INTRODUCTION TO

INDUSTRIAL
AUTOMATION
MODULE IV
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Module 4
Pneumatic/Hydraulic Automation: control valves – direction, pressure and
flow, sequential control of single /multiple actuator systems
Electro pneumatic/electro hydraulic automation: Symbols: Basic electrical
elements – relay, solenoid, timers, pneumatic – electrical converters, design of
circuits and hands on models on material handling systems.
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HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
The hydraulic system works on the principle of
Pascal’s law which says that the pressure in an
enclosed fluid is uniform in all the directions.
The force given by fluid is given by the
multiplication of pressure and area of cross
section. As the pressure is same in all the
direction, the smaller piston feels a smaller force
and a large piston feels a large force. Therefore, a
large force can be generated with smaller force
input by using hydraulic systems.

The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its proper functioning. These
include storage tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic
cylinder, piston and leak proof fluid flow pipelines.
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces.
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 Advantages
The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results in higher efficiency.
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It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in pneumatic or mechanical drive systems.
Hydraulic systems employ high density incompressible fluid. Possibility of leakage is less in
hydraulic system as compared to that in pneumatic system. The maintenance cost is less.
These systems perform well in hot environment conditions.
Disadvantages
The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder and piston can be corroded with the hydraulic
fluid. Therefore one must be careful while selecting materials and hydraulic fluid.
The structural weight and size of the system is more which makes it unsuitable for the smaller
instruments.
The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the complete system,
therefore one should be careful and suitable filter must be installed.
The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable prevention method and seals
must be adopted.
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PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
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PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

A pneumatic system is a collection of interconnected components using compressed air

to do work for automated equipment.
The compressed air or pressurized gas is usually filtered and dried to protect the
cylinders, actuators, tools and bladders performing the work.

A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control energy.
Most pneumatic systems rely on a constant supply of compressed air to make them work.
This is provided by an air compressor. The compressor sucks in air from the atmosphere
and stores it in a high pressure tank called a receiver
8 Main Components of a Pneumatic System

Check Valves
Compressor.
Regulators and gauges.
Accumulator or buffer tank.
Feed lines.
Actuators
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CONTROL VALVES
A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the
flow passage as directed by a signal from a controller.
This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential control of
process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.
Control valves are used in many processes to control flow, pressure,
temperature or other variables. The type of valve used will depend on the size
of the pipe, the overall pressure that the system operates, the flowing media,
process conditions, and other factors.
The opening or closing of automatic control valves is usually done by
electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Normally with a modulating
valve, which can be set to any position between fully open and fully closed,
valve positioners are used to ensure the valve attains the desired degree of
opening.
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS:CONTROL
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VALVES
In a hydraulic system, the hydraulic energy available from a pump is converted into
motion and force by means of an actuator.
The control of these mechanical outputs (motion and force) is one of the most
important functions in a hydraulic system. The proper selection of control selection
ensures the desired output and safe function of the system.
In order to control the hydraulic outputs, different types of control valves are
required.
There are basically three types of valves employed in hydraulic systems:
• Directional control valves
• Flow control valves
• Pressure control valves
 Directional control valves
11 Directional control valves are essentially used for distribution of energy in a fluid
power system. They establish the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit.
For example they control the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor.
These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of flow of
pressurized fluid.
Valves contains ports that are external openings for fluid to enter and leave via
connecting pipelines, The number of ports on a directional control valve (DCV ) is
usually identified by the term “ way”. For example, a valve with four ports is named as
four-way valve.
The designation of the directional control valve refers to the number of working ports
and the number of switching positions.
 Directional control valves can be classified in a number of ways:
According to type of construction :
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• Poppet valves
• Spool valves
According to number of working ports :
• Two- way valves
• Three – way valves
• Four- way valves.
According to number of Switching position:
• Two – position
• Three – position
According to Actuating mechanism:
• Manual actuation
• Mechanical actuation
• Solenoid ( Electrical ) actuation
• Hydraulic ( Pilot ) actuation
• Pneumatic actuation
• Indirect actuation
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Poppet valves
There are two main types of valve: poppet and spool.
Poppet valves incorporate a manual or mechanically operated plunger, which
is normally held in the closed position by a spring or by air pressure.
Depressing the plunger opens the valve and allows air to flow.
A seal is achieved between the plunger and the valve seat by means of flat
discs and washers, O-rings or spherical closures.
One of the main advantages of poppet valves is their relative simplicity, with a
minimum of moving parts. They are also self-cleaning, using the purging effect
of the air flow, and require little maintenance.
Although poppet valves have a short stroke before maximum flow is achieved,
they can only be operated in an open or closed position, making it difficult to
regulate the flow path through the valve.
Poppet valves are not suitable for complex switching operations, where a
combination of inputs and outputs are required. They can also be affected by
fluctuations in input pressure, which increases or decreases the actuation force
needed to open the valve seal.
Types:2/2 Poppet Valve
Types:4/2 Poppet Vave
 Spool valve
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Uses a specially profiled rod or spool, sliding longitudinally within the center of the
valve, to switch the air flow between different inlet and outlet ports.
The direction of air flow is at right angles to that of the spool. The spool can be
moved manually or by means of an air pilot or electrically operated solenoid.
Spool valves offer a considerably higher level of functionality than poppet valves
and are unaffected by changes in operating pressure, enabling response times to
remain constant.
Spool valves can provide a highly effective method of controlling air flow to and
from other pneumatic devices. The level of performance or efficiency which can be
achieved, however, is directly related to the design and manufacture of the spool
itself. As a result, a number of variations have been developed.
The spool slides within the barrel of the valve. Cut into the barrel are the various
port openings, with the machined profile of the spool providing flow paths across
different ports, depending on the position of the spool.
 NUMBER OF PORTS
19 Two way valves
Two way valves have only two ports
These valves are also known as on-off valves because they allow the fluid flow only in
direction.
Normally, the valve is closed.
These are the simplest type of spool valves. When actuating force is not applied to the
right, the port P is not connected with port A as shown in figure. Therefore, the
actuation does not take place. Similarly, Figure shows the two way spool valve in the
open condition. Here, the pressure port P is connected with the actuator port A.
 Three way valves
20 When a valve has three pressure port it is known as three way valve.
In this valve, the pressure port pressurizes one port and exhausts another
one.
only one actuator port is opened at a time.
Generally, these valves are used to operate single acting cylinders
 Four way valves
21 It is generally used to operate the cylinders and fluid motors in both the directions.
The four ways are: pump port P, tank port T, and two working ports A and B
connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to pressurize
and exhaust two working ports A and B alternatively.
 Classification of control valve according to number/ways of switching position
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Three position four way (3/4) valves
A valve with 4 Service ports and 3 Switching position is designated as 3 / 4 way
valve.
 Two position four way (2/4) valves
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The two position four way valves have only two switching positions and do not have
any mid position.
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Pressure control valves
These are the units ensuring the control of pressure. A throttling orifice is present in
the valve and by variation of orifice, the pressure level can be controlled or at a
particular pressure, a switching action can be influenced.
Classification: Basically one differentiates between pressure regulating and
pressure switching valves. Pressure regulation valves are for maintaining a constant
pressure in a system. Pressure switching valves, apart from a definite control
function they also perform a switching action.
Opening and closing pressure difference: The minimum pressure at which the
valve action starts is called as the opening or cracking pressure. The difference
between the cracking pressure (commencement of flow) and the pressure obtained at
maximum flow ( normal flow without change of spring force ) is referred as the
“opening pressure difference”.
Similarly the difference between the pressure corresponding to nominal flow and no
flow during closing of the valve is referred as “closing pressure difference”. This is
larger than the opening due to the flow forces acting in the opening direction as also
the hysteresis in the spring.
Pressure Relief valve
A pressure relief valve is used to release excess pressure from a system during overpressure
situations thus avoiding catastrophic failure.
Pressure relief valve is an important process safety device and is widely used in the chemical,
petrochemical, power, and oil and gas industries.
The pressure relief valve (PRV) is designed to open at a predefined set pressure. So whenever
the system pressure exceeds the set pressure, the PRV pops and releases the overpressure and
when the excess pressure is removed the PRV closes again.
Types are :
1. Direct pressure-relief valve
2. Pressure-reducing valve.
3. Unloading valve
4. Counterbalance valve.
5. Pressure-sequence valve.
6. Brake valve.
Direct type of relief valve:
It is normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum
value by diverting pump flow back to the tank. This type of valves has two ports; one of
which is connected to the pump and another is connected to the tank. It consists of a spring
chamber where poppet is placed with a spring force. Generally, the spring is adjustable to set
the maximum pressure limit of the system. The poppet is held in position by combined
effect of spring force and dead weight of spool.
As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises, and excess fluid bypassed to
the reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value.
A drain is also provided in the control chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small
leakage to the tank and thereby prevents the failure of the valve. The main advantage of
direct-acting relief valves over pilot-operated relief valves is that they respond very rapidly
to pressure build-up. Because there is only one moving part in a direct-acting relief valve, it
can open rapidly, thus minimizing pressure spikes
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Pressure Reducing valve
■ This valve is actuated by the downstream pressure and tends to close as the pressure
reaches the valve setting.
■ When the downstream pressure is below the valve setting, fluid will flow freely from the
inlet to the outlet. Observe that there is an internal passage from the outlet, which
transmits the outlet pressure to the spool end opposite the spring. When the downstream
pressure increases beyond the value of the spring setting, the spool moves upward to
partially block the outlet port as shown in Figure. It can be seen from the figure, that if
the spring force is more, the valve opens wider and if the controlled pressure has greater
force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the flow.
■ A reducing valve is normally open. It reads the downstream pressure. It has an external
drain. This is represented by a line connected from the valve drain port to the tank. The
symbol shows that the spring cavity has a drain to the tank.
Unloading Valve
Unloading valves are remotely piloted, normally closed pressure control valves, used to direct flow to
the tank when pressure at a particular location in a hydraulic circuit reaches a predetermined value.
This valve consists of a control chamber with an adjustable spring which pushes the spool down.
The valve has two ports: one is connected to the tank and another is connected to the pump.
The valve is operated by movement of the spool. Normally, the valve is closed, and the tank port is
also closed. These valves are used to permit a pump to operate at the minimum load.
It works on the same principle as direct control valve that the pump delivery is diverted to the tank
when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool.
The pilot pressure maintains a static pressure to hold the valve opened.
The pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump delivery is needed in the system.
As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed, and the spool moves
down due to the self-weight and the spring force.
Now, the flow is diverted to the hydraulic circuit.
The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control chamber to prevent the valve
failure.
The unloading valve reduces the heat build-up due to fluid discharge at a pre-set pressure value
Sequence Valve
■ In circuits with more than one actuator, it’s often necessary to drive the actuators, such
as cylinders, in a definite order or sequence. This can be done with limit switches,
timers, or other electrical control devices. Sequence valves are normally closed 2-way
valves that regulate the sequence in which various functions in a circuit occur. They
resemble direct-acting relief valves except that their spring chambers are generally
drained externally to tank, instead of internally to an outlet port.
■ Normally, a sequence valve routes pressurized fluid to a second function only after an
earlier function has been completed. When normally closed, a sequence valve allows
fluid to flow freely to the primary circuit to perform its first function until the valve’s
pressure setting is reached. When the priority function is satisfied, pressure in the
primary circuit rises and is sensed in pressure-sensing passage A. This pressurizes fluid
acting on the spool and overcomes the force exerted by the spring. The spring is
compressed, the spool shifts, and fluid flows to the secondary circuit.
Counterbalance Valve
■ It is used to maintain the back pressure and to prevent a load from failing.
■ The counterbalance valves can be used as breaking valves for decelerating heavy loads. These
valves are used in vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine tools where position or
hold suspended loads are important.
■ Counterbalance valves work on the principle that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot
pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring force.
■ Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the load to descend under control. This valve is normally
closed until it is acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source. Therefore, a lower spring force is
sufficient.
■ It leads to the valve operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption
reduces, pump life increases and the fluid temperature decreases.
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Flow control valve
A flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves normally respond
to signals generated by independent devices such as flow meters or temperature gauges.
Operation
Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and positioners. Pneumatically-actuated
globe valves and diaphragm valves are widely used for control purposes in many industries,
although quarter-turn types such as (modified) ball and butterfly valves are also used.
Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as hydraulic pilots).
These types of valves are also known as automatic control valves. The hydraulic actuators
respond to changes of pressure or flow and will open/close the valve. Automatic control
valves do not require an external power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to
open and close them.
Automatic control valves include pressure reducing valves, flow control valves,
back-pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves.
 Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked
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together to produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed
to keep some important process variable, such as pressure, flow, level, or temperature, within
a required operating range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each loop receives and
internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process variable, and interaction
from other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence the process variable.
To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect information
about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A controller then
processes this information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back to
where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing, and
calculating are done, some type of final control element must implement the strategy
selected by the controller.
The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control valve.
The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical
compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable
as close as possible to the desired set point.
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Ball valve
A ball valve is a flow control device which uses a hollow, perforated and pivoting ball to
control liquid flowing through it. It is open when the ball's hole is in line with the flow inlet
and closed when it is pivoted 90-degrees by the valve handle, blocking the flow. The handle
lies flat in alignment with the flow when open, and is perpendicular to it when closed,
making for easy visual confirmation of the valve's status. The shut position 1/4 turn could be
in either clockwise or counter-clockwise direction.
Ball valves are durable, performing well after many cycles, and reliable, closing securely
even after long periods of disuse. These qualities make them an excellent choice for shutoff
and control applications, where they are often preferred to gates and globe valves, but they
lack the fine control of those alternatives, in throttling applications.
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Cut-away view of ball valve components: 1) body 2) seat

3) floating ball 4) lever handle 5) stem
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The ball valve's ease of operation, repair, and versatility lend it to extensive
industrial use, supporting pressures up to 1,000 bar (100 MPa; 15,000 psi) and
temperatures up to 752 °F (400 °C), depending on design and materials used.
Sizes typically range from 0.2 to 48 inches (5.1 to 1,219.2 mm). Valve bodies are
made of metal, plastic, or metal with a ceramic; floating balls are often chrome
plated for durability
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Butterfly valve

A butterfly valve is a valve that isolates or regulates the flow of a fluid. The
closing mechanism is a disk that rotates.
Principle of operation
Operation is similar to that of a ball valve, which allows for quick shut off.
Butterfly valves are generally favored because they cost less than other valve
designs, and are lighter weight so they need less support. The disc is positioned
in the center of the pipe.
A rod passes through the disc to an actuator on the outside of the valve. Rotating
the actuator turns the disc either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a
ball valve, the disc is always present within the flow, so it induces a pressure
drop, even when open.
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A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter-turn valves. In

operation, the valve is fully open or closed when the disc is rotated a quarter turn.
The "butterfly" is a metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the
disc is turned so that it completely blocks off the passageway. When the valve is
fully open, the disc is rotated a quarter turn so that it allows an almost unrestricted
passage of the fluid. The valve may also be opened incrementally to throttle flow.
43

Large butterfly valve Butterfly valve DN3000

Cast iron butterfly valve
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Check valve

A check valve, non-return valve, reflux valve, retention valve, foot valve, or
one-way valve is a valve that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through
it in only one direction.
Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body,
one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of
check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of
common household items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes
and costs, check valves generally are very small, simple, and inexpensive.
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Tilting-disc inconel check valve

46
Diaphragm valves
Diaphragm valves consists of a valve body with two or more ports, an
elastomeric diaphragm, and a "weir or saddle" or seat upon which the
diaphragm closes the valve. The valve body may be constructed from
plastic, metal, wood or other materials depending on the intended use.
Power Transmission in Industries
■ Mechanical
■ Electrical
■ Fluid Power (Hydraulics/Pneumatics)
■ Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation,
control and transmission of forces and movement of
mechanical element or system with the use of pressurized
fluids in a confined system.
■ Both liquids and gases are considered fluids.
■ Fluid power system includes a hydraulic system (hydra
meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system
ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER
■ The secret of fluid power’s success and widespread use is its
versatility and manageability.
■ Fluid power is not hindered by the geometry of the machine,
as is the case in mechanical systems.
■ Also, power can be transmitted in almost limitless quantities
because fluid systems are not so limited by the physical
limitations of materials as are electrical systems.
■ Ease and accuracy of control
■ Multiplication of force
■ Constant force or torque
■ Simplicity, safety, economy
Disadvantages
■ Hydraulic components must be properly designed and installed to prevent
oil leakage from the hydraulic system into the surroundings.
■ Hydraulic pipeline can burst due to excessive oil pressure if proper system
design is not implemented.
■ In pneumatic systems, components such as compressed air tanks and
accumulators must be properly selected to handle the system maximum air
pressure.
■ In addition, proper measures must be taken to control the level of noise in
the vicinity of fluid power systems
Components of Fluid Power

■ A reservoir tank:- Oil Storage

■ A pump:- To pump the oil in to the system
■ An electric motor:- To drive the pump
■ A control valve:-To control oil direction, pressure, and flow rate
■ An actuator:-To convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force or torque
Hydraulic System-Block Diagram
Pneumatic System-Block Diagram
Components

■ A pneumatic actuator converts fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.
■ A compressor is used to compress air drawn from the atmosphere.
■ A storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
■ Valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of the compressor.
■ An external power supply is used to drive the compressor.
■ A piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Current to Pressure Converter
Voltage to Current Converter
ref: Curtis Johnson

Signals in process control are most often transmitted as a current, specifically 4 to 20 mA.
It is often necessary to employ a linear voltage-to-current converter.
Such a circuit must be capable of sinking a current into a number of different loads without changing
the voltage-to-current transfer characteristics.
Eg:
Symbols-Basic Electrical elements

■ Push button switches

A push button switch is used to open or close an electric control circuit. It is primarily used for starting
and stopping operation of machinery and also to provide a manual override during emergencies.
Push button switches are actuated by pushing the actuator into the housing causing a set of contacts to
open or close.
▪ Types
Normally open: The contacts are open in the normal position disconnecting energy flow through them.
In the actuated position the contacts are closed, permitting energy flow through them.
Normally closed (NC):The contacts are closed in the normal position, permitting energy flow through
them. The contacts are open in the actuated position disconnecting energy flow through them.
Limit switches

■ Any switch that is actuated by the position of a fluid power component ( usually a piston
rod,hydraulic motor shaft, or the position of a load) is termed a limit switch. The
actuation of a limit switches provides an electrical signal that causes an appropriate
system response.
■ Limit switches are mechanically actuated.
■ Limit switches are classified by the method of actuation of the contacts:
Lever actuated: where contacts are operated slowly
Spring loaded: where contacts are operated rapidly.
Relays

■ A relay is an electromagnetically actuated switch. It is simple electrical device used in

signal processing.
■ Relays are designed to withstand heavy power surges and harsh environmental
conditions.
■ When voltage is applied to a solenoid coil, an electromagnetic field is created which
causes the armature to be attracted to the coil core. The armature actuated the relay
contacts, either opening or closing them, depending on the design. A return spring
restores the armature to its initial position when current to the coil is interrupted.
Timers

■ Timers are required in control systems to introduce time delays between work operations
via the associated control element. Electronic timers are most commonly used. There are
two types of time delay relays:
❖ Pull-in delay ( on delay timer)
❖ Drop out delay (Off-delay timer)
Pull in delays (on-delay timer)
Off-delay timer