millet carbohydrates have lower starch
doi:10.1111/ijfs.15044
© 2021 Institute of Food Science and Technology
3704 Millets as potential Nutri-cereals. . . R. Sharma et al.
digestibility modulating blood glucose level due to may contain glucoarabinoxylans, b-glucan and certain
slower absorption (Chethan & Malleshi, 2007). hemicellulose depending upon their branching and
Attributing to their phytochemical profile and contri- degree of cross-linking. The most significant portion of
bution to human wellness, they are being explored for dietary fibre is an insoluble part which induces antioxi-
applications in the food industry as potential func- dant activity due to the presence of certain polypheno-
tional ingredients for gluten-free and low-glycaemic lic compounds helping in prevention against certain
products (Sharma & Gujral, 2019b). The present degenerative diseases such as gastrointestinal disorders,
review aims to report compositional profile (nutritional cancers and neurological concerns (Kaur et al., 2014).
and antinutritional properties), bioactive composition Higher amount of dietary fibre causes significant
and antioxidant activity, protein and starch digestibil- decline in the gut transit time, generate short-chain
ity and functional properties including pasting, thermal fatty acids due to colonic fermentation and slow down
and rheological performance. the release of sugars in the blood (Kaur et al., 2014).
Studies have indicated that pearl millet has highest
concentration of soluble sugars followed by finger mil-
Compositional profile
let and foxtail millet (Chauhan et al., 2018). Addition-
ally, pearl millet, foxtail millet and finger millet have
Carbohydrate composition of millets
been reported to contain minor fractions of fructose as
Millet carbohydrates comprise starch (60–75%), non- well (Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez, 2019).
starchy polysaccharides (15–20%) and free sugars
(2–3%) (Chauhan et al., 2018). Compositional profile
Protein composition and their fractionation in millet
of millets is shown in Table 1. The carbohydrate con-
flours
tent of millets ranges between 50% and 88% depend-
ing upon the variety, species, agro-climatic conditions The protein content of millets presents diversified
and crop management. They also contain dietary fibre range between the species and varieties due to genetic
including arabinoxylans, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin variability and agro-geographical factors. Compara-
and b-glucan (Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez, tively, proso and little millet have a higher quantity of
2019). Among these millet grains, pearl millet, Kodo protein ranging between 10% and 15% which is higher
millet and finger millet contain a comparatively higher or comparable to other high protein cereal grain spe-
proportion of starch (Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa- cies; however, protein content is also significantly
Ramırez, 2019). Patil (2016) reported that some vari- affected by agronomic conditions including soil nitro-
eties of finger millet, proso millet and foxtail millet are gen content and growth environment. The high protein
glutinous owing to their waxy starches. Millet starches content of millets makes them promising candidates
have been characterised as polygonal, pentagonal, for the development of value-added food products for
spherical and round granules of varied sizes with cer- malnourished and targeted groups. Although the
tain pores at the surface (Annor et al., 2014; Zhu, quantity of protein holds high significance, its compo-
2014). Barnyard millet has the highest concentration sition in terms of amino acids also dictates the poten-
of crude fibre and dietary fibre containing 6.1–10.5% tial of the grains. Most of the cereals are deficient in
insoluble and 3.5–4.6% soluble dietary fibres when lysine while as millets, finger millet and kodo millet
compared to other millets (Veena et al., 2005). The have 2.2–5.5 g lysine/100 g of proteins and pearl millet
total dietary fibre content of foxtail, proso and kodo may contain lysine as high as 6.5 g/100 g protein
millets is also high when compared to other cereals. (Bean et al., 2019). Taylor & Taylor (2017) confirmed
Major insoluble components of dietary fibre in millet high lysine content of pearl millet and finger millet due
grains include lignin and cellulose, while soluble fibre to the presence of albumin, glutelin or globulin
Table 1 Compositional profile of whole grain millets (Chauhan et al., 2018; Shen et al., 2018; Vali Pasha et al., 2018; Embashu &
Nantanga, 2019; Jayawardana et al., 2019; Nithiyanantham et al., 2019; Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez, 2019)
Millets Carbohydrate (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Ash (%) Crude fibre (%)
Pearl millet 63.0–78.0 8.6–19.4 1.5–6.5 2.7–3.6 1.4–11.0

Finger millet 85.0–88.0 7.7–10.9 1.3–1.4 2.9–3.3 3.7–3.9
Foxtail millet 60.9–75.2 11.3–12.9 3.6–3.9 3.0–3.2 4.5–8.0
Little millet 69.7–78.5 10.2–13.4 3.7–4.1 3.0–3.4 4.0–8.0
Kodo millet 66.0–72.0 6.2–13.1 3.2–4.9 3.0–4.1 8.4–11.0
Barnyard millet 51.5–65.0 11.2–12.7 2.5–6.3 4.7–5.0 13.9–14.7
Proso millet 65.82–78.59 10.65–14.7 1.54–3.77 2.0–4.0 2.0–9.0
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021 © 2021 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Millets as potential Nutri-cereals. . . R. Sharma et al. 3705
fractions which are rich in lysine. High germ-to-en-

Mineral profile of millets
dosperm ratio in pearl millet may also contribute to
high lysine. A higher concentration of prolamin in fox- Deficiency of minerals is a matter of concern as it
tail and proso millet has been suggested responsible causes profound impact on the metabolic processes
for lower lysine content, but they are higher in leucine. and tissue structure which may result in severe and
Albumin and globulin composition of millet proteins chronic disorders (Soetan et al., 2010). Although min-
suggests that these grains have better amino acid com- eral profile of any crop is markedly dependent on soil
position and protein quality when compared to other fertility, climatic conditions, agronomic practices, envi-
cereals. ronmental and geographical constraints, potassium
and phosphorus are the most predominant minerals in
all millets. Other major minerals present in millets
Lipid composition and distribution in millets
include calcium, sodium and magnesium (Vali Pasha
Lipids are present in relatively smaller amount in all et al., 2018). As shown in Table 2, pearl millet is rich
millet types as shown in Table 1. Lower lipid content in potassium, phosphorus and constitute good
of millet attributes to their prolonged shelf life as most amounts of iron, zinc and manganese. Kodo millet is
of the fat in millets is present in the germ portion exceptionally rich in trace minerals including iron,
which is eliminated during decortication (Shobana copper, zinc and manganese. Calcium and sodium con-
et al., 2013). The fat content of millets ranges between tent are almost similar in all the millets ranging
1% and 6%, and certain varieties may have higher between 0.1 and 0.7 g kg1. Zinc is highest in little
proportions which may also sometimes compromise millet followed by proso, barnyard, finger and foxtail
their shelf stability. Slama et al., (2019) reported millet. Gilani et al. (2005) reported that polyphenols
5.06% total lipid content in pearl millet and found present in cereals and legumes can bind positively
77.22% of oil as mono- or polyunsaturated fat. They charged moieties including minerals such as calcium,
further reported that extracted oil was rich in linoleic iron and zinc; consequently, their bioavailability and
acid (47.5%) but had lower linolenic acid (2.15%). intestinal absorption are significantly influenced. Sal-
Other millets also have similar concentration of lino- divar (2016) stated that most of the phosphorus is in
leic acid (41–71%) and linolenic acid (1.1–4.1%). The the form of phytate/phytic acid (phosphate group)
palmitoleic acid content of millets is less than 1% reducing its bioavailability. Milling of millets reduces
(Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez, 2019). Finger the concentration of minerals in the flour; however,
millet is the only exception having oleic acid as the their availability is enhanced due to the elimination of
predominant fatty acid with 47.5% of the total lipids antinutrients (Oghbaei & Prakash, 2016). Phytic acid
followed by palmitic and linoleic acid (Bora et al., content is reduced by several processing treatments
2019). Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez (2019) fur- such as germination, fermentation, soaking and enzy-
ther documented that almost 80% of the total fat of matic treatment (phytase) which release the chelated
millets belongs to nonpolar lipid fraction, of which minerals and improve their intestinal absorption
more than 80% are triacylglycerols. They further (Gupta et al., 2015; Rasane et al., 2015). Several nutri-
revealed that polar lipids in pearl millet comprise tional interventions including biofortification and
phospholipids (~12%) followed by glycolipids (~3%) enrichment have been implemented to deal with min-
including lysophosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyl- eral deficiency, and millets are the potential candidates
choline, phosphatidylglycerol, acyl-mono-galactosyl- for delivery of adequate amount of nutrients to over-
diacylglycerol, cerebroside, sterol glycoside and others. come malnutrition (Vinoth & Ravindhran, 2017).
Table 2 Mineral composition of millets (Chandra et al., 2016; Kulthe et al., 2016; Chauhan et al., 2018; Vali Pasha et al., 2018;
Serna-Saldivar & Espinosa-Ramırez, 2019)
Major minerals (g kg1) Trace minerals (mg kg1)
Millets Ca P K Na Mg Fe Cu Zn Mn
Pearl millet 0.29–0.42 2.40–3.72 3.90–4.42 0.10–0.12 1.30–1.37 50–110 6–10.6 29–31 11.5–18
Finger millet 0.90–3.44 2.83–5.84 4.08–11.23 0.11–0.68 1.37–3.74 377–695 4.7–13 23–93 54.9–165
Foxtail millet 0.19–0.31 2.90–7.15 3.64–9.23 0.02–0.62 1.43–3.02 208–386 5.9–15 35–84 11.6–39
Little millet 0.17–0.24 2.20–6.98 1.26–5.04 0.07–0.72 2.33–3.44 457–515 9.0–12 37–161 26–33
Kodo millet 0.22–0.35 1.80–4.73 1.41–6.40 0.61–0.65 2.10–3.01 1082–1413 17–20 59–76 47–89
Barnyard millet 0.20–0.22 2.80–6.17 7.34–7.92 0.68–0.69 2.40–3.08 301–381 10–11 60–103 36–42
Proso millet 0.15–0.22 2.06–5.54 1.95–5.32 0.57–0.60 1.97–2.97 423–550 14–18 74–91 21–45
© 2021 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021
Italian millet (107.8 mg FAE/100 g), barnyard millet

Vitamins profile of millets
(129.5 mg FAE/100 g) and finger Italian millet
Millets are an important dietary source of vitamin B (136.3 mg FAE/100 g). Xiang et al. (2019c) reported
complex except for B12 as it is predominantly found in free and bound fractions of phenolic compounds as
yeast and animal products. Vitamins are also concen- 161.86 and 224.47 mg FAE per kg of foxtail millet.
trated in the bran, pericarp and aleurone layer of mil- Xiang et al. (2019b) investigated 45 different samples
lets (Saldivar, 2016). Thiamin and riboflavin content in of finger millet for their phenolic content and
millets ranges between 0.25–0.57 and 0.05–0.23 mg/ reported their concentration ranging from 148.55 to
100 g, respectively. Asharani et al., (2010) also 589.12 mg FAE/100 g. Kumari et al. (2017) com-
reported the presence of tocopherols and tocotrienols pared the phenolic composition of foxtail, proso and
in minor fractions. The total tocopherol concentration finger millet and stated that bound phenolics in hulls
(inclusive of a, b, v) in minor millets was found and whole grains were higher than soluble counter-
between 1.2 and 4.1 mg/100 g; highest was observed parts. Pradeep & Sreerama (2018) reported that more
for finger millet followed by proso millet (3.6 mg/ than 80% phenolic acids were present in soluble
100 g). The presence of carotenes has also been extracts with ferulic, sinapic and caffeic acids as
reported in pearl millet with a concentration of major contributors, while coumaric and ferulic acids
5.4 mg kg1 of flour (McDonough et al., 2000). were predominant in conjugated fractions.
Bioactive composition and antioxidant activity Flavonoid composition and distribution in millets
The millets also constitute several biologically active Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds responsible
compounds such as polyphenolic compounds, pheno- for blue, red and purple colours in foods and struc-
lic acids, tannins and flavonoids being the major turally characterised by aromatic rings connected
classes (Duodu & Awika, 2019). These compounds through a heterocyclic ring of three carbon molecules
exhibit several health-related benefits through antioxi- (Duodu & Awika, 2019). Several flavonoids have been
dant properties and consequently preventing chronic identified in the millet grains belonging to different
and degenerative disorders (Awika & Rooney, 2004; classes of anthocyanins, flavones, flavanols, flavonols
Dykes & Rooney, 2006). These phytochemicals are and proanthocyanidins. Total flavonoid content in mil-
majorly positioned in the outer bran layers in addi- lets measured in terms of catechin equivalent ranged
tion to minerals, vitamins and fibres (Liang & Liang, between 25.15 and 1203 µmol catechin eq per g of the
2019). crude extract; highest has been recorded for Kodo mil-
let followed by finger millet and proso millet (Chan-
drasekara & Shahidi, 2011b). Pradeep & Sreerama
Distribution of phenolic acids in millets
(2018) reported total flavonoids in bound fractions of
Sixty per cent of the phenolic acids are present as foxtail and little millet as 159.86–240.31 µg g1 and
conjugated compounds, while remaining are free or 178.00–287.13 µg g1, while soluble fractions exhibited
extractable. They include derivatives of hydroxyben- 115.08–223.92 µg g1 and 126.74–225.96 µg g1,
zoic acid (p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic, gentisic, respectively. The authors identified catechin, myricetin,
syringic and vanillic) and hydroxycinnamic acids (fer- daidzein, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, naringenin and
ulic, p-coumaric, cinnamic, sinapic and caffeic) (Sha- kaempferol as major flavonoid compounds during
hidi & Chandrasekara, 2013; Zhang & Liu, 2015). HPLC analysis. Flavonoid concentration in millets is
The proportion of these compounds varies within dif- directly linked to the colour of the grains; attributing
ferent millets and also with different morphological to the significant variation in the colour due to varietal
regions in the seeds (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, and geographical diversity, several authors have stated
2011a). wide range of polyphenolic content. Xiang et al.
Chandrasekara & Shahidi (2011b) reported total (2019a) studied the bioactive composition of four fin-
phenolic content of millets ranging between 146 and ger millet varieties having brown, white, reddish and
1157 lmol ferulic acid equivalents (FAE) per g phe- red seed coat. They reported highest concentration of
nolic extract; highest was observed for kodo millet. flavonoids in red (202.94 mg catechin eq/100 g) fol-
Variation in the phenolic content has also been lowed by brown (197.1 mg catechin eq/100 g), reddish
reported within varieties of particular millet grain; (175.58 mg catechin eq/100 g), and least was recorded
for instance, five different populations of pearl millet for white seed coat finger millet grains (90.24 mg cate-
exhibited total phenols ranging from 72.08 to chin eq/100 g). Ofosu et al. (2020) also reported flavo-
136.25 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per g (Boua- noid content of barnyard millet (101.3 mg catechin/
jila et al., 2020). Ofosu et al. (2020) also documented 100 g) and finger Italian millet (115.8 mg catechin/
phenolic concentration of different millets as finger 100 g).
contribute to the antioxidant potential of millets

Phytosterol composition in millets
through different modes of action (Liang & Liang,
Phytosterols are important biological components pro- 2019). Phytosterols such as b-sitosterol, campesterol
viding structural stability to membranes in plant cells and stigmastanol also exhibit ferric reducing and
and hold bioactive potential by inducing several hydroxyl radical scavenging activity (Pang et al.,
health-related benefits. These compounds also function 2014). Millet grain phenolic compounds were found to
as precursors in the generation of several bio-func- inhibit the generation of hydroperoxides and conju-
tional compounds including steroidal glycoalkaloids, gated dienes in phosphatidylcholine liposome which
brassinosteroids, steroidal saponins and phytoecdys- got oxidised under the influence of ultraviolet radia-
teroids (Moreau et al., 2018). Total phytosterol con- tions (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2011b). Several
tent of Italian finger millet ranged between 477 and in vitro investigations revealed the positive impact of
568 mg kg1 comprising of campesterol, stigmasterol antioxidants against age-related concerns, chronic
and b-sitosterol of which 85% was comprised of b-si- degenerative diseases and other modern lifestyle disor-
tosterol (Bhandari & Lee, 2013). Ryan et al. (2007) ders including celiac disease, coronary heart diseases
also identified these three compounds in millets and and diabetes as reviewed by Kaur et al. (2019b) and
measured as b-sitosterol (48.3 mg), campesterol Kaur et al. (2019a). Phenolic acids in millet grains
(8.7 mg) and stigmasterol (0.8 mg) per 100 g of grains. induce bioactivity due to their capacity to donate
Foxtail millet bran oil has been characterised for phy- hydrogen atoms to electron-deficient radicals through
tosterols and found to contain b-sitosterol (56.26%), hydroxyl groups present on the benzene rings and
campesterol (15.91%), stigmastanol (15.12%) with thereby forming a resonance-stabilised phenoxyl radi-
minor concentrations of stigmasterol (5.58%), fucos- cal (Liang & Liang, 2019).
terol (4.16%) and ergostanol (2.97%) (Pang et al.,
2014). Squalene, a long-chain triterpene compound
Antinutritional factors
and strongly unsaturated in nature act as a precursor
in the synthesis pathway of phytosterols in millets (Ji Antinutritional components are the detrimental con-
et al., 2019). Although sterols and stanols exhibit simi- stituents of cereals and legumes which hinder the
lar impact on human wellness, stanol contribution to absorption of nutrients and reduce their bioavailability
bioactivity of millets requires further investigation in the body. Several antinutritional compounds in cer-
(Duodu & Awika, 2019). eal grains including phytates, tannins, alkaloids, lectins
and protease inhibitors among others are reported
(Ram et al., 2020); however, tannins and phytates are
Antioxidant activity of millet constituents
most studied antinutritional factors in millet grains.
Oxidative stress has been considered as the leading The phytic acid content of proso millet and foxtail
cause of degenerative and chronic diseases due to millet was found to be 7.2 and 9.9 mg g1, respec-
imbalance between the higher synthesis of free radicals tively. The concentration of phytic acid was higher in
against poor antioxidant defence mechanisms (Chan- the whole grains in comparison with polished grains
drasekara & Shahidi, 2010). The antioxidant power of (Devisetti et al., 2014). Among all millets, proso and
millets has been evaluated in terms of metal chelation, barnyard millet showed higher inositol hexaphosphates
reducing power, singlet oxygen radical quenchers and while condensed tannins were highest in kodo followed
free radical scavenging (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, by finger and barnyard millet (Sharma & Gujral,
2010; Chandrasekara et al., 2012; Ofosu et al., 2020). 2019b). The phytic acid content of different varieties
Five different populations of pearl millet exhibited free of millets ranged between 3.37–3.70 mg g1 (barnyard
radical inhibition activity ranging between 66.9% and millet) and 5.54–5.58 mg g1 (finger millet), while
84.7% (Bouajila et al., 2020). Foxtail millet prolamin trypsin inhibition was found to be 7.85–8.37% and
peptides (Pro-Phe-Leu-Phe and Ile-Ala-Leu-Leu-Ile- 8.02–8.36%, respectively (Panwar et al., 2016). Simi-
Pro-Phe) were found to reduce the production of larly, in another study, pearl millet flour presented
malondialdehyde and other reactive oxygen species 9.2 mg g1 phytic acid and 2.2 mg g1 tannin acid
along with an increase in the glutathione level, thereby while finger millet was observed to contain 6.1 mg g1
exerting antioxidant effect (Ji et al., 2020). Antioxidant phytic acid and 3.5 mg g1 tannin acid (Gull et al.,
activity has been correlated with polyphenolic content, 2016). Kodo millet varieties exhibited comparatively
and thus, coloured varieties of finger millet presented lower phytic acid and tannin content ranging between
higher oxygen absorbance capacity and free radical 1.2–1.4 and 1.0–1.2 mg g1, respectively (Shyam &
scavenging compared with white seed coat cultivars Singh, 2018). Phytic acid is known to reduce the
(Xiang et al., 2019a). The phenolic acids and flavo- bioavailability of minerals and activity of enzymes due
noids, tannins, xylooligosaccharides, insoluble fibre, to their ability to bind and precipitate proteins and
carotenoids, vitamin E and bioactive peptides also minerals. Absorption of certain minerals such as zinc,
iron, calcium and magnesium may be reduced as a Palaniappan et al., 2017). Arya & Shakya (2020) inves-
result of phytate–metal insoluble complexes causing tigated the prebiotic potential of multi-millet func-
mineral deficiency. Tannins make complexes with pro- tional beverage and reported potential of millets to
teins or sometimes bind to minerals and thereby inter- favour the growth of gut microflora reflected from pre-
fering with the digestion processes (Raes et al., 2014). biotic activity score. Palaniappan et al. (2017) found
Tannins may occur in hydrolysable or condensed the significant prebiotic activity of xylooligosaccha-
forms; hydrolysable are prone to digestive hydrolysis- rides extracted from finger millet for Lactobacillus
generating toxic compounds while condensed tannins plantarum and inhibition of four pathogenic micro-or-
are non-hydrolysable and are not absorbed during ganisms due to the generation of short-chain fatty
digestion. Protease inhibitors such as trypsin inhibitors acids. Prebiotics benefit the host health by promoting
cause pancreatic hyperplasia and influence sulphur the colonic microflora strengthening the immune
metabolism along with poor utilisation of other amino response and by restricting the growth of pathogenic
acids, thereby reducing the digestibility of proteins micro-organisms. Chronic inflammation has been
(Adeyemo & Onilude, 2013). referred to as novel malignant phenotype for the onset
of tumours. Phenolic compounds from millets have
been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory properties
Health benefits of millet-based food systems
under in vivo and in vitro experimental models (Shi
Pharmacological studies have documented that millets et al., 2017). Bioactive peptides from foxtail millet pro-
are potential functional ingredients and exhibit lamins inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokines and
nutraceutical properties majorly attributing to their supressed other similar metabolites in murine macro-
antioxidant potential. Bioactive compounds of millets phages (Ji et al., 2020). Similarly, Jakubczyk et al.
are responsible for lowering the risk of the onset of (2019) also confirmed the anti-inflammatory impact of
several degenerative chronic complications such as car- bioactive peptides of millet grains hydrolysed in con-
diovascular diseases, diabetes, several types of cancers, trolled in vitro gastrointestinal conditions. Further, Hu
high blood pressure, heart attacks and tumours (Tha- et al. (2020) reported that foxtail millet peptides
kur & Tiwari, 2019). Health benefits of millets have showed anti-inflammation activity evident by inhibi-
been studied mainly in terms of hypoglycaemic impact, tion of nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines
prebiotic potential, anti-inflammatory properties and including interleukin-6 and tumorous necrosis factor a
prevention of heart diseases and cancers. Management for RAW264.7 cells. Pharmacological activities of dif-
of diabetes has been well established with the dietary ferent millets studied by various researchers are sum-
modulations, especially with foods having a low-gly- marised in Table 3.
caemic index. The hypoglycaemic response of millets is
associated with higher protein and fibre content which
Millets as functional ingredients in value-added
lowers the rate of starch digestibility, and thus, post-
products
prandial hyperglycaemia is controlled. Geetha et al.
(2020) found that millet-based food mix exhibited rela- Millets have been a staple food since ancient times.
tively moderate glycaemic load (less than 20) and There are several traditional products prepared from
lower glycaemic index (less than 55) in comparison millets. Appalu is a product prepared from pearl millet
with other cereals which caused a significant reduction and Bengal gram by making a dough with the addition
in the blood glucose level of diabetic subjects. Further of some spices followed by shaping and deep-frying.
Vedamanickam et al. (2020) also reported that con- Madua is another alcoholic beverage prepared by
sumption of millets regulated the blood sugar level of roasting finger millet before the addition of inoculum
diabetic patients in addition to modification of the and allowed to ferment in the perforated basket for
lipid profile, systolic and diastolic values. Sharma & 4–7 days. Koozh is also a fermented beverage made
Gujral (2019b) have found that starch digestion has a from finger millet and rice flour. It involves two-stage
strong negative correlation with resistant starch, diet- fermentation process followed by cooking to obtain
ary fibre, phenolic acids and flavonoids. Natural thick porridge (Kumar et al., 2018).
polyphenols induce anti-diabetic effect as a conse- Recently, several authors have assessed the function-
quence of inhibition of a-amylase and a-glycosidase ality of millets to develop gluten-free pasta products.
activity. Thus, carbohydrate digestion and metabolism Cordelino et al. (2019) evaluated the nutritive and
are delayed and absorption of glucose is influenced in functional performance of gluten-free proso millet
the digestive tract (Taslimi & Gulcßin, 2017). Several pasta and reported good acceptance in terms of bio-
prebiotic compounds such as arabinoxylans, inulin and logical and techno-functional activity. Tyl et al. (2020)
xylooligosaccharides have been isolated from bran and have studied the structural transformations occurring
seed coat region of different millets (Prashanth & during processing of millet pasta and found depen-
Muralikrishna, 2016; Banerjee et al., 2017; dence of cooking quality, solubility and texture on
Table 3 Promising health benefits of different types of millets textural attributes. Similarly, Onyango et al. (2020)
prepared bread from finger millet and hydrothermal
Millet Health benefits/bio-
treatment further enhanced the dough stability, exten-
type functional properties References
sibility and other quality characteristics. Woomer et al.
Pearl Antioxidant and anti- Dayakar Rao et al. (2017); (2019) also assessed the response of different panellists
millet inflammatory properties; Nithiyanantham et al. on organoleptic variables of millet bread and reported
good heart health; slower (2019); Slama et al. (2019) that 100% millet flour formulation exhibited highest
glucose release; reduction sensory score for crumb aroma, crust colour and over-
in inflammation disorders all acceptability. Furthermore, Lactobacillus-fermented
Finger Prevent cardiovascular Chethan et al. (2008); Lee
sourdough from millets has been reported to improve
millet diseases; inhibition of et al. (2010);
cataractogenesis; Muthamilarasan et al.
loaf volume, porosity, crust and crumb characteristics
antioxidant potential and (2016)
(Nami et al., 2019).
prevention of diabetes Rolandelli et al. (2020) supplemented millet flour to
mellitus corn-based extrudates and noted improvement in the
Foxtail Hypolipidemic and Sireesha et al. (2011); crude fibre and protein content in addition to enhance-
millet hypoglycaemic behaviour; Zhang et al. (2015); ment of the functional properties. Pearl millet flakes
healthy digestive system; Sharma & Niranjan (2018) exhibited desired functional properties such as water
cholesterol management absorption, swelling power and dispersibility along
Little Lowers blood glucose and Guha et al. (2015); with high content of minerals, protein and fibre con-
millet cholesterol levels; Nithiyanantham et al.
tent (Adebanjo et al., 2020).
prevention of diabetes (2019)
mellitus; antioxidant
potential Functionality of millets as protein and starch
Kodo Hypoglycaemic activity; Hegde & Chandra (2005); digestibility
millet higher radical quenching Neelam et al. (2013);
ability; cholesterol and Sarma et al. (2017) Digestion is the most important process for delivery
lipid management and absorption of food nutrients to different body
Barnyard Lowers blood glucose level, Kumari & Thayumanavan parts, and it is highly influenced by nutrient interac-
millet triglycerides and serum (1997); Sharma et al. tions (Cirkovic Velickovic & Stanic-Vucinic, 2018).
cholesterol; reduced risk of (2016) Millets and related products have shown lower starch
cancer
and protein digestibility due to several characteristics
Proso Prevent cardiovascular Lee et al. (2010); Zhang
millet diseases; reduction in et al. (2014); Das et al.
including structural properties, macromolecular inter-
blood glucose level; (2019)
actions and presence of certain polyphenolic com-
antiproliferative properties pounds and fibre content (Annor et al., 2017).
against cancer Hypoglycaemic profile of millets is known for several
years, and the major factors contributing to this prop-
erty include the large size of starch granules allowing
smaller surface area for enzymatic hydrolysis, less por-
physicochemical composition of protein. The chal- ous starch surface preventing the penetration of
lenged functionality of gluten-free millet pasta has enzymes towards inner regions and thereby lowering
been improved with certain technical and processing degradation (Tester et al., 2006; Singh et al., 2010).
interventions such as hydrothermal treatment (Rudra Millet starches comprise as high as 34% amylose con-
et al., 2020) and use of hydrocolloids as well-reviewed tent Annor et al. (2017) which is significantly higher
by Gao et al. (2018) in addition to partial replacement than other common cereals, and due to lower surface
with protein isolates and other additives such as area of amylose per unit molecule of starch in compar-
sodium caseinate (Kumar et al., 2019). ison with amylopectin, starches with a higher propor-
Further, Shadang & Jaganathan (2014) studied the tion of amylose content have decreased digestibility
impact of incorporating millet flour in wheat-based values due to reduced enzymatic action. Rapidly diges-
bakery products and reported acceptable overall tible starch of millets ranged between 11% and 15%
organoleptic quality up to 30% level of incorporation. followed by slowly digestible starch (22–28%) and
Kaur et al. (2020) reported 50% substitution of finger resistant starch contributed to 24–30% of total starch
millet flour without a significant reduction in quality content (Sharma & Gujral, 2019c). Pearl millet
characteristics of biscuits. Jyotsna et al. (2016) devel- starches from different populations exhibited 46–51%
oped millet-based muffins for improved nutritional (rapid digestible starch), 37–38% (slowly digestible
capacity. They further suggested that incorporation of starch) and 9–16% (resistant starch), and this variation
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and glycerol monos- among varieties has been attributed to the morpholog-
tearate significantly improved the rheological and ical features (size and shape) of granules, crystallinity
and amylose-to-amylopectin ratio (Sandhu & Siroha, them has a distinctive and considerable role in differ-
2017). Interactions of lipids and proteins with starch ent food products; for instance, water absorption and
molecules were found to have significant impact on the swelling capacity are considered as quality attributes
digestibility of kodo millet starch. In vitro starch of products such as pasta and noodles, while foaming
digestibility and expected glycaemic index of kodo mil- and emulsification stability are related to batter perfor-
let flour increased with removal of proteins and lipids. mance in cakes and pastries. The functionality of
Fatty acids in lipids have the ability to form complexes flours has been attributed to proteins and starches
with amylose-inducing resistance to enzymatic degra- along with their interactions with other components
dation. These complexes exhibit lower rate of hydroly- such as lipids and phenols (Singh & Sharma, 2017).
sis when compared to raw amylose. Techno-functionality of millet grains and constituents
Proteins from plant origin (cereals and legumes) pre- is summarised in Table 4 in terms of hydration prop-
sent lower digestibility when compared to animal erties, surface functionality, gelatinisation profile, past-
sources due to several factors including inhibition of ing properties and dough performance.
several enzymes such as by polyphenolic compounds
and protease inhibitors. Lower plant protein solubility
Hydration properties
and intact structural organisation making enzymes
inaccessible to proteins also contribute to the reduced Water absorption capacity (WAC) of different millet
hydrolysis (Becker & Yu, 2013; Annor et al., 2017). flours is shown in Table 4. Devisetti et al. (2014)
Phenolic compounds when interacting with proteins reported WAC of foxtail and proso millet ranging
not only affect the digestibility and functional proper- between 119 and 166 g/100 g and milling caused sig-
ties but also influence the nutritional profile through nificant decline due to loss of fibre which has higher
variation in the essential amino acid proportion potential to hold water. Similar trend (93–123 mL/
(Labuckas et al., 2008; Ozdal et al., 2013). In vitro 100 g) for WAC was also observed for different culti-
protein digestibility of millets has been reported to be vars of finger millet and pearl millet (Ramashia et al.,
varying between 72% and 75% which increased signifi- 2018). Oil absorption capacity (OAC) of millet grains
cantly after germination of grains (Sharma & Gujral, has been reported varying between 74 and 124 g/100 g
2019c). Significant negative correlations were found (Table 4). This significant variation in OAC could be
between protein digestibility and tannins (0.70), phy- attributed to the concentration of hydrophobic amino
tic acid (0.69), flavonoids (0.72), phenolics (0.79) acids as lipid binding is a dependent function of their
and dietary fibre (0.84) (Sharma & Gujral, 2019b). concentration. Since fat improves the flavour retention
Polyphenolic compounds are thought to reduce the and mouth feel of food, OAC is an important quality
protein digestibility mainly due to their binding to attribute to dictate the ability of the ingredient to
endogenous enzyme proteins and altering their struc- physically entrap fat content (Devisetti et al., 2014).
tural conformation. Consequently, the catalytic prop- Processing treatments such as germination may
erty of protease enzymes is lost and digestibility is improve the oil-holding capacity of flour due to the
significantly reduced (Cirkovic Velickovic & Stanic- surface availability of hydrophobic amino acids (Singh
Vucinic, 2018). Since most of the bioactive compounds & Sharma, 2017).
are concentrated in the outer layers of grains, simple Water solubility index (WSI) measures the solubil-
processing treatments such as decortication may ity of flour components including water-soluble pro-
improve the digestibility; germination and fermenta- teins, sugars, fibre and starch in excess water during
tion have also been reported to improve the protein processing (Sharma et al., 2017). Different popula-
digestion (Annor et al., 2017). tions of foxtail and proso millet exhibited WSI rang-
ing between 25 and 39 mg g1, and significant
reduction was observed in milled fractions (brown
Techno-functional properties of millets having
and polished grains) (Devisetti et al., 2014). WSI of
significant role in development of various types
millet flours reported by other authors as shown in
of products
Table 4 ranged between 12 and 77 mg g1. Swelling
Functional properties of grains are physicochemical index of flours is related to starch crystallinity and
characteristics which impart unique quality and func- considered as an indication of the capability of
tionality to the end products by modifying the food starch granules to swell upon heating in excess
matrix during processing treatments. These properties water. Swelling is a consequence of water molecular
are highly significant as they dictate the quality profile interactions with starch granules exhibiting amor-
of the resultant products at the consumer end. These phous and crystalline behaviour (Musa et al., 2011).
include water-holding capacity, solubility index, swel- Swelling power of different millets has been docu-
ling power, foaming capacity, emulsifying power, elas- mented ranging between 4.26% and 6.72% (Table 4).
ticity, gelation and viscosity among others. Each of Swelling of finger millet flour increased by four times
Table 4 Functional properties of different millet flours
Functionality Pearl millet Finger millet Foxtail millet Barnyard millet Proso millet Kodo millet Little millet
Hydration properties (Vijayakumar et al., 2008; Balasubramanian et al., 2014; Devisetti et al., 2014; Gull et al., 2015; Nazni & Bhuvaneswari, 2015;
Thilagavathi et al., 2015; Verma et al., 2015; Nazni & Devi, 2016; Siroha et al., 2016; Singh & Adedeji, 2017; Ramashia et al., 2018; Panda et al.,
2020)
WAC (mL/100 g) 166.0 123.0 168.8 196.0 143.0 74.93 94.0
WSI (mg g1) 41.3 77.3 39.2 12.0 33.2 27.9 30.8
OAC (mL/100 g) 124.0 104.0 91.1 110.0 99.5 74.74 109.0
Swelling Index (%) 4.26 5.05 6.72 5.83 4.69 4.47a 6.71
Surface properties (Maha et al., 2012; Devisetti et al., 2014; Gull et al., 2015; Shrestha, 2017; Devi, 2019)
Foaming capacity (%) 5.88 1.96 7.6 9.90 8.7 3.42 1.90
Foaming stability (%) 20.75 11.82 58.4 3.16 10.0 10.42 9.94
Emulsion activity (%) 11.79 18.29 6.6 25.72 4.9 – –
Emulsion stability (%) 7.67 14.23 42.2 21.17 47.5
Pasting properties (Shinoj et al., 2006; Gull et al., 2016; Nazni & Devi, 2016; Yang et al., 2018; Li et al., 2020)
Pasting temperature (°C) 89.6 74.3 89.6 90.4 80.2 76.5 78.8
Peak viscosity (cP) 429 3362 521 854 2880 648 223
Hold viscosity (cP) 390 2630 420 741 1444 209 58
Final viscosity (cP) 983 3902 1398 1235 2577 953 282
Gelatinisation profile (Shinoj et al., 2006; Annor et al., 2014; Kharat et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020)
T0 (°C) 71.35 63.9 68.1 74.9 70.2 76.6 71.26
Tp (°C) 76.15 69.1 72.8 76.7 75.0 78.4 78.44
Tc (°C) 85.22 74.0 77.2 87.7 79.7 90.0 82.28
DH (J g1) 4.32 13.18 21.0 6.44 14.1 6.76 1.69
Rheological parameters (5% slurry) (Shinoj et al., 2006; Sharma et al., 2015)
G0 (Pa) 33.53b 16.3–56.8 2.55–20.80 10.6–112 14.9–68.1 5.90–39.2 3.97–15.5
G″ (Pa) 4.55b 1.93–4.43 0.23–1.42 1.56–2.63 0.06–2.90 1.31–6.0 0.365–1.81
Phase angle, d (degrees) 7.96b 3.7–9.9 1.1–12.8 1.1–9.0 0.3–8.4 6.7–19.3 2.7–14.0
G″, loss modulus; G0 , storage modulus; OAC, oil absorption capacity; T0, onset gelatinisation temperature; Tc, conclusion gelatinisation temperature;
Tp, peak gelatinisation temperature; WAC, water absorption capacity; WSI, water solubility index; DH, enthalpy of transition.
a
Swelling power (mL g1).
b
Peak value.
as a consequence of hydrothermal treatment (Dhar- of pearl millet varied between 18% and 25%. Foams
maraj et al., 2015). Swelling power reveals inter- are stable at lower surface tension and high viscosity
molecular non-covalent bonding of starch, and at the interface which is property of proteins in the
degree of swelling is governed by several factors such flour and also influenced by interactions with other
as molecular weight distribution, amylose-to-amy- components such as carbohydrates. Devisetti et al.
lopectin ratio and chain length. (2014) stated that millet flours have lower foaming
ability when compared to legume flours and thus
may be used as ingredients in composite flours for
Foaming and emulsification properties
bakery products.
Foaming is an important property of proteins to Emulsification potential of cereal suspensions is
develop and stabilise two-phase system comprising of dependent on correlation between interfacial tension
thin continuous liquid layer entrapping air bubbles and surface hydrophobicity (Zayas, 2012). Emulsion
at the surface. Foaming capacity and stability of cer- activity and stability of millet flours are shown in
eal flours are dependent upon the potential of their Table 4; however, other studies have shown wide vari-
proteins to form an elastic, flexible and cohesive ation in the results; for instance, emulsion activity of
interfacial film which must entrap and hold air for different pearl millet varieties has been reported
sufficient time to slow down the coalescence rate between 45 and 60% (Siroha et al., 2016), while foxtail
(Zayas, 2012). Foaming capacity of millets ranged millet and proso millet exhibited values varying
between 1% and 10% for different types (Table 4). between 3% and 6% (Devisetti et al., 2014). Also,
Several studies have confirmed that millet flours pos- emulsification capacity of three different varieties of
sess lower foaming capacity (Devisetti et al., 2014; foxtail millet ranged between 40% and 42% and sta-
Panda et al., 2020); however, Siroha et al. (2016) bility was found to be varying between 41% and 42%
reported that foaming potential of different cultivars (Meherunnahar et al., 2018).
10.8 J g1 (Yang et al., 2019). Isolated starches from

Pasting properties
pearl millet and barnyard millet showed temperature
Pasting profile of starch is an important property of profiles ranging between 64.76–74.63°C and 64.66–
cereals controlling their applications in the food indus- 74.71°C with DH values as 3.50 and 3.28 J g1, respec-
try. Pasting properties comprise viscosity profile of tively (Wu et al., 2014). Li et al. (2020) investigated
flour (starch) in relation to change in temperature. Vis- thermal properties of proso millet accessions and
cosity at different stages is measured as peak, hold, reported onset and conclusion temperatures varying
final, setback and breakdown viscosities by measuring between 70.2 and 79.7°C as mean of 95 variants, also
volume of the swollen granules in addition to record shown in Table 4. Kharat et al., (2019) compared the
of pasting temperature (Zhu, 2015; Collar, 2016; thermal profiles of pearl, finger and foxtail millet and
Ahmed & Thomas, 2017). Peak viscosity, an indication stated that major endothermic transition was observed
of strength of starch granules to absorb water before between 76 and 78°C irrespective of millet types. Ther-
disintegration, has been reported varying between 223 mal properties of starch indicate the crystalline struc-
and 3362 cP for different millet flour types (Table 4). ture, morphology of the granules and amylopectin
Likewise, other parameters of the pasting profile were chain length distribution (Wang et al., 2018b). Waxy
also significantly dependent on millet type and varietal foxtail and proso millet exhibited higher gelatinisation
variation. The degree of variation has been attributed transition temperatures and enthalpy when compared
to the physicochemical composition and structural ori- to non-waxy millets (Yang et al., 2019) which may be
entation of the starch granules. Variation in the break- due to higher relative crystallinity and ordered struc-
down viscosity, which corresponds to the degree of ture (Wang et al., 2018a).
organisation of starch molecules, indicates the fragility
or rigidity of the swollen starch granules. Final viscos-
Dough rheology
ity (retrogradation property of starch) and setback vis-
cosity of millet starches were found to have high Viscoelastic behaviour of cereals inducing viscosity
positive correlation with amylose content (Wu et al., and extensibility to the dough is a property of gluten
2014). These results were also supported by Yang proteins as a result of intermolecular disulphide bond-
et al. (2019), who found that waxy foxtail and proso ing, hydrophobic interactions, ionic and hydrogen
millets had higher stability as indicated by lower set- bonding (Brandner et al., 2019). These properties can
back viscosities. They also reported that non-waxy be estimated by low deformation rheometer defining
millets exhibited higher peak time and pasting temper- loss tangent (tan d), storage modulus (G0 ) for elastic
atures describing their difficulty for gelatinisation. properties and loss modulus (G″) for viscosity profile
Pasting properties of different millet starches have (Cornejo-Ramırez et al., 2018). Rheological parameters
shown wide diversity which may be due to genetic of 5% slurries of different millet types are shown in
variation, starch source, method of preparation/isola- Table 4. Dough performance in terms of thermome-
tion of starch, the proportion of damaged starch and chanical characteristics has also been estimated using
amylose-to-amylopectin ratio (Ahmed & Thomas, mixolab which provided information regarding devel-
2017). opment time and stability of the dough (Sharma &
Gujral, 2019d). Dough development time of millet
flours was found to be varying between 0.24 and
Thermal properties
0.86 min which was significantly lower than wheat
Thermal behaviour of starch during the gelatinisation flour due to the absence of gluten but exhibited posi-
process has been studied using Differential Scanning tive correlation with protein content (Sharma & Guj-
Calorimetry (DSC) in terms of onset temperature (T0), ral, 2019b). The authors also stated higher percentage
peak temperature (Tp) and end set temperature (Tc) of protein weakening for millet doughs (38.55–
(Cai et al., 2014; Cornejo-Ramırez et al., 2018). 45.39%) which may be due to higher concentration of
Table 4 presents the gelatinisation temperature profile non-starchy polysaccharides (arabinoxylan and dietary
of millets. Dharmaraj et al. (2015) recorded thermal fibre) that cause destabilisation and disruption of pro-
properties of finger millet as 50°C (T0), 64°C (Tp), tein in the dough matrix (Rosell et al., 2010). Rheolog-
74.2°C (Tc) and 867.2 J g1 (DH), and these values ical properties of proso millet dough evaluated in
significantly reduced after decortication of grains. controlled stressed rheometer showed lower apparent
Transition temperatures of proso millet and little mil- viscosity, G0 and G″ when compared to the wheat
let were found to be varying between 64.56–80.09°C dough and they increased significantly with the addi-
and 71.26–82.28°C, respectively (Kumar et al., 2020). tion of hydrocolloids (Romero et al., 2017). The stor-
Different populations of foxtail millet exhibited T0 age modulus of pearl millet and proso millet starches
(64.6–71.1°C), Tp (70.5–77.9°C) and Tc (77.4–82.3°C), was found to be dominant over loss modulus suggest-
and gelatinisation enthalpy ranged between 6.6 and ing better elastic behaviour (Jhan et al., 2020). G0 and
G″ for different cultivars of pearl millet followed pro- the financial condition of farmers in developing coun-
gressive increase with heating due to swelling of starch tries.
granules and leaching of amylose forming a composite
network (Arocas et al., 2009; Siroha et al., 2020).
Acknowledgement
Starch gels from pearl millet varieties at different con-
centrations presented shear thinning in relation to flow The authors thank University Grants Commission
behaviour index less than 1, and their thixotropic nat- (UGC), New Delhi, Department of Food Science &
ure was found to increase with starch concentration Technology, PAU, Ludhiana, India, and Department
and amylose content (Bhardwaj et al., 2019). Millets of Food Technology, IUST-K, India, for providing
exhibit weak gel and dough properties in native states the support.
due to gluten-free composition which may be
improved with techno-functional interventions for
Ethical guidelines
promising applications in the cereal industry.
Ethics approval was not required for this review
paper.
Conclusion
Grains with specific nutrients are required to deal with
Conflict of interest
micronutrient deficiency and related disorders arising
out of malnutrition. Millets are a significant source of There is no conflict of interest to disclose.
energy, proteins and minerals in addition to dietary
fibre and polyphenolic compounds inducing several
Author contribution
health benefits through antioxidative and other mecha-
nisms. Millets have been part of human diet since Rajan Sharma: Writing-original draft (lead); Writing-
thousands of years and still serving as important cereal review & editing (equal). Savita Sharma: Conceptual-
grains owing to excellent tolerance to climatic chal- ization (equal); Supervision (lead). B N Dar: Supervi-
lenges. Due to their agrarian and nutritive excellence, sion (equal); Writing-review & editing (lead). Baljit
they are potential candidates as functional ingredients Singh: Supervision (equal); Writing-review & editing
for value-added products. This article reviews research (equal).
reports up to date evaluating the compositional profile,
phytochemical compounds and techno-functional
Peer review
properties. Millets are truly superior to other cereals in
terms of nutrient and phytochemical composition due The peer review history for this article is available at
to high content of phenolic compounds, fibre, flavo- https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.15044.
noids and phytosterols. These dietary constituents ben-
efit the host health via prebiotic properties,
Data availability statement
antioxidative mechanisms, anti-inflammatory actions
and hypoglycaemic profiles. Although they are underu- Author elects to not share data as this is a review
tilised in certain parts of the globe, but not underesti- paper.
mated as significant efforts are being done for the
valorisation of millets to enhance their functionality
References
and utilisation in products of commercial importance.
Most likely industrial applications of millets include The following references were cited as they provide core information
bakery products, pasta, noodles, nutritional bars and about millets, their functional, morphological and nutritional
aspects. Also, they have mentioned about the role of processing and
functional beverages in addition to indigenous food product development
preparations. With the rise in demand for gluten-free The following references were cited as they provide core information
foods, millets have been demonstrated for their suit- about millets, their functional, morphological and nutritional
ability to mimic the role of wheat with techno-func- aspects. Also, they have mentioned about the role of processing and
product development.
tional interventions. Functional properties of native The following references were cited as they provide core information
millet flours do not match with conventional ingredi- about millets, their functional, morphological and nutritional
ents such as wheat, but processing treatments such as aspects. Also, they have mentioned about the role of processing and
starch modification, germination and fermentation product development.
may positively influence techno-functionality, nutritive The following references were cited as they provide core information
about millets, their functional, morphological and nutritional
and bioactive composition, and thus, further investiga- aspects. Also, they have mentioned about the role of processing and
tion is needed in this area. Awareness about promising product development.
results of millet-based products is needed to enhance Adebanjo, L.A., Olatunde, G.O., Adegunwa, M.O., Dada, O.C. &
consumer well-being and nutritional status along with Alamu, E.O. (2020). Extruded flakes from pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum)-carrot (Daucus carota) blended flours-Production, nutri- Chandra, D., Chandra, S. & Sharma, A.K. (2016). Review of Finger
tional and sensory attributes. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 6, millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn): a power house of health
1733332. benefiting nutrients. Food Science and Human Wellness, 5, 149–155.
Adeyemo, S.M. & Onilude, A.A. (2013). Enzymatic reduction of Chandrasekara, A., Naczk, M. & Shahidi, F. (2012). Effect of pro-
anti-nutritional factors in fermenting soybeans by Lactobacillus cessing on the antioxidant activity of millet grains. Food Chemistry,
plantarum isolates from fermenting cereals. Nigerian Food Journal, 133, 1–9.
31, 84–90. Chandrasekara, A. & Shahidi, F. (2010). Content of insoluble bound
Ahmed, J. & Thomas, L. (2017). Pasting properties of starch: effect phenolics in millets and their contribution to antioxidant capacity.
of particle size, hydrocolloids and high pressure. Glass Transition Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58, 6706–6714.
and Phase Transitions in Food and Biological Materials. Wiley, Chandrasekara, A. & Shahidi, F. (2011a). Determination of antioxi-
427–453. dant activity in free and hydrolyzed fractions of millet grains and
Annor, G.A., Marcone, M., Bertoft, E. & Seetharaman, K. (2014). characterization of their phenolic profiles by HPLC-DAD-ESI-
Physical and molecular characterization of millet starches. Cereal MSn. Journal of Functional Foods, 3, 144–158.
Chemistry, 91, 286–292. Chandrasekara, A. & Shahidi, F. (2011b). Antiproliferative potential
Annor, G.A., Tyl, C., Marcone, M., Ragaee, S. & Marti, A. (2017). and DNA scission inhibitory activity of phenolics from whole mil-
Why do millets have slower starch and protein digestibility than let grains. Journal of Functional Foods, 3, 159–170.
other cereals? Trends in Food Science & Technology, 66, 73–83. Chauhan, M., Sonawane, S.K. & Arya, S.S. (2018). Nutritional and
Arocas, A., Sanz, T. & Fiszman, S.M. (2009). Influence of corn nutraceutical properties of millets: A review. Clinical Journal of
starch type in the rheological properties of a white sauce after Nutrition and Dietetics, 1, 1–10.
heating and freezing. Food Hydrocolloids, 23, 901–907. Chethan, S., Dharmesh, S.M. & Malleshi, N.G. (2008). Inhibition of
Arya, S.S. & Shakya, N.K. (2020). High fiber, low glycaemic index aldose reductase from cataracted eye lenses by finger millet (Eleu-
(GI) prebiotic multigrain functional beverage from barnyard, fox- sine coracana) polyphenols. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry, 16,
tail and kodo millet. LWT, 135, 109991. 10085–10090.
Asharani, V.T., Jayadeep, A. & Malleshi, N.G. (2010). Natural Chethan, S. & Malleshi, N.G. (2007). Finger millet polyphenols:
antioxidants in edible flours of selected small millets. International Optimization of extraction and the effect of pH on their stability.
Journal of Food Properties, 13, 41–50. Food Chemistry, 105, 862–870.
Awika, J.M. & Rooney, L.W. (2004). Sorghum phytochemicals and Cirkovic Velickovic, T.D. & Stanic-Vucinic, D.J. (2018). The role of
their potential impact on human health. Phytochemistry, 65, 1199– dietary phenolic compounds in protein digestion and processing
1221. technologies to improve their antinutritive properties. Comprehen-
Balasubramanian, S., Sharma, R., Kaur, J. & Bhardwaj, N. (2014). sive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 17, 82–103.
Characterization of modified pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) Collar, C. (2016). Impact of visco-metric profile of composite dough
starch. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51, 294–300. matrices on starch digestibility and firming and retrogradation
Banerjee, D., Chowdhury, R. & Bhattacharya, P. (2017). Optimiza- kinetics of breads thereof: Additive and interactive effects of non-
tion of extraction process of inulin from Indian millets (jowar, wheat flours. Journal of Cereal Science, 69, 32–39.
bajra and ragi)—characterization and cost analysis. Journal of Cordelino, I.G., Tyl, C., Inamdar, L., Vickers, Z., Marti, A. &
Food Science and Technology, 54, 4302–4314. Ismail, B.P. (2019). Cooking quality, digestibility, and sensory
Bean, S.R., Zhu, L., Smith, B.M., Wilson, J.D., Ioerger, B.P. & Til- properties of proso millet pasta as impacted by amylose content
ley, M. (2019). Starch and protein chemistry and functional prop- and prolamin profile. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 99, 1–7.
erties. In: Sorghum and Millets. Pp. 131–170. Duxford, United Cornejo-Ramırez, Y.I., Martınez-Cruz, O., Del Toro-Sanchez, C.L.,
Kingdom: Elsevier. Wong-Corral, F.J., Borboa-Flores, J. & Cinco-Moroyoqui, F.J.
Becker, P.M. & Yu, P. (2013). What makes protein indigestible from (2018). The structural characteristics of starches and their func-
tissue-related, cellular, and molecular aspects? Molecular Nutrition tional properties. CyTA-Journal of Food, 16, 1003–1017.
& Food Research, 57, 1695–1707. Das, S., Khound, R., Santra, M. & Santra, D.K. (2019). Beyond
Bhandari, S.R. & Lee, Y.-S. (2013). The contents of phytosterols, bird feed: proso millet for human health and environment. Agricul-
squalene, and vitamin E and the composition of fatty acids of kor- ture, 9, 64.
ean landrace setaria italica and Sorghum bicolar seeds. Korean Dayakar Rao, B., Bhaskarachary, K., Arlene Christina, G.D., Sudha
Journal of Plant Resources, 26, 663–672. Devi, G., Vilas, A.T. & Tonapi, A. (2017). Nutritional and health
Bhardwaj, M., Sandhu, K.S. & Saxena, D.C. (2019). Experimental benefits of millets. ICAR_Indian Institute of Millets Research
and modeling studies of the flow, dynamic and creep recovery (IIMR), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, 112.
properties of pearl millet starch as affected by concentration and Devi, S. (2019). Quality evaluation and value addition of non conven-
cultivar type. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, tional millets grown in Himachal Pradesh.
135, 544–552. Devisetti, R., Yadahally, S.N. & Bhattacharya, S. (2014). Nutrients
Bora, P., Ragaee, S. & Marcone, M. (2019). Characterisation of sev- and antinutrients in foxtail and proso millet milled fractions: Eval-
eral types of millets as functional food ingredients. International uation of their flour functionality. LWT-Food Science and Technol-
Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 70, 714–724. ogy, 59, 889–895.
Bouajila, A., Lamine, M., Rahali, F.Z., Melki, I., Prakash, G. & Dharmaraj, U., Meera, M.S., Reddy, S.Y. & Malleshi, N.G. (2015).
Ghorbel, A. (2020). Pearl millet populations characterized through Influence of hydrothermal processing on functional properties and
Fusarium prevalence, morphological traits, phenolic content, and grain morphology of finger millet. Journal of Food Science and
antioxidant potential. Journal of the Science of Food and Agricul- Technology, 52, 1361–1371.
ture, 100, 4172–4181. Duodu, K.G. & Awika, J.M. (2019). Phytochemical-related health-
Brandner, S., Becker, T. & Jekle, M. (2019). Classification of starch- promoting attributes of sorghum and millets. In: Sorghum and Mil-
gluten networks into a viscoelastic liquid or solid, based on rheo- lets. Pp. 225–258. Duxford, United Kingdom: Elsevier.
logical aspects—A review. International Journal of Biological Dykes, L. & Rooney, L.W. (2006). Sorghum and millet phenols and
Macromolecules, 136, 1018–1025. antioxidants. Journal of Cereal Science, 44, 236–251.
Cai, C., Zhao, L., Huang, J., Chen, Y. & Wei, C. (2014). Morphol- Embashu, W. & Nantanga, K.K.M. (2019). Pearl millet grain: A
ogy, structure and gelatinization properties of heterogeneous starch mini-review of the milling, fermentation and brewing of ontaku, a
granules from high-amylose maize. Carbohydrate Polymers, 102, non-alcoholic traditional beverage in Namibia. Transactions of the
606–614. Royal Society of South Africa, 74, 276–282.
Gao, Y., Janes, M.E., Chaiya, B., Brennan, M.A., Brennan, C.S. & colorants: potential beyond their basic functions. Pigment & Resin
Prinyawiwatkul, W. (2018). Gluten-free bakery and pasta products: Technology, 49, 110–118.
prevalence and quality improvement. International Journal of Food Kaur, P., Purewal, S.S., Sandhu, K.S., Kaur, M. & Salar, R.K.
Science & Technology, 53, 19–32. (2019b). Millets: A cereal grain with potent antioxidants and health
Geetha, K., Yankanchi, G.M., Hulamani, S. & Hiremath, N. (2020). benefits. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 13,
Glycemic index of millet based food mix and its effect on pre dia- 793–806.
betic subjects. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57, 2732– Kharat, S., Medina-Meza, I.G., Kowalski, R.J. et al. (2019). Extru-
2738. sion processing characteristics of whole grain flours of select major
Gilani, G.S., Cockell, K.A. & Sepehr, E. (2005). Effects of antinutri- millets (foxtail, finger, and pearl). Food and Bioproducts Processing,
tional factors on protein digestibility and amino acid availability in 114, 60–71.
foods. Journal of AOAC International, 88, 967–987. Kulthe, A.A., Thorat, S.S. & Lande, S.B. (2016). Characterization of
Guha, M., Sreerama, Y.N. & Malleshi, N.G. (2015). Influence of pearl millet cultivars for proximate composition, minerals and anti-
Processing on Nutraceuticals of Little Millet (Panicum sumatrense). nutritional contents. Advances in Life Sciences, 5, 4672–4675.
In: Processing and Impact on Active Components in Food. Pp. 353– Kumar, A., Tomer, V., Kaur, A., Kumar, V. & Gupta, K. (2018).
360. Cambridge, USA: Elsevier. Millets: a solution to agrarian and nutritional challenges. Agricul-
Gull, A., Prasad, K. & Kumar, P. (2015). Physico-chemical, func- ture & Food Security, 7, 31.
tional and antioxidant properties of millet flours. Journal of Agri- Kumar, C.M., Sabikhi, L., Singh, A.K., Raju, P.N., Kumar, R. &
cultural Engineering and Food Technology, 2, 73–75. Sharma, R. (2019). Effect of incorporation of sodium caseinate,
Gull, A., Prasad, K. & Kumar, P. (2016). Evaluation of functional, whey protein concentrate and transglutaminase on the properties
antinutritional, pasting and microstructural properties of Millet of depigmented pearl millet based gluten free pasta. LWT- Food
flours. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 10, 96– Science and Technology, 103, 19–26.
102. Kumar, S.R., Sadiq, M.B. & Anal, A.K. (2020). Comparative study
Gupta, R.K., Gangoliya, S.S. & Singh, N.K. (2015). Reduction of of physicochemical and functional properties of pan and micro-
phytic acid and enhancement of bioavailable micronutrients in wave cooked underutilized millets (proso and little). LWT- Food
food grains. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 676–684. Science and Technology, 128, 109465.
Hegde, P.S. & Chandra, T.S. (2005). ESR spectroscopic study Kumari, D., Madhujith, T. & Chandrasekara, A. (2017). Compar-
reveals higher free radical quenching potential in kodo millet (Pas- ison of phenolic content and antioxidant activities of millet vari-
palum scrobiculatum) compared to other millets. Food Chemistry, eties grown in different locations in Sri Lanka. Food Science &
92, 177–182. Nutrition, 5, 474–485.
Hu, S., Yuan, J., Gao, J. et al. (2020). Antioxidant and anti-inflam- Kumari, S.K. & Thayumanavan, B. (1997). Comparative study of
matory potential of peptides derived from the in vitro gastrointesti- resistant starch from minor millets on intestinal responses, blood
nal digestion of germinated and heat-treated foxtail millet (Setaria glucose, serum cholesterol and triglycerides in rats. Journal of the
italica) proteins. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 68, Science of Food and Agriculture, 75, 296–302.
9415–9426. Labuckas, D.O., Maestri, D.M., Perello, M., Martınez, M.L. &
Jakubczyk, A., Szymanowska, U., Karas, M. & Złotek, U. & Lamarque, A.L. (2008). Phenolics from walnut (Juglans regia L.)
Kowalczyk, D. (2019). Potential anti-inflammatory and lipase kernels: Antioxidant activity and interactions with proteins. Food
inhibitory peptides generated by in vitro gastrointestinal hydroly- Chemistry, 107, 607–612.
sis of heat treated millet grains. CyTA-Journal of Food, 17, 324– Lee, S.H., Chung, I.-M., Cha, Y.-S. & Park, Y. (2010). Millet con-
333. sumption decreased serum concentration of triglyceride and C-re-
Jayawardana, S.A.S., Samarasekera, J.K.R.R., Hettiarachchi, active protein but not oxidative status in hyperlipidemic rats.
G.H.C.M., Gooneratne, J., Mazumdar, S.D. & Banerjee, R. Nutrition Research, 30, 290–296.
(2019). Dietary fibers, starch fractions and nutritional composition Li, K., Zhang, T., Sui, Z. et al. (2019). Genetic variation in starch
of finger millet varieties cultivated in Sri Lanka. Journal of Food physicochemical properties of Chinese foxtail millet (Setaria italica
Composition and Analysis, 82, 103249. Beauv.). International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 133,
Jhan, F., Shah, A., Gani, A., Ahmad, M. & Noor, N. (2020). Nano- 337–345.
reduction of starch from underutilised millets: Effect on structural, Li, K., Zhang, T., Narayanamoorthy, S. et al. (2020). Diversity anal-
thermal, morphological and nutraceutical properties. International ysis of starch physicochemical properties in 95 proso millet (Pan-
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 159, 1113–1121. icum miliaceum L.) accessions. Food Chemistry, 324, 126863.
Ji, J., Liu, Y., Ge, Z., Zhang, Y. & Wang, X. (2019). Oleochemical Liang, S. & Liang, K. (2019). Millet grain as a candidate antioxidant
properties for different fractions of foxtail millet bran. Journal of food resource: a review. International Journal of Food Properties,
Oleo Science, 68, 709–718. 22, 1652–1661.
Ji, Z., Mao, J., Chen, S. & Mao, J. (2020). Antioxidant and anti-in- Lu, H., Yang, X., Ye, M. et al. (2005). Millet noodles in late Neo-
flammatory activity of peptides from foxtail millet (Setaria italica) lithic China. Nature, 437, 967–968.
prolamins in HaCaT cells and RAW264. 7 murine macrophages. Maha, A.M.A., El Tinay, A.H., Elkhalifa, A.E.O., Mallasy, L.O. &
Food Bioscience, 36, 100636. Babiker, E.E. (2012). Effect of different supplementation levels of
Jyotsna, R., Soumya, C., Swati, S. & Prabhasankar, P. (2016). Rhe- soybean flour on pearl millet functional properties. Food and Nutri-
ology, texture, quality characteristics and immunochemical valida- tion Sciences, 3.1–6.
tion of millet based gluten free muffins. Journal of Food Mal, B., Padulosi, S. & Bala Ravi, S. (2010). Minor millets in South
Measurement and Characterization, 10, 762–772. Asia: learnings from IFAD-NUS project in India and Nepal. Mac-
Kaur, A., Kumar, K. & Dhaliwal, H.S. (2020). Physico-chemical carese, Italy: Bioversity International and the M.S. Swaminathan
characterization and utilization of finger millet (Eleusine coracana Research Foundation
L.) cultivars for the preparation of biscuits. Journal of Food Pro- McDonough, C.M., Lloyd, W.R. & Serna-Saldivar, S.O. (2000). The
cessing and Preservation, 44, e14672. Millets: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology. Boca Raton:
Kaur, K.D., Jha, A., Sabikhi, L. & Singh, A.K. (2014). Significance CRC Press.
of coarse cereals in health and nutrition: a review. Journal of Food Meherunnahar, M., Hoque, M.M., Satter, M.A., Abedin, N. &
Science and Technology, 51, 1429–1441. Islam, M.F. (2018). Evaluation of nutritional and functional status
Kaur, K., Sharma, R. & Singh, S. (2019a). Bioactive composition of three varieties of foxtail millet cultivars in Bangladesh. Bangla-
and promising health benefits of natural food flavors and desh Journal of Botany, 47, 301–306.
Moreau, R.A., Nystr€ om, L., Whitaker, B.D. et al. (2018). Phytos- of minerals and anti-nutritional factors in the plant. Trends in Food
terols and their derivatives: Structural diversity, distribution, meta- Science & Technology, 37, 32–41.
bolism, analysis, and health-promoting uses. Progress in Lipid Ram, S., Narwal, S., Gupta, O.P., Pandey, V. & Singh, G.P. (2020).
Research, 70, 35–61. Anti-nutritional factors and bioavailability: approaches, challenges,
Musa, A.S., Umar, M. & Ismail, M. (2011). Physicochemical proper- and opportunities. In: Wheat and Barley Grain Biofortification. Pp.
ties of germinated brown rice (Oryza sativa L.) starch. African 101–128. Cambridge, USA: Elsevier.
Journal of Biotechnology, 10, 6281–6291. Ramashia, S.E., Gwata, E.T., Meddows-Taylor, S., Anyasi, T.A. &
Muthamilarasan, M., Dhaka, A., Yadav, R. & Prasad, M. (2016). Jideani, A.I.O. (2018). Some physical and functional properties of
Exploration of millet models for developing nutrient rich gramina- finger millet (Eleusine coracana) obtained in sub-Saharan Africa.
ceous crops. Plant Science, 242, 89–97. Food Research International, 104, 110–118.
Nami, Y., Gharekhani, M., Aalami, M. & Hejazi, M.A. (2019). Lac- Rasane, P., Jha, A., Kumar, A. & Sharma, N. (2015). Reduction in
tobacillus-fermented sourdoughs improve the quality of gluten-free phytic acid content and enhancement of antioxidant properties of
bread made from pearl millet flour. Journal of Food Science and nutricereals by processing for developing a fermented baby food.
Technology, 56, 4057–4067. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 3219–3234.
Nazni, P. & Bhuvaneswari, J. (2015). Analysis of physico chemical Rolandelli, G., Navarro, Y.T.G., Pinilla, S.G., Farroni, A.E., L opez,
and functional characteristics of finger millet (Eleusine Coracana L) G.F.G. & del Pilar Buera, M. (2020). Microstructural characteris-
and little millet (P. Sumantranse). International Journal of Food and tics and physical properties of corn-based extrudates affected by
Nutritional Sciences, 4, 109. the addition of millet, sorghum, quinoa and canary seed flour.
Nazni, P. & Devi, S.R. (2016). Effect of processing on the character- Food Structure, 25, 100140.
istics changes in barnyard and foxtail millet. Journal of Food Pro- Romero, H.M., Santra, D., Rose, D. & Zhang, Y. (2017). Dough
cessing and Technology, 7, 1–9. rheological properties and texture of gluten-free pasta based on
Neelam, Y., Kanchan, C., Alka, S. & Alka, G. (2013). Evaluation of proso millet flour. Journal of Cereal Science, 74, 238–243.
hypoglycemic properties of kodo millet based food products in Rosell, C.M., Santos, E. & Collar, C. (2010). Physical characteriza-
healthy subjects. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 3, 14–20. tion of fiber-enriched bread doughs by dual mixing and tempera-
Nithiyanantham, S., Kalaiselvi, P., Mahomoodally, M.F., Zengin, ture constraint using the MixolabÒ. European Food Research and
G., Abirami, A. & Srinivasan, G. (2019). Nutritional and func- Technology, 231, 535–544.
tional roles of millets—A review. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 43, Rudra, S.G., Anand, V., Kaur, C., Bhooshan, N. & Bhardwaj, R.
e12859. (2020). Hydrothermal treatment to improve processing characteris-
Ofosu, F.K., Elahi, F., Daliri, E.-B.-M. et al. (2020). Phenolic pro- arke, 72, 1900320.
tics of flour for gluten-free pasta. Starch - St€
file, antioxidant, and antidiabetic potential exerted by millet grain Ryan, E., Galvin, K., O’Connor, T.P., Maguire, A.R. & O’Brien,
varieties. Antioxidants, 9, 254. N.M. (2007). Phytosterol, squalene, tocopherol content and fatty
Oghbaei, M. & Prakash, J. (2016). Effect of primary processing of acid profile of selected seeds, grains, and legumes. Plant Foods for
cereals and legumes on its nutritional quality: A comprehensive Human Nutrition, 62, 85–91.
review. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 2, 1136015. Saldivar, S.S. (2016). Cereals: dietary importance; Encyclopedia of
Onyango, C., Luvitaa, S.K., Unbehend, G. & Haase, N. (2020). Phy- Food and Health.
sico-chemical properties of flour, dough and bread from wheat and Saleh, A.S., Zhang, Q., Chen, J. & Shen, Q. (2013). Millet grains:
hydrothermally-treated finger millet. Journal of Cereal Science, 93, nutritional quality, processing, and potential health benefits. Com-
102954. prehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12, 281–295.
Ozdal, T., Capanoglu, E. & Altay, F. (2013). A review on protein– Sandhu, K.S. & Siroha, A.K. (2017). Relationships between physico-
phenolic interactions and associated changes. Food Research Inter- chemical, thermal, rheological and in vitro digestibility properties
national, 51, 954–970. of starches from pearl millet cultivars. LWT-Food Science and
Palaniappan, A., Balasubramaniam, V.G. & Antony, U. (2017). Pre- Technology, 83, 213–224.
biotic potential of xylooligosaccharides derived from finger millet Sarma, S.M., Khare, P., Jagtap, S. et al. (2017). Kodo millet whole
seed coat. Food Biotechnology, 31, 264–280. grain and bran supplementation prevents high-fat diet induced
Panda, D., Sailaja, N.H., Padhan, B. & Lenka, K. (2020). Sprout- derangements in a lipid profile, inflammatory status and gut bacte-
ing-associated changes in nutritional and physico-functional prop- ria in mice. Food & Function, 8, 1174–1183.
erties of indigenous millets from Koraput, India. Proceedings of the Schoenlechner, R., Szatmari, M., Bagdi, A. & T€ om€ osk€
ozi, S. (2013).
National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, Optimisation of bread quality produced from wheat and proso mil-
90, 79–86. let (Panicum miliaceum L.) by adding emulsifiers, transglutaminase
Pang, M., He, S., Wang, L., Cao, X., Cao, L. & Jiang, S. (2014). and xylanase. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 51, 361–366.
Physicochemical properties, antioxidant activities and protective Serna-Saldivar, S.O. & Espinosa-Ramırez, J. (2019). Grain structure
effect against acute ethanol-induced hepatic injury in mice of fox- and grain chemical composition. In: Sorghum and Millets. Pp. 85–
tail millet (Setaria italica) bran oil. Food & Function, 5, 1763–1770. 129. Duxford, United Kingdom: Elsevier.
Panwar, P., Dubey, A. & Verma, A.K. (2016). Evaluation of Shadang, C. & Jaganathan, D. (2014). Development and standardis-
nutraceutical and antinutritional properties in barnyard and finger ation of formulated baked products using millets. International
millet varieties grown in Himalayan region. Journal of Food Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences, 2, 75–
Science and Technology, 53, 2779–2787. 78.
Patil, J.V. (2016). Millets and Sorghum: Biology and Genetic Improve- Shahidi, F. & Chandrasekara, A. (2013). Millet grain phenolics and
ment. New York: John Wiley & Sons. their role in disease risk reduction and health promotion: A review.
Pradeep, P.M. & Sreerama, Y.N. (2018). Phenolic antioxidants of Journal of Functional Foods, 5, 570–581.
foxtail and little millet cultivars and their inhibitory effects on a- Sharma, B. & Gujral, H.S. (2019a). Modulation in quality attributes
amylase and a-glucosidase activities. Food Chemistry, 247, 46–55. of dough and starch digestibility of unleavened flat bread on
Prashanth, M.R. & Muralikrishna, G. (2016). Evaluation of Prebi- replacing wheat flour with different minor millet flours. Interna-
otic Properties of Purified Arabinoxylans Isolated from Finger Mil- tional Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 141, 117–124.
let (Eleusine coracana, v. Indaf 15) Bran. Trends in Carbohydrate Sharma, B. & Gujral, H.S. (2019b). Influence of nutritional and
Research, 8, 50–58. antinutritional components on dough rheology and in vitro protein
Raes, K., Knockaert, D., Struijs, K. & Van Camp, J. (2014). Role of & starch digestibility of minor millets. Food Chemistry, 299,
processing on bioaccessibility of minerals: Influence of localization 125115.
Sharma, B. & Gujral, H.S. (2019c). Modifying the dough mixing varieties grown in India. Journal of Food Measurement and Charac-
behavior, protein & starch digestibility and antinutritional profile terization, 10, 311–318.
of minor millets by sprouting. International Journal of Biological Slama, A., Cherif, A., Sakouhi, F., Boukhchina, S. & Radhouane,
Macromolecules. 153, 962–970. L. (2019). Fatty acids, phytochemical composition and antioxidant
Sharma, B. & Gujral, H.S. (2019d). Characterization of thermo-me- potential of pearl millet oil. Journal of Consumer Protection and
chanical behavior of dough and starch digestibility profile of minor Food Safety, 15, 145–151.
millet flat breads. Journal of Cereal Science, 90, 102842. Soetan, K.O., Olaiya, C.O. & Oyewole, O.E. (2010). The importance
Sharma, C., Singh, B., Hussain, S.Z. & Sharma, S. (2017). Investiga- of mineral elements for humans, domestic animals and plants: A
tion of process and product parameters for physicochemical prop- review. African Journal of Food Science, 4, 200–222.
erties of rice and mung bean (Vigna radiata) flour based extruded _ (2017). Antidiabetic potential: In vitro inhi-
Taslimi, P. & Gulcßin, I.
snacks. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 54, 1711–1720. bition effects of some natural phenolic compounds on a-glycosi-
Sharma, M., Yadav, D.N., Singh, A.K. & Tomar, S.K. (2015). Rhe- dase and a-amylase enzymes. Journal of Biochemical and Molecular
ological and functional properties of heat moisture treated pearl Toxicology, 31, e21956.
millet starch. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 6502– Taylor, J.R.N. & Taylor, J. (2017). Proteins From Sorghum and
6510. Millets. In: Sustainable Protein Sources. Pp. 79–104. Cambridge,
Sharma, N. & Niranjan, K. (2018). Foxtail millet: Properties, pro- Massachusetts: Elsevier.
cessing, health benefits, and uses. Food Reviews International, 34, Tester, R.F., Qi, X. & Karkalas, J. (2006). Hydrolysis of native
329–363. starches with amylases. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 130,
Sharma, S., Saxena, D.C. & Riar, C.S. (2016). Analysing the effect 39–54.
of germination on phenolics, dietary fibres, minerals and c-amino Thakur, M. & Tiwari, P. (2019). Millets: the untapped and underuti-
butyric acid contents of barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumen- lized nutritious functional foods. Plant Archives, 19, 875–883.
taceae). Food Bioscience, 13, 60–68. Thilagavathi, T., Banumathi, P., Kanchana, S. & Ilamaran, M.
Shen, R., Ma, Y., Jiang, L., Dong, J., Zhu, Y. & Ren, G. (2018). (2015). Effect of heat moisture treatment on functional and phyto-
Chemical composition, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities chemical properties of native and modified millet flours. Plant
of nine Chinese proso millet varieties. Food and Agricultural Archives, 15, 15–21.
Immunology, 29, 625–637. Tyl, C., Marti, A. & Ismail, B.P. (2020). Changes in protein struc-
Shi, J., Shan, S., Li, H., Song, G. & Li, Z. (2017). Anti-inflammatory tural characteristics upon processing of gluten-free millet pasta.
effects of millet bran derived-bound polyphenols in LPS-induced Food Chemistry, 327, 127052.
HT-29 cell via ROS/miR-149/Akt/NF-jB signaling pathway. Onco- Vali Pasha, K., Ratnavathi, C.V., Ajani, J., Raju, D., Manoj
target, 8, 74582. Kumar, S. & Beedu, S.R. (2018). Proximate, mineral composition
Shinoj, S., Viswanathan, R., Sajeev, M.S. & Moorthy, S.N. (2006). and antioxidant activity of traditional small millets cultivated and
Gelatinisation and rheological characteristics of minor millet flours. consumed in Rayalaseema region of south India. Journal of the
Biosystems Engineering, 95, 51–59. Science of Food and Agriculture, 98, 652–660.
Shobana, S., Krishnaswamy, K., Sudha, V. et al. (2013). Finger mil- Vedamanickam, R., Anandan, P., Bupesh, G. & Vasanth, S. (2020).
let (Ragi, Eleusine coracana L.): a review of its nutritional proper- Study of millet and non-millet diet on diabetics and associated
ties, processing, and plausible health benefits. In: Advances in Food metabolic syndrome. Biomedicine, 40, 55–58.
and Nutrition Research. Pp. 1–39. Cambridge, USA: Elsevier. Veena, B., Chimmad, B.V., Naik, R.K. & Shantakumar, G. (2005).
Shobana, S. & Malleshi, N.G. (2007). Preparation and functional Physico-chemical and nutritional studies in barnyard millet. Kar-
properties of decorticated finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Journal nataka Journal of Agricultural Science, 18, 101–105.
of Food Engineering, 79, 529–538. Verma, S., Srivastava, S. & Tiwari, N. (2015). Comparative study on
Shrestha, R. (2017). Suitability of finger millet & barnyard millet nutritional and sensory quality of barnyard and foxtail millet food
incorporated pizza base in diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (PhD products with traditional rice products. Journal of Food Science
Thesis). and Technology, 52, 5147–5155.
Shyam, R. & Singh, R.P. (2018). Evalution of nutritional value and Vijayakumar, T.P., Mohankumar, J.B., Janaki, A. & Nazni, P.
anti nutritional factors of kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.). (2008). Effect of various treatments on characteristics of kodo mil-
Germplasm grown in eastern. Plant Archives, 18, 247–250. let (Paspalum scrobiculatum). Journal of Food, 5, 1.
Singh, A. & Sharma, S. (2017). Bioactive components and functional Vinoth, A. & Ravindhran, R. (2017). Biofortification in millets: a
properties of biologically activated cereal grains: a bibliographic sustainable approach for nutritional security. Frontiers in Plant
review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57, 3051– Science, 8, 29.
3071. Wang, M., Shen, Q., Hu, L. et al. (2018a). Physicochemical proper-
Singh, J., Dartois, A. & Kaur, L. (2010). Starch digestibility in food ties, structure and in vitro digestibility on complex of starch with
matrix: a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21, 168– lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) leaf flavonoids. Food Hydrocol-
180. loids, 81, 191–199.
Singh, K.P., Mishra, A. & Mishra, H.N. (2012). Fuzzy analysis of Wang, W., Guan, L., Seib, P.A. & Shi, Y.-C. (2018b). Settling vol-
sensory attributes of bread prepared from millet-based composite ume and morphology changes in cross-linked and unmodified
flours. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 48, 276–282. starches from wheat, waxy wheat, and waxy maize in relation to
Singh, M. & Adedeji, A.A. (2017). Characterization of hydrothermal their pasting properties. Carbohydrate Polymers, 196, 18–26.
and acid modified proso millet starch. LWT-Food Science and Winch, T. (2006). Growing food. Dordrecht: Springer.
Technology, 79, 21–26. Woomer, J., Singh, M., Vijayakumar, P.P. & Adedeji, A. (2019).
Sireesha, Y., Kasetti, R.B., Nabi, S.A., Swapna, S. & Apparao, C. Physical properties and organoleptic evaluation of gluten-free
(2011). Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activities of Setaria bread from proso millet. British Food Journal, 122, 547–560.
italica seeds in STZ diabetic rats. Pathophysiology, 18, 159–164. Wu, Y., Lin, Q., Cui, T. & Xiao, H. (2014). Structural and physi-
Siroha, A.K., Punıa, S., Sandhu, K.S. & Karwasra, B.L. (2020). cal properties of starches isolated from six varieties of millet
Physicochemical, pasting, and rheological properties of pearl millet grown in China. International Journal of Food Properties, 17,
starches from different cultivars and their relations. Acta Alimenta- 2344–2360.
ria, 49, 49–59. Xiang, J., Apea-Bah, F.B., Ndolo, V.U., Katundu, M.C. & Beta, T.
Siroha, A.K., Sandhu, K.S. & Kaur, M. (2016). Physicochemical, (2019a). Profile of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of
functional and antioxidant properties of flour from pearl millet finger millet varieties. Food Chemistry, 275, 361–368.
Xiang, J., Li, W., Ndolo, V.U. & Beta, T. (2019b). A comparative Zayas, J.F. (2012). Functionality of proteins in food. Verlag Berlin
study of the phenolic compounds and in vitro antioxidant capacity Heidelberg: Springer science & business media.
of finger millets from different growing regions in Malawi. Journal Zhang, A., Liu, X., Wang, G. et al. (2015). Crude fat content and
of Cereal Science, 87, 143–149. fatty acid profile and their correlations in foxtail millet. Cereal
Xiang, J., Zhang, M., Apea-Bah, F.B. & Beta, T. (2019c). Hydrox- Chemistry, 92, 455–459.
ycinnamic acid amide (HCAA) derivatives, flavonoid C-glycosides, Zhang, L., Liu, R. & Niu, W. (2014). Phytochemical and antiprolif-
phenolic acids and antioxidant properties of foxtail millet. Food erative activity of proso millet. PLoS One, 9, e104058.
Chemistry, 295, 214–223. Zhang, L.Z. & Liu, R.H. (2015). Phenolic and carotenoid profiles
Yang, Q., Zhang, P., Qu, Y. et al. (2018). Comparison of physico- and antiproliferative activity of foxtail millet. Food Chemistry, 174,
chemical properties and cooking edibility of waxy and non-waxy 495–501.
proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.). Food Chemistry, 257, 271– Zhu, F. (2014). Structure, physicochemical properties, and uses of
278. millet starch. Food Research International, 64, 200–211.
Yang, Q., Zhang, W., Li, J., Gong, X. & Feng, B. (2019). Physico- Zhu, F. (2015). Isolation, composition, structure, properties, modifi-
chemical properties of starches in proso (Non-waxy and waxy) and cations, and uses of yam starch. Comprehensive Reviews in Food
foxtail millets (Non-waxy and waxy). Molecules, 24, 1743. Science and Food Safety, 14, 357–386.

Millets As Potential Nutri Cereals - A Review of Nutrient Composition, Phytochemical Profile and Techno Functionality

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Millets As Potential Nutri Cereals - A Review of Nutrient Composition, Phytochemical Profile and Techno Functionality

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Millets As Potential Nutri Cereals - A Review of Nutrient Composition, Phytochemical Profile and Techno Functionality

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2021, 56, 3703–3718 3703

Rajan Sharma,1 Savita Sharma,1* B.N. Dar2* & Baljit Singh1

proso millet (Penicum miliaceum), barnyard millet

Pearl millet 63.0–78.0 8.6–19.4 1.5–6.5 2.7–3.6 1.4–11.0

fractions which are rich in lysine. High germ-to-en-

Major minerals (g kg1) Trace minerals (mg kg1)

Italian millet (107.8 mg FAE/100 g), barnyard millet

contribute to the antioxidant potential of millets

Table 4 Functional properties of different millet flours

10.8 J g1 (Yang et al., 2019). Isolated starches from

You might also like