LESSON NO.

1: MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS Objectives of Measurement

1. To establish the validity of design.
LESSON OBJECTIVES 2. To predict the limit of capacity.
• Familiarize with the basic requirements, 3. To provide information needed to
significance and methods of measurements supplement further analytical work.
• Define terms related to error
• Perform basic statistical analysis The type of instrument to be used depends
computation upon the type of data. The data are classified as
follows:
Over the last century and half, there have
1. Steady-state data: If the data vary in the
been many contributions to the art of measuring
range of 0–5 Hz.
electrical quantities. During most of this period,
2. Transient data: If the parameter variation is
the principal effort was aimed at perfecting a
at a much higher rate >5 Hz.
deflection type instrument with a scale and
3. Dynamic data: The parameter variation is
movable pointer. The angle of deflection of the
periodic
pointer is a function of, and is therefore
analogous to, the value of the electrical quantity
Methods of Measurements
being measured.
1. Direct method: in this method the unknown
The massive growth in the application of quantity is directly compared to the
computers to industrial process control and standard. Measuring instruments such as
monitoring tasks has spawned a parallel growth Vernier calipers, micrometers, and
in the requirement for instruments to measure, coordinate measuring machines are used to
record and control process variables. As modern measure the dimensions of the target
production techniques dictate working to tighter directly. These measurements are also
and tighter accuracy limits, and as economic known as absolute measurements.
forces limiting production costs become more Measurements can be performed over a
severe, so the requirement for instruments to be wide range specified by the scale of the
both accurate and cheap becomes ever harder to measuring instrument, but there is also the
satisfy. chance that the measurement will be wrong
due to erroneous readings of the scale.
What is measurement?
• essentially an act or result of comparison
between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and predetermined or predefined
standard.
• measurand is the physical quantity to be
measured.
• comparison of two quantities expressed in
numerical values. 2. Indirect method: measurement using the
direct method is often not possible, feasible
Basic requirements for a meaningful and practical. In engineering application,
measurement: measurement is done often indirectly. The
1. The standard used for comparison purposes dimensions are measured using measuring
must be accurately defined and should be instruments such as dial gauges that look at
commonly accepted. the difference between targets and
2. The apparatus used and the method reference devices such as gauge blocks and
adopted must be probable (verifiable) ring gauges. These are also known as
 comparative measurements due to the fact instrument which are already been
that a comparison is performed using an calibrated.
object with standard dimensions. 3. Deflection type instrument
4. Null type instrument

Functions and characteristics of instruments

• Indicating - This instrument uses a dial and
pointer to determine the value of measuring
quantity. The pointer indication gives the
magnitude of measuring quantity.
• Recording - This type of instruments records
the magnitude of the quantity to be
measured continuously over a specified
period of time.
• Controlling - The instrument used in
industrial process situation frequently
provides control functions. The entire
system may be called a control or automated
system.

An instrument can be active or passive. An

example of an active instrument is a float-type
petrol tank level indicator. Here, the change in
petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the
output signal consists of a proportion of the
external voltage source applied across the two
ends of the potentiometer. In active instruments,
the external power source is usually in electrical
Evolution of instruments:
form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of
• Mechanical instruments are very reliable for energy such as a pneumatic or hydraulic one.
static and stable conditions; however, they
are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of transient and dynamic
condition.
• Electrical instruments are faster than
mechanical system indicating the output
rapidly but uses the mechanical movement
of the meters. The average response is from
0.5 to 26 secs.
• Electronics instruments is much faster
because it uses semiconductor devices and
weak signals can be detected.
An example of a passive instrument is the
Classification of Instrument pressure-measuring device shown. The pressure
1. Absolute instrument – this instrument of the fluid is translated into a movement of a
gives the original magnitude of the pointer against a scale. The energy expended in
quantity. moving the pointer is derived entirely from the
2. Secondary instrument – this instrument is change in pressure measured: there are no other
calibrated with comparison with absolute energy inputs to the system
 7. Tolerance - is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error
that is to be expected in some value.
8. Zero drift - Zero drift or bias describes the
effect where the zero reading of an
instrument is modified by a change in
ambient conditions. This causes a constant
error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. The
mechanical form of bathroom scale is a
common example of an instrument that is
prone to bias. It is quite usual to find that
there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no
An instrument should have the following one stood on the scale.
characteristics
1. Accuracy – difference between measured
and true value. Manufacturer will specify
maximum error but not confidence intervals
typically.
2. Precision – difference between reported
values during repeated measurements of
some quantity
3. Resolution – smallest increment of change
in the measured value that can be
determined by the readout scale. Often
same as precision.
4. Sensitivity – the change of an instrument’s
output per unit changes in the measured
quantity. Higher sensitivity often indicates
finer resolution, better precision and higher
accuracy.
5. Repeatability - describes the closeness of
output readings when the same input is Classification of standards:
applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement • International standard – they are defined
conditions, same instrument and observer, by international agreement. They are
same location and same conditions of use maintained at the international bureau of
maintained throughout weight and measure in Paris and are
6. Reproducibility - describes the closeness of periodically evaluated and checked by
output readings for the same input when absolute measurements in terms of
there are changes in the method of fundamental units of Physics.
measurement, observer, measuring • Primary standard – are maintained at the
instrument, location, conditions of use and national standards laboratories in different
time of measurement. Both terms thus countries. The NBS in Washington is
describe the spread of output readings for responsible for maintaining the primary
the same input. This spread is referred to as standard in North America. Their primary
repeatability if the measurement conditions function is to calibrate secondary standard
are constant and as reproducibility if the of the area.
measurement conditions vary
 • Secondary standard – are the basic from a source emitting monochromatic
reference standard used by measurement radiation at a frequency of 540 terahertz (Hz
and calibration laboratories in the industry x 1012) and with a radiant density in that
to which they belong. Each industrial direction of 1.4641 mW/steradian. (1
laboratory is completely responsible for its steradian is the solid angle which, having its
own secondary standards. Each laboratory vertex at the centre of a sphere, cuts off an
periodically sends its secondary standards to area of the sphere surface equal to that of a
the national standards lab for calibration. square with sides of length equal to the
• Working standard – are the principal tools sphere radius)
of a measurement laboratory, they are used • Matter (mole) – The number of atoms in a
to check and calibrate the instrument used 0.012 kg mass of carbon-12
in the lab or to make comparison
measurements in industrial application. Fundamental Units
Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol
Why do we need standards for measurements? Length Meter m
1. To improve quality of product Mass Kilogram kg
2. To improve efficiency of production Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
3. To maintain proper operation
Current Ampere A
Luminous
Organization of standards Candela cd
Intensity
1. ISO – international organization for Matter Mole mol
standards Supplementary Fundamental Units
2. IBS – international bureau of standards Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol
Plane angle radian rad
International Standards Solid Angle Steradian sr

• Length (meter) – The length of path Derived Units

travelled by light in an interval of 1/299 792

Derivation
Formula
458 seconds
Quantity

S.I. Unit

Symbol
• Mass (kilogram) – The mass of a platinum –
iridium cylinder kept in the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures, Sevres,
Paris Square
Area m2
• Time (second) – 9.192631770 x 109 cycles of meter
Cubic
radiation from vaporized caesium-133 (an Volume m3
meter
accuracy of 1 in 1012 or 1 second in 36 000
Meter per
years) Velocity m/s
second
• Temperature (kelvin) – The temperature Meter per
difference between absolute zero and the Acceleration second m/s2
triple point of water is defined as 273.16 squared
kelvin Radian
Angular
per rad/s
• Current (ampere) – One ampere is the Velocity
second
current flowing through two infinitely long
Radian
parallel conductors of negligible cross- Angular per
section placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum rad/s2
Acceleration second
and producing a force of 2 x 10 -7 newtons squared
per metre length of conductor Kilogram
• Luminous Intensity (candela) – One candela Density per cubic kg/m3
is the luminous intensity in a given direction meter
 Cubic An instrumentation system for
Specific
meter per m3/kg making measurements has an input of the true
Volume
kilogram value of the variable being measured and an
Kilogram output of the measured value. The purpose of an
Mass Flow
per kg/s
Rate instrumentation system used for making
second
Cubic measurements is to give the user a numerical
Volume value corresponding to the variable being
meter per m3/s
Flow Rate measured. Thus, a thermometer may be used to
second
Kg give a numerical value for the temperature of a
Force Newton N
m/s2 liquid. We must, however, recognize that, for a
Newton variety of reasons, this numerical value may not
per actually be the true value of the variable
Pressure N/m2
square
meter
Newton
Torque Nm
meter
Kilogram
Momentum meter per kg m/s
second
Kilogram
Moment of
meter kg m2
Inertia
squared
Square
Kinematic
meter per m2/s
Viscosity
second
Newton
second
Dynamic
per Ns/m2
Viscosity
square
meter
Work,
Energy, and Joule J Nm
Heat
Joule per
Specific
cubic J/m3
Energy
meter
Power Watt W J/s
Watt per Constituent elements of instrumentation
Thermal
meter W/mK system
Conductivity
kelvin
Electric 1. Sensor - This is the element of the system
Coulomb C As
Charge which is effectively in contact with the
Voltage, process for which a variable is being
e.m.f., pot. Volt V W/A measured and gives an output which
diff. depends in some way on the value of the
Electric variable and which can be used by the rest
Volt per
Field V/m
meter of the measurement system to give a
Strength
Electric value to it.
Ohm Ω V/A
Resistance
 Measurement is the foundation for all
experimental science. All the great technological
development could not have been possible
without ever-increasing levels of accuracy of
measurements. The measurement of an amount
is based on some international standards which
are completely accurate compared with others.

Measuring systems contain the following

functional elements
1. Primary sensing element
2. Variable conversion element
3. Manipulation element
4. Data transmission element
2. Signal processor - This element takes the 5. Data presentation element
output from the sensor and converts it
into a form which is suitable for display or
onward transmission in some control
system. In the case of the thermocouple
this may be an amplifier to make the emf
big enough to register on a meter.

1. Primary sensing element – the quantity or

the variable which is being measured
makes its first contact with the primary
sensing element of a measurement system

the measurement is first detected by

primary sensor or detector. The sensing
3. Data presentation - This presents the element sense the condition, state or value
measured value in a form which enables of the process variable by extracting a small
an observer to recognize it. This may be part of energy from the measurement and
via a display, e.g., a pointer moving across produces an output which is proportional
the scale of a meter or perhaps to the input. The measurement is then
information on a visual display unit (VDU). immediately converted into an analogous
Alternatively, or additionally, the signal electrical signal.
may be recorded, e.g., on the paper of a 2. Variable conversion element – it is also
chart recorder or perhaps on magnetic called transducer element. It converts
disc, or transmitted to some other system signal from one physical form into another
such as a control system. without changing information content of
the signal. It can be from mechanical,
electrical or optical to any other related
form.
• Bourdon tube and bellows which
transforms pressure into
displacement
• Rack and pinion which converts linear
to rotary motion and vice versa
3. Data transmission elements – an element Pressure actuated thermometer
that transmits the signal from one location
to another without changing the
information content/data may be
transmitted over long distances or short
distances. It may be shaft and gearing
assembly, transmitting signals via data
cables, wires, change in voltage or current,
etc.
4. Variable manipulation elements – means a
change in numerical value of the signal. Its
function is to manipulate the signal
presented to this element while preserving
the original nature of the signal
• Voltage amplifier acts as a variable
manipulation element
• Gearing arrangement increases or
decrease rotating speed of shaft
without changing its nature
5. Data presentation element – provides a
display record or indication of the output
from the manipulation of elements. To
monitor the data, visual display devices are
needed. It can be analogue or digital
indicating instruments.
An error may be defined as the difference
between the measured value and the actual
value. For example, if the two operators use the
same device or instrument for measurement. It
is not necessary that both operators get similar
results. The difference that occurs between both
the measurements is referred to as an ERROR.

Sources of Error
1. Calibration of Instrument
2. Instrument reproducibility
Example of functional elements of bourdon tube 3. Measuring arrangement
4. Work piece
5. Environmental condition
6. Observes skill

Types of Errors
1. Gross Error – basically takes into account
human oversight and other mistakes
while reading, recording, and readings.
The most common errors, the human
error in the measurement fall under this
category of errors in measurement. For
example, the person taking the reading
 from the meter of the instrument he may calibration of the measuring
read 23 as 28. Gross errors can be instruments. Such errors arise due to
avoided by using two suitable measures, the hysteresis of the equipment or due
and they are written below: to friction. Lots of the time, the
a. Proper care should be taken in equipment being used is faulty due to
reading, recording the data. Also, the misuse or neglect which changes the
calculation of error should be done reading of the equipment. The zero
accurately. error is a very common type of error.
b. By increasing the number of This error is common in devices like
experimenters, we can reduce the gross Vernier calipers and screw gauge. The
errors. If each experimenter takes zero error can be either positive or
different reading at different points, then negative. Sometimes the readings of
by taking the average of more readings the scale are worn off and this can also
we can reduce the gross errors lead to a bad reading.
2. Random Errors – are those errors, which Instrumental error takes place due to:
occur irregularly and hence are random.
• An inherent constraint of devices
These can arise due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in • Misuse of Apparatus
experimental conditions (Example: • Effect of Loading
unpredictable fluctuations in
temperature, voltage supply, mechanical 4. Absolute Error
vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc.) The difference between the measured
errors by the observer taking readings, value of a quantity and its actual value
etc. For example, when the same person gives the absolute error. It is the variation
repeats the same observation, it is very between the actual values and measured
likely that he may get different readings values. It is given by:
every time.
3. Systematic Error Absolute error = |𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑬|
• Environmental Errors: This type of error
arises in the measurement due to the 5. Percent Error
effect of the external conditions on the It is another way of expressing the error
measurement. The external condition in measurement. This calculation allows
includes temperature, pressure, and us to gauge how accurate a measured
humidity and can also include an value is with respect to true value.
external magnetic field. If you measure Percent error is given by the formula:
your temperature under the armpits
𝑽𝑨−𝑽𝑬
and during the measurement, if the Percentage error (%) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑨
electricity goes out and the room gets
hot, it will affect your body temperature 6. Relative Error
thereby affecting the reading. The ratio of the absolute error to the
• Observational Errors: These are the accepted measurement gives the relative
errors that arise due to an individual’s error. Relative error is given by the
bias, lack of proper setting of the formula:
apparatus, or an individual’s
carelessness in taking observations. The 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
measurement errors also include wrong Relative Error =
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
readings due to Parallax errors.
• Instrumental Errors: These errors arise
due to faulty construction and
Where: 2. The following set of ten measurements was
Absolute error is the variation between the recorded in the laboratory. Calculate the
actual values and measured values. It is given by precision of the fourth measurement.
Absolute error = |𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑬|
Measurement No. Measurement Value
It is frequently desirable to express 1 98
measurements in terms of relative accuracy, A 2 102
3 101
𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑬 4 97
𝑨=𝟏−| |
𝑽𝑨 5 100
6 103
7 98
Precision can be expressed in a mathematical 8 106
sense as 9 107
10 99
𝑿𝒏 − 𝑿′ 𝒏
𝑷=𝟏−| |
𝑿′ 𝒏 𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋 ′ 𝑛
𝑃 =1−| |
𝑋 ′𝑛
Where:
𝑿𝒏 = value of the nth measurement 97 − 101.1
𝑃 =1−| |
𝑿′𝒏 = average of the set of n measurement 101.1

𝑃 = 1 − 0.04
EXAMPLE NO. 1
1. The expected value of the voltage across the 𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 ≈ 𝟗𝟔%
resistor is 50V. However, measurement
yields a value of 49V. Calculate
3. The following table of values represents a
Given: meter output in terms of the angular
𝑽𝑨 = 𝟓𝟎𝑽 displacement of the needle, expressed in
𝑽𝑬 = 𝟒𝟗𝑽 degrees, for a series of identical input current.
a. Absolute error Determine the worst-case reading precision.
𝑒 = 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
= 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐸 Output
= 50 − 49 Input Current
Displacement
𝒆 = 𝟏𝑽 𝑰𝑰𝑵 (𝝁𝑨)
(𝑫𝑬𝑮)
b. Percent of error 10 20.1 = 0.086
1𝑉 10 20.0 = 0.014
%𝑒 = × 100
50 10 20.2 = 0.186
= 𝟐% 10 19.8 = 0.214
10 19.6 = 0.414
c. Relative accuracy
10 20.0 = 0.014
𝐴 = 1 − 0.02
10 20.4 = 0.386
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖
d. Percent accuracy
𝑿′ 𝒏 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒
= 𝟗𝟖%
0.414
𝑃 =1−| |
20.014

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟗
4. Calculate the arithmetic mean, deviation of
each value and the sum of the deviation, average
deviation, standard deviation in problem 3

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏𝟒

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟕
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟔
=√
𝟕

5. A 300𝑉 voltmeter is specified to be accurate

within ±2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the voltmeter is used to measure a
120𝑉 source.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 300𝑉
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = ±2%
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 120𝑉

𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑽 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟔𝑽

𝟔
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓%
𝟏𝟐𝟎

6. A voltmeter and an ammeter is used to

measure the power dissipated by a resistor. Both
instruments are guaranteed to be accurate
within ±1% at full scale deflection. If the
voltmeter reads 80V in its 150V range and the
ammeter read 70mA in its 100mA range,
determine the limiting error for the power
calculation.

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒚 = ±𝟏%
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑽
𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎𝑨

𝟏𝟓𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑽

𝟏. 𝟓
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟕𝟓%
𝟖𝟎

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 = 𝟏𝒎𝑨

𝟏𝒎𝑨
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟖%
𝟕𝟎𝒎𝑨