EVERWIN VIDHYASHRAM SENIOR SEC.

SCHOOL
Kolathur, Chennai – 99.
(Affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary
Educa�on, New Delhi)

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

DONE BY
KAVIN G
XII-DYNAMIC
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that KAVIN.G of XII
DYNAMIC has successfully completed the
Physics Investigatory Project titled DIODE
CHARACTERISTICS. Under the guidance of
Ms. V. REENA JOSHI VINCE and submitted
for the practical examination conducted by the
CBSE board during the year2023-2024.

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
EXAMINER EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I gratefully acknowledge my sincere thanks to
our Physics teacher Ms. V. REENA JOSHI
VINCE and our principal VIDHYAHARI for
giving me an opportunity and guiding me to
complete the project successfully.

KAVIN.G
XII-DYNAMIC
SR NO. TOPICS PG NO
INTRODUCTION TO
1. THE PROJECT 1
2.
SEMICONDUCTORS 2-4
3. Characteristics of a p-
n junction diode 5
4.
EXPERIMENT 6-13
5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 14
INTRODUCTION:
Semiconductor diode is simply the
combination of a p-type and an n-type material. It is
formed by doping half of the silicon crystal with trivalent
impurity (p-type) and the other half with pentavalent
impurity (n-type). It has the characteristics of passing
current in one direction only. If there is no voltage is
applied across the junction, electrons will diffuse through
the junction to p - side and holes will diffuse through the
junction to n - side and they combine with each other.
Thus the acceptor atom near the p - side and donor atom
near n – side are left unutilized and is called the depletion
layer. An electron field is generated by these uncovered
charges which called the barrier potential. This opposes
further diffusion of carriers and is known as
depletion region.

1
SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors are materials with electrical
conductivity intermediate between that of a conductor
and an insulator. In semiconducting materials thermal
energy is enough to cause a number of electrons to
release from valance band to conduction band, in which
they are relatively free. Common semiconducting
materials are silicon, germanium, gallium, arsenide etc.

Semiconductors are classified as;

Intrinsic semiconductors:
Pure semiconducting materials like crystalline form of
germanium and silicon, with equal concentration of
electrons and holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors:
Semiconducting material with the addition of suitable
impurity atoms through doping.
Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type or n-type
depending on the impurities added to it. A p- type
semiconductor is formed when adding pentavalent
impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc. to an
intrinsic semiconductor. If the impurities added are
trivalent atoms, we get the n- type semiconductor.

2
Biasing in diodes:
Biasing in general means the application of dc voltage
across the terminals of a device for a particular operation.
Two types of biasing are possible in a p-n junction diode.
They are;
Forward Biasing:
Forward biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the negative terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
towards and cross the junction and current flows through
the junction. This current is known as the forward current
and is the order of 10-3 A. The size of the depletion layer
decreases in forward biasing.

3
Reverse Biasing:
Reverse biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the positive terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
away from the junction and thus no current flows through
the junction. A very small current will made at the
junction due to the movement of minority charge carriers
across the junction.

4
Characteristics of a p-n junction diode:
It generally shows the relation between bias voltage and
current of a diode. The V-I characteristics of a diode can
be forward or reverse. The graph showing the forward
bias voltage and forward current is known as the forward
characteristics, and that showing the reverse bias voltage
and reverse current is known as the reverse
characteristics.

The forward characteristics of a diode is non-linear. The

forward current increases slowly in the beginning and
shows a sudden rise at a certain value of forward voltage.
This voltage is known as the threshold voltage or Knee
voltage. This is because the resistance is very low in
forward biased condition. The current in the reverse bias
is due to the flow of minority carriers. The reverse
current shows a sudden increase at a particular region.
The corresponding voltage is termed as the reverse
breakdown voltage.
5
AIM:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n
junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required:
A p-n junction diode
 3 V battery
 50 V battery
 High resistance rheostat
 0-3 V voltmeter
 0-50 V voltmeter
 0-100 mA ammeter
 0-100 µA ammeter
 One way key
 Connecting wires

6
Procedure:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
• Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to minimum.
• Now, gently move the rheostat contact to provide a
positive bias voltage.
• Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in
equal steps by changing the rheostat slider.
• It can be noted that, initially the current increase very
slowly. For a certain value of voltage, it shows a sharp
increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee
voltage of that diode.
• Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and
forward current along Y axis. The graph shows the
forward V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

7
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
• Make the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to maximum.
• Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a
reverse bias voltage. Note the voltmeter and micro
ammeter readings.
• Note the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in
equal steps.
• The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
rapidly when the reverse voltage becomes a certain
value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown
voltage.
• Plot a graph with reverse voltage along X axis and
reverse current along Y axis. The graph shows the
reverse V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

8
Circuit Diagram:

Forward bias

Reverse bias

9
Observation:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Forward bias voltage, V Forward current
S.NO
(V) (mA)
1. 0.1 0
2. 0.2 0
3. 0.3 0
4. 0.4 0
5. 0.5 2
6. 0.6 2.8
7. 0.7 3.6
8. 0.8 4.2
9. 0.9 5.6
10. 1.0 6.4

Calculation:
∆Vf = (0.5-0.2) V = 0.3V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ If = (2-0) mA = 2mA
∆ R=0.3/2 = 0.15Ω

10
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Reverse bias voltage, V Reverse current
S.NO
(V) (µA)
1. 1 0
2. 2 0
3. 3 0
4. 4 0.1
5. 5 0.2
6. 6 0.4
7. 7 0.5
8. 8 0.6
9. 9 0.8
10. 10 1.0

Calculation:
∆Vr = (5-3) V = 2V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ Ir= (0.2-0) mA = 0.2mA
∆ R=2/0.2 = 10Ω

11
GRAPH:
Forward bias
Forward bias
7 6.4

6 5.6

5
4.2
4 3.6

2.8
3
2
2

1
0 0 0 0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Forward current
(mA)

Reverse bias
Reverse current
(µA)
1.2
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.1
0 0 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Reverse current
(µA)

12
Result:
The forward and reverse characteristics of the
given p-n junction diode is drawn.
For the forward characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with forward voltage
along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The
forward current shows a sudden increase at certain
forward voltage, which is known as the knee voltage.
For the reverse characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with reverse voltage
along X axis and reverse current along Y axis. I t is noted
that at a certain reverse voltage, the reverse current
reaches its maximum level. Further increase in voltage
does not increase this current. It is the reverse saturation
current. However, with further increase in reverse
voltage, the current shows a rapid rise at a certain value.
It is known as the reverse breakdown voltage.

13
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

This project would be nearly incomplete if I have not

used theinformation given in the following websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information on
thesewebsites.
If considered, I have used everything that google
showsme……

https://knowledgeuniverseonline.com/view-
practical.php?p_id=13
https://www.seminarsonly.com/Engineering-
Projects/Physics/diode-characteristics.php
https://epathshala.nic.in/process.php?id=parents&type=
eTextbooks&ln=en

14
SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors are materials with electrical
conductivity intermediate between that of a conductor
and an insulator. In semiconducting materials thermal
energy is enough to cause a number of electrons to
release from valance band to conduction band, in which
they are relatively free. Common semiconducting
materials are silicon, germanium, gallium, arsenide etc.

Semiconductors are classified as;

Intrinsic semiconductors:
Pure semiconducting materials like crystalline form of
germanium and silicon, with equal concentration of
electrons and holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors:
Semiconducting material with the addition of suitable
impurity atoms through doping.
Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type or n-type
depending on the impurities added to it. A p- type
semiconductor is formed when adding pentavalent
impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc. to an
intrinsic semiconductor. If the impurities added are
trivalent atoms, we get the n- type semiconductor.

2
Biasing in diodes:
Biasing in general means the application of dc voltage
across the terminals of a device for a particular operation.
Two types of biasing are possible in a p-n junction diode.
They are;
Forward Biasing:
Forward biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the negative terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
towards and cross the junction and current flows through
the junction. This current is known as the forward current
and is the order of 10-3 A. The size of the depletion layer
decreases in forward biasing.

3
Reverse Biasing:
Reverse biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the positive terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
away from the junction and thus no current flows through
the junction. A very small current will made at the
junction due to the movement of minority charge carriers
across the junction.

4
Characteristics of a p-n junction diode:
It generally shows the relation between bias voltage and
current of a diode. The V-I characteristics of a diode can
be forward or reverse. The graph showing the forward
bias voltage and forward current is known as the forward
characteristics, and that showing the reverse bias voltage
and reverse current is known as the reverse
characteristics.

The forward characteristics of a diode is non-linear. The

forward current increases slowly in the beginning and
shows a sudden rise at a certain value of forward voltage.
This voltage is known as the threshold voltage or Knee
voltage. This is because the resistance is very low in
forward biased condition. The current in the reverse bias
is due to the flow of minority carriers. The reverse
current shows a sudden increase at a particular region.
The corresponding voltage is termed as the reverse
breakdown voltage.
5
AIM:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n
junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required:
A p-n junction diode
 3 V battery
 50 V battery
 High resistance rheostat
 0-3 V voltmeter
 0-50 V voltmeter
 0-100 mA ammeter
 0-100 µA ammeter
 One way key
 Connecting wires

6
Procedure:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
• Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to minimum.
• Now, gently move the rheostat contact to provide a
positive bias voltage.
• Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in
equal steps by changing the rheostat slider.
• It can be noted that, initially the current increase very
slowly. For a certain value of voltage, it shows a sharp
increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee
voltage of that diode.
• Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and
forward current along Y axis. The graph shows the
forward V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

7
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
• Make the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to maximum.
• Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a
reverse bias voltage. Note the voltmeter and micro
ammeter readings.
• Note the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in
equal steps.
• The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
rapidly when the reverse voltage becomes a certain
value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown
voltage.
• Plot a graph with reverse voltage along X axis and
reverse current along Y axis. The graph shows the
reverse V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

8
Circuit Diagram:

Forward bias

Reverse bias

9
Observation:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Forward bias voltage, V Forward current
S.NO
(V) (mA)
1. 0.1 0
2. 0.2 0
3. 0.3 0
4. 0.4 0
5. 0.5 2
6. 0.6 2.8
7. 0.7 3.6
8. 0.8 4.2
9. 0.9 5.6
10. 1.0 6.4

Calculation:
∆Vf = (0.5-0.2) V = 0.3V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ If = (2-0) mA = 2mA
∆ R=0.3/2 = 0.15Ω

10
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Reverse bias voltage, V Reverse current
S.NO
(V) (µA)
1. 1 0
2. 2 0
3. 3 0
4. 4 0.1
5. 5 0.2
6. 6 0.4
7. 7 0.5
8. 8 0.6
9. 9 0.8
10. 10 1.0

Calculation:
∆Vr = (5-3) V = 2V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ Ir= (0.2-0) mA = 0.2mA
∆ R=2/0.2 = 10Ω

11
GRAPH:
Forward bias
Forward bias
7 6.4

6 5.6

5
4.2
4 3.6

2.8
3
2
2

1
0 0 0 0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Forward current
(mA)

Reverse bias
Reverse current
(µA)
1.2
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.1
0 0 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Reverse current
(µA)

12
Result:
The forward and reverse characteristics of the
given p-n junction diode is drawn.
For the forward characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with forward voltage
along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The
forward current shows a sudden increase at certain
forward voltage, which is known as the knee voltage.
For the reverse characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with reverse voltage
along X axis and reverse current along Y axis. I t is noted
that at a certain reverse voltage, the reverse current
reaches its maximum level. Further increase in voltage
does not increase this current. It is the reverse saturation
current. However, with further increase in reverse
voltage, the current shows a rapid rise at a certain value.
It is known as the reverse breakdown voltage.

13
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

This project would be nearly incomplete if I have not

used theinformation given in the following websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information on
thesewebsites.
If considered, I have used everything that google
showsme……

https://knowledgeuniverseonline.com/view-
practical.php?p_id=13
https://www.seminarsonly.com/Engineering-
Projects/Physics/diode-characteristics.php
https://epathshala.nic.in/process.php?id=parents&type=
eTextbooks&ln=en

14
INTRODUCTION:
Semiconductor diode is simply the
combination of a p-type and an n-type material. It is
formed by doping half of the silicon crystal with trivalent
impurity (p-type) and the other half with pentavalent
impurity (n-type). It has the characteristics of passing
current in one direction only. If there is no voltage is
applied across the junction, electrons will diffuse through
the junction to p - side and holes will diffuse through the
junction to n - side and they combine with each other.
Thus the acceptor atom near the p - side and donor atom
near n – side are left unutilized and is called the depletion
layer. An electron field is generated by these uncovered
charges which called the barrier potential. This opposes
further diffusion of carriers and is known as
depletion region.

1
SEMICONDUCTORS:
Semiconductors are materials with electrical
conductivity intermediate between that of a conductor
and an insulator. In semiconducting materials thermal
energy is enough to cause a number of electrons to
release from valance band to conduction band, in which
they are relatively free. Common semiconducting
materials are silicon, germanium, gallium, arsenide etc.

Semiconductors are classified as;

Intrinsic semiconductors:
Pure semiconducting materials like crystalline form of
germanium and silicon, with equal concentration of
electrons and holes.
Extrinsic semiconductors:
Semiconducting material with the addition of suitable
impurity atoms through doping.
Extrinsic semiconductors can be p-type or n-type
depending on the impurities added to it. A p- type
semiconductor is formed when adding pentavalent
impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony etc. to an
intrinsic semiconductor. If the impurities added are
trivalent atoms, we get the n- type semiconductor.

2
Biasing in diodes:
Biasing in general means the application of dc voltage
across the terminals of a device for a particular operation.
Two types of biasing are possible in a p-n junction diode.
They are;
Forward Biasing:
Forward biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the negative terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
towards and cross the junction and current flows through
the junction. This current is known as the forward current
and is the order of 10-3 A. The size of the depletion layer
decreases in forward biasing.

3
Reverse Biasing:
Reverse biasing occurs when the positive end of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery,
and its negative end to the positive terminal of the
battery. Here, majority carriers from both sides move
away from the junction and thus no current flows through
the junction. A very small current will made at the
junction due to the movement of minority charge carriers
across the junction.

4
Characteristics of a p-n junction diode:
It generally shows the relation between bias voltage and
current of a diode. The V-I characteristics of a diode can
be forward or reverse. The graph showing the forward
bias voltage and forward current is known as the forward
characteristics, and that showing the reverse bias voltage
and reverse current is known as the reverse
characteristics.

The forward characteristics of a diode is non-linear. The

forward current increases slowly in the beginning and
shows a sudden rise at a certain value of forward voltage.
This voltage is known as the threshold voltage or Knee
voltage. This is because the resistance is very low in
forward biased condition. The current in the reverse bias
is due to the flow of minority carriers. The reverse
current shows a sudden increase at a particular region.
The corresponding voltage is termed as the reverse
breakdown voltage.
5
AIM:
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n
junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

Materials Required:
A p-n junction diode
 3 V battery
 50 V battery
 High resistance rheostat
 0-3 V voltmeter
 0-50 V voltmeter
 0-100 mA ammeter
 0-100 µA ammeter
 One way key
 Connecting wires

6
Procedure:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
• Connections are made as per the connection diagram.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to minimum.
• Now, gently move the rheostat contact to provide a
positive bias voltage.
• Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in
equal steps by changing the rheostat slider.
• It can be noted that, initially the current increase very
slowly. For a certain value of voltage, it shows a sharp
increase. The corresponding voltage represents the knee
voltage of that diode.
• Plot a graph with forward voltage along X axis and
forward current along Y axis. The graph shows the
forward V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

7
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
• Make the circuit diagram as shown in the figure.
• Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the
rheostat to maximum.
• Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a
reverse bias voltage. Note the voltmeter and micro
ammeter readings.
• Note the voltmeter and micro ammeter readings.
• Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in
equal steps.
• The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
rapidly when the reverse voltage becomes a certain
value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown
voltage.
• Plot a graph with reverse voltage along X axis and
reverse current along Y axis. The graph shows the
reverse V-I characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode.

8
Circuit Diagram:

Forward bias

Reverse bias

9
Observation:
Forward V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Forward bias voltage, V Forward current
S.NO
(V) (mA)
1. 0.1 0
2. 0.2 0
3. 0.3 0
4. 0.4 0
5. 0.5 2
6. 0.6 2.8
7. 0.7 3.6
8. 0.8 4.2
9. 0.9 5.6
10. 1.0 6.4

Calculation:
∆Vf = (0.5-0.2) V = 0.3V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ If = (2-0) mA = 2mA
∆ R=0.3/2 = 0.15Ω

10
Reverse V-I Characteristics:
Range of Voltmeter 0-1V L.C=0.02
Range of Ammeter 0-10mA L.C=0.4
Tabulation:
Reverse bias voltage, V Reverse current
S.NO
(V) (µA)
1. 1 0
2. 2 0
3. 3 0
4. 4 0.1
5. 5 0.2
6. 6 0.4
7. 7 0.5
8. 8 0.6
9. 9 0.8
10. 10 1.0

Calculation:
∆Vr = (5-3) V = 2V ∴ 𝚫𝚫𝑹𝑹 = ∆𝑽𝑽/∆𝑰𝑰
∆ Ir= (0.2-0) mA = 0.2mA
∆ R=2/0.2 = 10Ω

11
GRAPH:
Forward bias
Forward bias
7 6.4

6 5.6

5
4.2
4 3.6

2.8
3
2
2

1
0 0 0 0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Forward current
(mA)

Reverse bias
Reverse current
(µA)
1.2
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.1
0 0 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Reverse current
(µA)

12
Result:
The forward and reverse characteristics of the
given p-n junction diode is drawn.
For the forward characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with forward voltage
along X axis and forward current along Y axis. The
forward current shows a sudden increase at certain
forward voltage, which is known as the knee voltage.
For the reverse characteristics of the given p-
n junction diode, a graph is plotted with reverse voltage
along X axis and reverse current along Y axis. I t is noted
that at a certain reverse voltage, the reverse current
reaches its maximum level. Further increase in voltage
does not increase this current. It is the reverse saturation
current. However, with further increase in reverse
voltage, the current shows a rapid rise at a certain value.
It is known as the reverse breakdown voltage.

13
BIBLIOGRAPHY:

This project would be nearly incomplete if I have not

used theinformation given in the following websites.
My special thanks for the uploader of information on
thesewebsites.
If considered, I have used everything that google
showsme……

https://knowledgeuniverseonline.com/view-
practical.php?p_id=13
https://www.seminarsonly.com/Engineering-
Projects/Physics/diode-characteristics.php
https://epathshala.nic.in/process.php?id=parents&type=
eTextbooks&ln=en

14